- endergonic reaction
- exergonic reaction
- catalyzed reaction
biotechnology
- web resources
- http://bcs.wiley.com/he-bcs/Books?action=index&itemId=1119156785&bcsId=10262 methods in biotechnology
中國航天科技集團六院165所下屬的西安航潔化工科技有限責任公司（簡稱「航潔科技」），便通過對火箭肼類推進劑的轉化利用，研發防黃劑產品。憑借特殊的功效，航潔科技的防黃劑佔據了廣闊的市場空間，年出口近千噸，實現國際化收入近億元（人民幣，下同）。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2018/10/03/b03-1003.pdf
alchemist
- http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2018/fine-classical-chinese-paintings-hk0788/lot.2275.html
colour
- 土耳其科尼亞的梅爾奧布魯克湖（Meyil Obruk Lake）上周五變成粉紅色，在周遭一片荒漠映襯下，顯得夢幻可愛。科尼亞技術大學有學者表示，湖泊變成粉紅色是受到氣溫和地質因素影響，由於高溫和低水位導致細菌大量增加。
https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200825/00180_037.html
Fluorine is a chemical element with the symbol F and atomic number 9. It is the lightest halogen and exists as a highly toxic pale yellow diatomic gas at standard conditions. As the most electronegative element, it is extremely reactive, as it reacts with all other elements, except for argon, neon, and helium.
- 1529年，格奧爾格·阿格里科拉將螢石描述為在冶煉中用於降低金屬熔點的添加劑。他用拉丁詞fluorés來表示螢石。該名字後來演化為fluorspar，直至fluorite[59][71][72]。螢石的成分後來被確定為氟化鈣[73]。早在1720年人們就已經開始使用螢石蝕刻玻璃[note 6] 。馬格拉夫於1764年從螢石和硫酸的混合物中分離出了一種新物質氫氟酸，他發現該物質腐蝕了玻璃容器[75][76]。瑞典化學家卡爾·威廉·舍勒於1771年重複了該實驗，並將得到的酸性產物命名為fluss-spats-syran （螢石酸）[76][77]。1810年，法國物理學家安德烈-馬里·安培提出氫和一種與氯類似的元素構成了氫氟酸[78]。漢弗里·戴維將這種當時未知的元素命名為氟fluorine，這一名字來自氟酸與其它鹵素的後綴-ine。這個詞經過變形在大多數歐洲語言中使用。希臘語、俄語、以及其他一些語言使用來自希臘語φθόριος 的ftor或其衍生詞[79][80]。氟的元素符號
來自於其拉丁文名稱fluorum，在早期論文中也使用Fl作為其符號[81][note 7]。日文音譯德文Fluor的第一個發音而稱之為「弗素」。19世紀70年代化學家徐壽將
、
、
、、
譯為輕氣、養氣、淡氣、弗氣、綠氣，直至1933年，化學家鄭貞文在其主持編寫出版的《化學命名原則》一書中改成氫、氧、氮、氟、氯，一直沿用至今。
來自於其拉丁文名稱fluorum，在早期論文中也使用Fl作為其符號[81][note 7]。日文音譯德文Fluor的第一個發音而稱之為「弗素」。19世紀70年代化學家徐壽將、、、、譯為輕氣、養氣、淡氣、弗氣、綠氣，直至1933年，化學家鄭貞文在其主持編寫出版的《化學命名原則》一書中改成氫、氧、氮、氟、氯，一直沿用至今。- Halogenated refrigerants, termed Freons in informal contexts,[note 18] are identified by R-numbers that denote the amount of fluorine, chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen present. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) like R-11, R-12, and R-114 once dominated organofluorines, peaking in production in the 1980s. Used for air conditioning systems, propellants and solvents, their production was below one-tenth of this peak by the early 2000s, after widespread international prohibition.[63] Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) were designed as replacements; their synthesis consumes more than 90% of the fluorine in the organic industry. Important HCFCs include R-22, chlorodifluoromethane, and R-141b. The main HFC is R-134a[63] with a new type of molecule HFO-1234yf, a Hydrofluoroolefin (HFO) coming to prominence owing to its global warming potential of less than 1% that of HFC-134a.
- Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), sometimes called by its DuPont name Teflon,[198] represents 60–80% by mass of the world's fluoropolymer production.[196] The largest application is in electrical insulationsince PTFE is an excellent dielectric. It is also used in the chemical industry where corrosion resistance is needed, in coating pipes, tubing, and gaskets. Another major use is in PFTE-coated fiberglass cloth for stadium roofs. The major consumer application is for non-stick cookware.
鎂Magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium, a similar group 2 metal. When submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles form slowly on the surface of the metal – though, if powdered, it reacts much more rapidly. The reaction occurs faster with higher temperatures (see safety precautions). Magnesium's reversible reaction with water can be harnessed to store energy and run a magnesium-based engine. Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids such as hydrochloric acid(HCl), producing the metal chloride and hydrogen gas, similar to the HCl reaction with aluminium, zinc, and many other metals.The name magnesium originates from the Greek word for locations related to the tribe of the Magnetes, either a district in Thessaly called Magnesia[31] or Magnesia ad Sipylum, now in Turkey.[32] It is related to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate substances. Plants require magnesium to synthesize chlorophyll, essential for photosynthesis. Magnesium in the center of the porphyrin ring in chlorophyll functions in a manner similar to the iron in the center of the porphyrin ring in heme. Magnesium deficiency in plants causes late-season yellowing between leaf veins, especially in older leaves, and can be corrected by either applying epsom salts (which is rapidly leached), or crushed dolomitic limestone, to the soil.
- 全世界可探明菱鎂礦儲量約124億噸，中國儲量35.64億噸，居全球首位。經過100多年的工業化應用，形成了鎂質耐火材料、鎂質化工材料、鎂質建材材料、金屬鎂及鎂合金四大產業，其產品廣泛應用於冶金、建材、化工、汽車、電子、航空航天、醫藥、食品、農牧等領域。鎂質耐火材料用途最廣，佔比90%。世界耐火材料製品年產量4300萬噸，中國耐火材料製品年產量2400萬噸，大石橋市耐火材料製品年產量約1000萬噸。鎂產業歷程大石橋鎂產業歷史悠久，1913年，開展了現代工業意義上的菱鎂礦礦床地質調查。1918年，開始了菱鎂礦工業開採。1925年，成立了南滿礦業大石橋工廠。1937年，建立了鎂質材料研發實驗機構。1950年，在大石橋地區建立了世界著名的鞍鋼大石橋鎂礦。中國的第一窯鎂砂、第一爐電熔、第一塊不燒磚、第一塊燒成磚均生產於大石橋。http://hk.hkcd.com/pdf/202012/1231/HA03C31CEAA_HKCD.pdf
硅（台湾、香港称矽xī）英文中的silicon一詞，來自拉丁文的silex, silicis，意思為燧石（即火石，富含矽元素）。在1831年，蘇格蘭化學家托馬斯·湯姆森創造了這個名詞[11]。1837年，日本第一部西方化學譯著，宇田川榕庵的《舍密開宗》首先以「珪土」作為矽元素的名稱。該書術語譯自荷蘭語詞彙，由於當時荷蘭語矽的元素名為「keiaarde」，是「keisteen-aarde」（燧石土）的縮略，日本就專門找了一個玉字旁的同音字「珪」（平假名：けい kei，漢語：guī，是「圭」的異體字）來音譯「kei」。因此「keisteen」就譯成「珪石」，作為SiO2的名稱；由於當時荷蘭語中的鎂、鋁、矽、鋇等元素都是以「-aarde」（土）結尾，因此日語也分別照譯成苦土、礬土、珪土、重土[13]。後來日本摒棄了源自荷蘭語的「土」，改譯為「珪素」，在19世紀後期又出現了「硅素」的寫法[14]，不過19世紀末日本規定以「珪素」為準。「珪/硅」進入中國是20世紀初，由於它屬於固態非金屬元素，所以中國採用了石字旁的寫法。
- 哈爾濱市監部門委託瀋陽一家權威質檢院，對汽油進行檢驗。送檢樣本包括油站油罐中的油，以及車主油箱中的油。結果顯示，六個涉事汽油樣本中均檢出了大量「硅」，最多達每公斤含七十九點九三毫克。據內地規定，車用汽油中不應含有任何可導致車輛無法正常運行的添加物和污染物，當中包括不得人為加入甲縮醛、苯胺類以及磷、硅等化合物。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200817/00178_013.html
氪是一种化学元素，化学符号是Kr，原子序数是36，是一种无色、无臭、无味的惰性气体，把它放电时呈橙红色，在大气中含有痕量，可通过分馏从液态空气中分离，常用于制作荧光灯。氪正如其他惰性气体一样，不易与其他物质产生化学作用，已知的化合物有二氟化氪（KrF2）。正如其他惰性气体，氪可用于照明和摄影。氪发出的光有大量谱线，并大量以等离子体的形态释出，这使氪成为制造高功率气体激光器的重要材料，另外也有特制的氟化氪激光。氪放电管功率高、操作容易，因此在1960年至1983年间，一米的定义是用氪86發出的橙色谱线作为基准的。氪的多条谱线使离子化的氪气放电管呈白色，注入氪气的电灯泡是很光亮的白色光源，因此常用作摄影的闪光灯。氪气与其他气体混合可用于发光告示牌，会发出光亮的黄绿色光。氪与氩混合物可注入省电的荧光灯，这可以减少能量的消耗，但同时也减少了光度，也增加了成本。[24]氪比氩昂贵100倍。氪和氙也会注入白炽灯，以减少灯丝的蒸发，让灯丝可以在更高的运行温度中操作。氪无毒，但有窒息性。[30]氪的麻醉性比空气強7倍，吸入含有50%氪和50%空气的气体所引致的麻醉相当于在4倍大气压力之下吸入空气，也相当于在30米水深潜水。在DC公司的漫畫及影集、電影超人以及電視劇女超人系列中，氪元素為其剋星，且呈現綠色。此為戲劇效果，並無真實根據（見氪星石）。Krypton was discovered in Britain in 1898 by William Ramsay, a Scottish chemist, and Morris Travers, an English chemist, in residue left from evaporating nearly all components of liquid air. Neon was discovered by a similar procedure by the same workers just a few weeks later.[9] William Ramsay was awarded the 1904 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for discovery of a series of noble gases, including krypton.
钼Molybdenum is a chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42. The name is from Neo-Latin molybdaenum, which is based on Ancient Greek Μόλυβδος molybdos, meaning lead, since its ores were confused with lead ores.[6] Molybdenum minerals have been known throughout history, but the element was discovered (in the sense of differentiating it as a new entity from the mineral salts of other metals) in 1778 by Carl Wilhelm Scheele. The metal was first isolated in 1781 by Peter Jacob Hjelm.Molybdenum does not occur naturally as a free metal on Earth; it is found only in various oxidation states in minerals. The free element, a silvery metal with a gray cast, has the sixth-highest melting point of any element. It readily forms hard, stable carbides in alloys, and for this reason most of world production of the element (about 80%) is used in steel alloys, including high-strength alloys and superalloys.
- Molybdenite—the principal ore from which molybdenum is now extracted—was previously known as molybdena. Molybdena was confused with and often utilized as though it were graphite. Like graphite, molybdenite can be used to blacken a surface or as a solid lubricant.[26] Even when molybdena was distinguishable from graphite, it was still confused with the common lead ore PbS (now called galena); the name comes from Ancient Greek Μόλυβδος molybdos, meaning lead.[13] (The Greek word itself has been proposed as a loanword from Anatolian Luvian and Lydian languages).Although (reportedly) molybdenum was deliberately alloyed with steel in one 14th-century Japanese sword (mfd. ca. 1330), that art was never employed widely and was later lost.
- Historically, the Knaben mine in southern Norway, opened in 1885, was the first dedicated molybdenum mine. It was closed in 1973 but was reopened in 2007.[49] and now produces 100,000 kilograms (98 long tons; 110 short tons) of molybdenum disulfide per year. Large mines in Colorado (such as the Henderson mine and the Climax mine)[50] and in British Columbia yield molybdenite as their primary product, while many porphyry copper deposits such as the Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah and the Chuquicamata mine in northern Chile produce molybdenum as a byproduct of copper mining.
- Average daily intake varies between 120 and 240 μg/day, which is higher than dietary recommendations.[87] Pork, lamb, and beef liver each have approximately 1.5 parts per million of molybdenum. Other significant dietary sources include green beans, eggs, sunflower seeds, wheat flour, lentils, cucumbers, and cereal grain.
Thallium is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic number 81. It is a gray post-transition metal that is not found free in nature. When isolated, thallium resembles tin, but discolors when exposed to air. Chemists William Crookes and Claude-Auguste Lamydiscovered thallium independently in 1861, in residues of sulfuric acid production. Both used the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy, in which thallium produces a notable green spectral line. Thallium, from Greek θαλλός, thallós, meaning "a green shoot or twig", was named by Crookes. Thallium and its compounds are extremely toxic, with numerous recorded cases of fatal thallium poisoning.One of the main methods of removing thallium (both radioactive and stable) from humans is to use Prussian blue, a material which absorbs thallium. Up to 20 grams per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the patient, and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in the stool. Hemodialysis and hemoperfusion are also used to remove thallium from the blood serum. At later stages of the treatment, additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissues.According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), man-made sources of thallium pollution include gaseous emission of cement factories, coal-burning power plants, and metal sewers. The main source of elevated thallium concentrations in water is the leaching of thallium from ore processing operations.在商業開採方面，鉈是硫化重金屬礦提煉過程的副產品之一。總產量的60至70%應用在電子工業，其餘則用於製藥工業和玻璃產業。鉈還被用在紅外線探測器中。放射性同位素鉈-201（以水溶氯化鉈的形態），在核醫學掃描中可用作示蹤劑，例如用於心臟負荷測試。水溶鉈鹽大部份幾乎無味，且都是劇毒物，曾被用作殺鼠劑和殺蟲劑以及謀殺工具。這類化合物的使用已經被多國禁止或限制。鉈中毒會造成脫髮。
Thallium is a chemical element with the symbol Tl and atomic number 81. It is a gray post-transition metal that is not found free in nature. When isolated, thallium resembles tin, but discolors when exposed to air. Chemists William Crookes and Claude-Auguste Lamydiscovered thallium independently in 1861, in residues of sulfuric acid production. Both used the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy, in which thallium produces a notable green spectral line. Thallium, from Greek θαλλός, thallós, meaning "a green shoot or twig", was named by Crookes. Thallium and its compounds are extremely toxic, with numerous recorded cases of fatal thallium poisoning.One of the main methods of removing thallium (both radioactive and stable) from humans is to use Prussian blue, a material which absorbs thallium. Up to 20 grams per day of Prussian blue is fed by mouth to the patient, and it passes through their digestive system and comes out in the stool. Hemodialysis and hemoperfusion are also used to remove thallium from the blood serum. At later stages of the treatment, additional potassium is used to mobilize thallium from the tissues.According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), man-made sources of thallium pollution include gaseous emission of cement factories, coal-burning power plants, and metal sewers. The main source of elevated thallium concentrations in water is the leaching of thallium from ore processing operations.在商業開採方面，鉈是硫化重金屬礦提煉過程的副產品之一。總產量的60至70%應用在電子工業，其餘則用於製藥工業和玻璃產業。鉈還被用在紅外線探測器中。放射性同位素鉈-201（以水溶氯化鉈的形態），在核醫學掃描中可用作示蹤劑，例如用於心臟負荷測試。水溶鉈鹽大部份幾乎無味，且都是劇毒物，曾被用作殺鼠劑和殺蟲劑以及謀殺工具。這類化合物的使用已經被多國禁止或限制。鉈中毒會造成脫髮。
- 24歲被告楊宇楷（Yukai Yang，音譯）於理海大學主修化學。楊承認2018年3月購買重金屬鉈，在涉案室友洛尤的牛奶、食水和漱口水中投放，洛尤早前出庭作供時表示，他中毒後出現頭痛、嘔吐及體重下降的情況。鉈無味無臭，但可以對人類致命。質地柔軟的鉈一般用於製造電子產品，美國曾用鉈作老鼠藥，惟上世紀70年代起禁止。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20201202/00180_025.html
rubber
drugs
- Fentanyl (also spelled fentanil) is an opioid used as a pain medication and together with other medications for anesthesia. Fentanyl is also made illegally and used as a recreational drug, often mixed with heroin or cocaine. It has a rapid onset and effects generally last less than an hour or two.[2] Medically, fentanyl is used by injection, as a patch on the skin, as a nasal spray, or in the mouth. Common side effects include vomiting, constipation, sedation, confusion, hallucinations, and injuries related to poor coordination.[2][5]Serious side effects may include decreased breathing (respiratory depression), serotonin syndrome, low blood pressure, addiction, or coma.
fire starting gel
- https://www.thoughtco.com/make-flaming-gel-recipe-607499
- http://howtosurviveit.com/make-fire-starting-gel-from-household-chemicals/
cleaning related
- Borax, also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate, is an important boron compound, a mineral, and a salt of boric acid. Powdered borax is white, consisting of soft colorless crystals that dissolve in water. A number of closely related minerals or chemical compounds that differ in their crystal water content are referred to as borax, but the word is usually used to refer to the octahydrate. Commercially sold borax is partially dehydrated. Borax is a component of many detergents, cosmetics, and enamel glazes. It is used to make buffer solutions in biochemistry, as a fire retardant, as an anti-fungal compound, in the manufacture of fiberglass, as a flux in metallurgy, neutron-capture shields for radioactive sources, a texturing agent in cooking, as a precursor for other boron compounds, and along with its inverse, boric acid, is useful as an insecticide. In artisanal gold mining, borax is sometimes used as part of a process (as a flux) meant to eliminate the need for toxic mercury in the gold extraction process, although it cannot directly replace mercury. Borax was reportedly used by gold miners in parts of the Philippines in the 1900s. Borax was first discovered in dry lake beds in Tibet and was imported via the Silk Road to the Arabian Peninsula in the 8th century AD.[10] Borax first came into common use in the late 19th century when Francis Marion Smith's Pacific Coast Borax Company began to market and popularize a large variety of applications under the 20 Mule Team Borax trademark, named for the method by which borax was originally hauled out of the California and Nevada deserts.硼砂，或称四硼酸钠，分子式Na2B4O7.10H2O，是非常重要的含硼矿物及硼化合物。通常为含有无色晶体的白色粉末，易溶于水。硼砂有广泛的用途，可用作清洁剂、化妆品、杀虫剂，也可用于配置缓冲溶液、制作玩具鬼口水（史萊姆）及制取其他硼化合物等。
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl or HClO) is a weak acid that forms when chlorine dissolves in water, and itself partially dissociates, forming hypochlorite, ClO−. HClO and ClO− are oxidizers, and the primary disinfection agents of chlorine solutions.
氯氣與次氯酸鈉同為食水消毒劑，有水務專家指出，氯氣及次氯化鈉的消毒成效一致，但最理想還是以氯氣消毒食水，因為次氯酸鈉在處理過程中會產生副產物，有機會對欠缺某種酵素，例如蠶豆症患者引起不良反應，對其濃度必須有嚴謹標準控制。水務署指出，已制訂了嚴格監控機制，確保食水中消毒副產物含量，遠低於世衞準則值，強調使用次氯酸鈉作食水消毒，不會構成健康風險。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20190119/00176_007.html
明礬（Potassium alum，KAl(SO4)2·12H2O），又稱鉀鋁礬、鋁明礬、鉀礬、白礬、生礬、羽涅或雲母礬，可以用作淨化水質、鞣製皮革、當作發粉或者代替硫酸鋁作凡拉明藍防染劑。明礬也可以添加在化妝品中當作除臭劑，或為刮鬍子時造成的小傷口當作止血劑。明礬結晶為極易溶於水中的無色或白色的八面體晶體，其晶體結構屬異極性三方晶系。其水溶液呈酸性、可用作收斂劑，加入碳酸鈉可得「中性明礬」。明礬受熱時會先溶解於其自身所含的結晶水中，繼續加熱則失去水分而成無水硫酸鋁鉀白色粉末，稱為「燒明礬」或稱「枯礬」（burnt alum）。明礬礦是含有硫化物礦物和含鉀礦物經過風化作用和氧化還原反應自然生成的硫酸鹽礦物，常常存在於礦區堅硬的岩石表面。在過去，明礬都是由生成於含硫的火山沉積物裏面的明礬石提煉出來[5]，所以明礬石應該就是以前鋁和鉀的來源[6][7]。目前意大利維蘇威火山、澳洲昆士蘭省的Springsure東部、美國田納西州的Alum Cave、美國亞利桑那州聖克魯斯縣的Alum Gulch及菲律賓的宿霧島都有產明礬石。明礬常被拿來當作膨鬆劑（發粉），用於油條和冬粉的製作，以及用於造紙、製筆、製皮革和泡沫滅火器中。也用作將缺乏親和力的纖維染色的媒染劑。在中國古代，明礬的使用可追溯至宋朝，宋朝對鹽、茶、礬等都行使專賣[10]，並建立有榷礬制度。溫州礬山鎮在當時有「世界礬都」之稱。中醫認為明礬可以解毒殺蟲，燥濕止癢，《得配本草》記載：「礬石即白明礬，甘草為之使。畏麻黃，惡牡蠣。酸、鹹，澀，入肝肺二經。」而印度的傳統醫學阿育吠陀中稱為「phitkari」或「saurashtri」的東西亦是指明礬。
- 其中含有鋁，對人體有害的明礬同樣被炒貨廠用來加工瓜子，加了明礬炒煮的瓜子會變得更脆，口感更好http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/08/20/b06-0820.pdf
甘油
Chlorinated paraffins 氯化石蜡是一种有机物，石蜡烃的氯化衍生物，具有低挥发性、阻燃、电绝缘性良好、价廉等优点，可用作阻燃剂和聚氯乙烯辅助增塑剂。广泛用于生产电缆料、地板料、软管、人造革、橡胶等制品。以及应用于聚氨酯防水涂料、聚氨酯塑胶跑道，润滑油，等的添加剂。
chemicals for making explosives
- 硫酸 一種具有高腐蝕性的強礦物酸，一般為透明至微黃色，在任何濃度下都能與水混溶且放熱。它能對人體皮肉造成極大傷害，除可造成化學性燒傷，迅速將皮肉碳化外，還會造成二級火焰性灼傷。若不慎接觸到眼睛，視網膜會受嚴重破壞而可能造成永久性失明；若不慎誤服，則會對體內器官造成不可逆轉的傷害，甚至致命。硝酸 一種強酸，其水溶液俗稱「硝鏹水」。純硝酸為無色液體，不論濃稀溶液都有氧化性和腐蝕性，對人非常危險，僅濺到皮膚上可引起嚴重燒傷，皮膚會慢慢變黃，最後變黃的表皮會起皮脫落。此外，濃硝酸受到光照反應會釋出有毒的二氧化氮，人體若吸入會對肺組織造成強烈刺激性和腐蝕性傷害。己烷 是常用的非極性具汽油味的有機溶劑，其具一定毒性，可通過呼吸道、皮膚等途徑進入人體，長期接觸可致人體出現頭痛、頭暈、乏力、四肢麻木等慢性中毒症狀，嚴重的可導致暈倒、神志喪失、甚至死亡。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/11/18/a04-1118.pdf
- HMTD屬高爆炸性炸藥，坊間不容易 買到，要在化學品店、大學實驗室都可找 到。要製作高爆炸性的HMTD，其反應物 叫做六亞甲基四胺，並要混入雙氧水及檸 檬酸，產生化學反應才會成為HMTD。至 於土製炸彈內另一種化學品硝酸鋁不是炸 藥，本身是很強的氧化劑，當HMTD引爆 時候，令硝酸鋁快速分解，會產生大量熱 力，令炸彈火勢更強。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20191211/PDF/a2_screen.pdf
- 化學名稱為「三過氧化三丙酮」的TATP，有「撒旦之母」之稱，是雙氧水、鹽酸等化學物的常見成分。TATP外形為白色細小晶體，屬於烈性炸藥，只要稍微震動、摩擦甚至太陽照射就會爆炸。由於製作簡單、引爆且殺傷力強，TATP常用於恐怖攻擊，只要純度夠高，爆炸威力可能比同等質量的黃色炸藥大。
https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191215/00178_002.html
鹽析
- Isopropyl alcohol is used in the manufacture of a wide variety of industrial and household chemicals and is a common ingredient in chemicals such as antiseptics, disinfectants, and detergents.異丙醇可與水，醇，醚和氯仿混溶。它會溶解乙基纖維素、聚乙烯醇縮丁醛、多種油、生物鹼、樹膠和天然樹脂。不同於乙醇或甲醇，它不溶於含鹽溶液中。故異丙醇可以藉由在水溶液中加入鹽，如氯化鈉，硫酸鈉，或任何其它幾種無機鹽分離出來.異丙醇可被氧化為丙酮，反應可藉由通過使用氧化劑（如鉻酸）進行
- 正丙醇（n-propanol ），又称1-丙醇、丙醇。 1-Propanol is a primary alcohol with the formula CH
3CH
2CH
2OH (sometimes represented as PrOH or n-PrOH). 具有醇的通性。1-丙醇在室溫及常壓下，是無色的透明液體，有香味。丙醇直接用作溶剂或合成乙酸丙酯，用于涂料溶剂、印刷油墨、化妆品等，用于生产医药、农药的中间体正丙胺，用于生产饲料添加剂、合成香料等。丙醇在医药工业中用于生产丙磺舒、丙戊酸钠、红霉素、癫健安、粘合止血剂BCA、丙硫硫胺、2,5-吡啶二甲酸二丙酯等；相丙醇合成的各种酯，用于食品添加剂、增塑剂、香料等许多方面；正丙醇的衍生物，特别是二正丙胺在医药、农药生产中有许多应用，用来生产农药胺磺灵、菌达灭、异丙乐灵、灭草猛、磺乐灵、氟乐录等。
丁-x chemicals
- 丁烷，又稱正丁烷 Butane (/ˈbjuːteɪn/) is an organic compound with the formula C4H10 that is an alkane with four carbon atoms. Butane is a gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The term may refer to either of two structural isomers, n-butane or isobutane (also called "methylpropane"), or to a mixture of these isomers.
Normal butane can be used for gasolineblending, as a fuel gas, fragrance extraction solvent, either alone or in a mixture with propane, and as a feedstock for the manufacture of ethylene and butadiene, a key ingredient of synthetic rubber. Isobutane is primarily used by refineries to enhance (increase) the octanenumber of motor gasoline.在有充足的氧氣的情況下，丁烷燃燒時會產生二氧化碳和水蒸氣
- 丁苯
rubber
- 丁腈橡胶（Nitrile Butadiene Rubber，NBR）是一种合成橡胶 Nitrile rubber, also known as NBR, Buna-N, and acrylonitrile butadiene rubber, is a synthetic rubber copolymer of acrylonitrile (ACN) and butadiene. Trade names include Perbunan, Nipol, Krynac and Europrene.
- The uses of nitrile rubber include disposable non-latex gloves, automotive transmission belts, hoses, O-rings, gaskets, oil seals, V belts, synthetic leather, printer's form rollers, and as cable jacketing; NBR latex can also be used in the preparation of adhesives and as a pigment binder.
- Crepe rubber is coagulated latex that is rolled out in crinkled sheets and commonly used to make soles for shoes and boots but also a raw material for further processed rubber products.Colloidal latex is first mixed with formic acid to cause it to coagulate. The coagulum is processed in a "creping battery", a series of machines that crush, press and roll the coagula. The sheets are hung in a heated drying shed and then sorted by grade and packed for shipping.
- crepe rubber leather shoes https://www.jetro.go.jp/ttppoas/anken/0001168000/1168538_e.html
- 三元乙丙橡胶是乙烯、丙烯以及非共轭二烯烃的三元共聚物，1963年开始商业化生产。EPDM rubber (ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber) is compatible with polar substances, e.g. fireproof hydraulic fluids, ketones, hot and cold water, and alkalis. It is incompatible with most hydrocarbons, such as oils, kerosene, aromatic, gasoline, as well as halogenated solvents. EPDM exhibits outstanding resistance to heat, ozone, steam and weather. It is an electrical insulator.Solid EPDM and expanded EPDM foam are often used for sealing and gasketing, as well as membranes and diaphragms. EPDM is often used when a component must prevent fluid flow while remaining flexible. It can also be used to provide cushioning or elasticity. While EPDM has decent tensile strength, its flexibility makes it inappropriate for rigid parts such as gears, shafts, and structural beams.It is used to create weatherstripping, seals on doors for refrigerators and freezers (where it also acts as an insulator), face masks for industrial respirators, glass-run channels, radiators, garden and appliance hose (where it is used as a hose material as well as for gaskets), tubing, washers, O-rings, electrical insulation, and geomembranes.
- 三元乙丙橡膠是一種合成橡膠，常溫下外觀為白色或者微黃色固體，易於混合，用於建築、電線電纜、汽車工業、交通等領域，例如製造汽車的水箱及耐熱膠管、密封條等。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20201024/00180_015.html
drugs
- Fentanyl (also spelled fentanil) is an opioid used as a pain medication and together with other medications for anesthesia. Fentanyl is also made illegally and used as a recreational drug, often mixed with heroin or cocaine. It has a rapid onset and effects generally last less than an hour or two.[2] Medically, fentanyl is used by injection, as a patch on the skin, as a nasal spray, or in the mouth. Common side effects include vomiting, constipation, sedation, confusion, hallucinations, and injuries related to poor coordination.[2][5]Serious side effects may include decreased breathing (respiratory depression), serotonin syndrome, low blood pressure, addiction, or coma.
- For drug traffickers interested in getting in on the fentanylbusiness, all roads once led to Wuhan. The sprawling industrial city built along the Yangtze River in east-central China is known for its production of chemicals, including the ingredients needed to cook fentanyl and other powerful synthetic opioids. Vendors there shipped huge quantities around the world. The biggest customers were Mexican drug cartels, which have embraced fentanyl in recent years because it is cheaper and easier to produce than heroin. But the novel coronavirus that emerged in Wuhan late last year before spreading across the planet has disrupted the fentanyl supply chain, causing a ripple effect that has cut into the profits of Mexican traffickers and driven up street drug prices across the United States.https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-04-24/wuhan-china-coronavirus-fentanyl-global-drug-trade
Sulfur dioxide (IUPAC-recommended spelling) or sulphur dioxide (traditional Commonwealth English) is the chemical compound with the formula SO
2. It is a toxic gas responsible for the smell of burnt matches. It is released naturally by volcanic activity and is produced as a by-product of copper extraction and the burning of fossil fuels contaminated with sulfur compounds. Sulfur dioxide has pungent smell like nitric acid.二氧化硫，（英語：sulphur dioxide , sulfur dioxide）化學式是SO2。是最常見的硫氧化物。無色氣體，有強烈刺激性氣味。大氣主要污染物之一。火山爆發時會噴出該氣體，在許多工業過程中也會產生二氧化硫。由於煤和石油通常都含有硫化合物，因此燃燒時會生成二氧化硫。當二氧化硫溶於水中，會形成亞硫酸（酸雨的主要成分）。由於二氧化硫的抗菌性質，它有時用作乾果、醃漬蔬菜、與經加工處理的肉製品（如香腸及漢堡肉）等不同種類的食物中。用來保持水果的外表，或防止食物腐爛。二氧化硫的存在，可以使水果有一種特殊的化學味道、及保持新鮮的外觀。
2. It is a toxic gas responsible for the smell of burnt matches. It is released naturally by volcanic activity and is produced as a by-product of copper extraction and the burning of fossil fuels contaminated with sulfur compounds. Sulfur dioxide has pungent smell like nitric acid.二氧化硫，（英語：sulphur dioxide , sulfur dioxide）化學式是SO2。是最常見的硫氧化物。無色氣體，有強烈刺激性氣味。大氣主要污染物之一。火山爆發時會噴出該氣體，在許多工業過程中也會產生二氧化硫。由於煤和石油通常都含有硫化合物，因此燃燒時會生成二氧化硫。當二氧化硫溶於水中，會形成亞硫酸（酸雨的主要成分）。由於二氧化硫的抗菌性質，它有時用作乾果、醃漬蔬菜、與經加工處理的肉製品（如香腸及漢堡肉）等不同種類的食物中。用來保持水果的外表，或防止食物腐爛。二氧化硫的存在，可以使水果有一種特殊的化學味道、及保持新鮮的外觀。
二氧化硫是釀酒時非常有用的化合物，它的E編碼為E220。[4]它甚至在所謂的「無硫的」酒中也存在，濃度可達每升10毫克。[5]它作為抗生素和抗氧化劑，防止酒遭到細菌的損壞和氧化。它也幫助把揮發性酸度保持在想要的程度。[6]酒的標籤上之所以有「含有亞硫酸鹽」等字句，就是因為二氧化硫。二氧化硫還是一個很好的還原劑。在水的存在下，二氧化硫可以使物質褪色。特別地，它是紙張和衣物的有用的漂白劑。這個漂白作用通常不能持續很久。空氣中的氧氣把被還原的染料重新氧化，使顏色恢復。由於二氧化硫容易液化，且汽化熱很大，因此適合作為製冷劑。在氟利昂的發展之前，二氧化硫就曾經用作家用冰箱的製冷劑。
fire starting gel
- https://www.thoughtco.com/make-flaming-gel-recipe-607499
- http://howtosurviveit.com/make-fire-starting-gel-from-household-chemicals/
cleaning related
- Borax, also known as sodium borate, sodium tetraborate, or disodium tetraborate, is an important boron compound, a mineral, and a salt of boric acid. Powdered borax is white, consisting of soft colorless crystals that dissolve in water. A number of closely related minerals or chemical compounds that differ in their crystal water content are referred to as borax, but the word is usually used to refer to the octahydrate. Commercially sold borax is partially dehydrated. Borax is a component of many detergents, cosmetics, and enamel glazes. It is used to make buffer solutions in biochemistry, as a fire retardant, as an anti-fungal compound, in the manufacture of fiberglass, as a flux in metallurgy, neutron-capture shields for radioactive sources, a texturing agent in cooking, as a precursor for other boron compounds, and along with its inverse, boric acid, is useful as an insecticide. In artisanal gold mining, borax is sometimes used as part of a process (as a flux) meant to eliminate the need for toxic mercury in the gold extraction process, although it cannot directly replace mercury. Borax was reportedly used by gold miners in parts of the Philippines in the 1900s. Borax was first discovered in dry lake beds in Tibet and was imported via the Silk Road to the Arabian Peninsula in the 8th century AD.[10] Borax first came into common use in the late 19th century when Francis Marion Smith's Pacific Coast Borax Company began to market and popularize a large variety of applications under the 20 Mule Team Borax trademark, named for the method by which borax was originally hauled out of the California and Nevada deserts.硼砂，或称四硼酸钠，分子式Na2B4O7.10H2O，是非常重要的含硼矿物及硼化合物。通常为含有无色晶体的白色粉末，易溶于水。硼砂有广泛的用途，可用作清洁剂、化妆品、杀虫剂，也可用于配置缓冲溶液、制作玩具鬼口水（史萊姆）及制取其他硼化合物等。
- 軟軟黏黏、可捏成任意形狀的水晶泥玩具「史萊姆」（slime）最近在內地人氣高企，但由於它含有硼砂，會對嬰幼兒身體產生危害，引發家長的擔憂。有媒體隨機購買了4種不同廠家生產的水晶泥，請專家進行檢測，發現全部均含有硼砂。硼砂為有毒物質，幾克就足以令嬰幼兒死亡。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210121/00178_017.html
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl or HClO) is a weak acid that forms when chlorine dissolves in water, and itself partially dissociates, forming hypochlorite, ClO−. HClO and ClO− are oxidizers, and the primary disinfection agents of chlorine solutions.
氯氣與次氯酸鈉同為食水消毒劑，有水務專家指出，氯氣及次氯化鈉的消毒成效一致，但最理想還是以氯氣消毒食水，因為次氯酸鈉在處理過程中會產生副產物，有機會對欠缺某種酵素，例如蠶豆症患者引起不良反應，對其濃度必須有嚴謹標準控制。水務署指出，已制訂了嚴格監控機制，確保食水中消毒副產物含量，遠低於世衞準則值，強調使用次氯酸鈉作食水消毒，不會構成健康風險。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20190119/00176_007.html
-自2019年開始Cleantasy德潔施由日本引入「次氯酸殺菌消毒多功能除菌液」技術，並致力研發配合多功能除菌液使用的納米殺菌淨化裝置，踏入2020年，COVID-19新型冠狀病毒疫情迅速蔓延全球多個國家，數以十億計人類生活規律被徹底打亂，這場「抗疫之戰」此刻仍然持續。次氯酸水是一種獲美國食品藥品管理局（FDA）認可、日本厚生勞動省推薦的食品級除菌液，殺菌效能高達99.9%，包括大腸桿菌、金黃葡萄球菌、流感病毒和甲型流感病毒（H1N1）等，而且不帶腐蝕性，能廣泛應用於日常生活上的環境消毒，無論成人、小童以至長者及寵物都適用，且用後會分解為水，天然無害。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/12/21/a15-1221.pdf
氯粉
- 新加坡裕廊東一間游泳學校的清潔工人，上周五聞到異味後，擅自將3桶各重15公斤的氯粉倒進排水道，導致排水道發生化學反應，5分鐘後發出巨響。民防人員接報到場，用水槍清除氯氣。事發時校內沒有學生，清潔工報稱不適需送院檢查。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210308/00180_019.html
Dentifrices, including toothpowder and toothpaste, are agents used along with a toothbrush to clean and polish natural teeth. They are supplied in paste, powder, gel or liquid form. Many dentifrices have been produced over the years, some focusing on marketing strategies to sell products, such as offering whitening capabilities. The most essential dentifrice recommended by dentists is toothpaste which is used in conjunction with a toothbrush to help remove food debris and dental plaque. Dentifrice is also the French word for toothpaste.Toothpaste is a dentifrice used in conjunction with a toothbrush to help maintain oral hygiene. The essential components are an abrasive, binder, surfactant and humectant. Other ingredients are also used. The main purpose of the paste is to help remove debris and plaque with some marketed to serve accessory functions such as breath freshening and teeth whitening.Tooth powder is an alternative to toothpaste. Modern versions may be sold with or without fluoride. Tooth powder was historically used among the Romans to clean and whiten teeth, to fix them when loose, to strengthen the gums, and to assuage toothache. They made tooth powder from a variety of substances, such as the bones, hoofs, and horns of certain animals;[1]crabs; oyster[4] and murex shells; and egg-shells. These ingredients were reduced to a fine powder, sometimes after having been previously burnt.[1][4] Some versions contained honey,[4] ground myrrh, nitre,[2], salt,[3] and hartshorn, which would be added after the initial powdering process. Pliny the Elder reported the use of pounded pumice as a dentifrice.[5] The earliest mention of tooth care among the Romans comes from a letter by Apuleius, complaining that using tooth powder is nothing to be ashamed of, especially compared to the "utterly repulsive things they do in Spain." Apuleius quotes Catullus in saying that he would be using his own urine "to brush his teeth and his red gums." By 1924, diatomaceous earth was mined for tooth powder.[7] In modern times, baking soda has been the most commonly used tooth powder, although this has now been mostly supplanted by commercial toothpastes.[citation needed] The use of powdered substances such as charcoal, brick, and salt for cleaning teeth has been historically widespread in India, particularly in rural areas.[8] Modern tooth powder has been positioned as a cost-effective substitute for toothpaste, as it can be applied with the index fingerwithout requiring use of a toothbrush.
Panthenol (also called pantothenol) is the alcohol analog of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), and is thus a provitamin of B5. In organisms it is quickly oxidized to pantothenic acid. It is a viscous transparent liquid at room temperature. Panthenol is used as a moisturizer and to improve wound healing in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.In pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and personal-care products, panthenol is a moisturizer and humectant, used in ointments, lotions, shampoos, nasal sprays, eye drops, lozenges, and cleaning solutions for contact lenses.In ointments it is used for the treatment of sunburns, mild burns, minor skin injuries and disorders (in concentrations of up to 2–5%).[2] It improves hydration, reduces itching and inflammation of the skin, improves skin elasticity, and accelerates epidermal wounds' rate of healing.
Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula ZnO. ZnO is a white powder that is insoluble in water, and it is widely used as an additive in numerous materials and products including rubbers, plastics, ceramics, glass, cement, lubricants, paints, ointments, adhesives, sealants, pigments, foods, batteries, ferrites, fire retardants, and first-aid tapes. Although it occurs naturally as the mineral zincite, most zinc oxide is produced synthetically.氧化锌是锌的氧化物，难溶于水，可溶于酸和强碱。它是白色固体，故又称锌白。它能通过燃烧锌或焙烧闪锌矿（硫化锌）取得。在自然中，氧化锌是矿物红锌矿的主要成分。人造氧化锌有两种制造方法：由纯锌氧化或烘烧锌矿石而成。
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a partially permeable membrane to remove ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property, that is driven by chemical potentialdifferences of the solvent, a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and suspended chemical species as well as biological ones (principally bacteria) from water, and is used in both industrial processes and the production of potable water. The result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be "selective", this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as solvent molecules, i.e., water, H2O) to pass freely.逆滲透（Reverse osmosis、又稱 RO）、反滲透，是一種淨化水的辦法。原理是利用滲透作用，將清水（低張溶液）和鹹水（高張溶液）置於一管中，中間以一支允許水通過的半透膜分隔開來，可見到水從滲透壓低（低張溶液）的地方流向滲透壓高（高張溶液）的地方。然若在高張溶液處施予力，則可見水由滲透壓高的地方流向滲透壓低的地方。逆滲透是“正滲透”的反向，通常比正滲透的自然過程，耗費更多的能量。正滲透分離技術，逐漸成為新趨勢。
- In addition to desalination, reverse osmosis is a more economical operation for concentrating food liquids (such as fruit juices) than conventional heat-treatment processes. Research has been done on concentration of orange juice and tomato juice. Its advantages include a lower operating cost and the ability to avoid heat-treatment processes, which makes it suitable for heat-sensitive substances such as the protein and enzymes found in most food products. Reverse osmosis is extensively used in the dairy industry for the production of whey protein powders and for the concentration of milk to reduce shipping costs. In whey applications, the whey (liquid remaining after cheese manufacture) is concentrated with reverse osmosis from 6% total solids to 10–20% total solids before ultrafiltration processing. The ultrafiltration retentate can then be used to make various whey powders, including whey protein isolate. Additionally, the ultrafiltration permeate, which contains lactose, is concentrated by reverse osmosis from 5% total solids to 18–22% total solids to reduce crystallization and drying costs of the lactose powder.
- RO逆透纯水机源于美国太空技术，在90年代引入我国。
- use in keep cool products http://www.trycompany.co.jp/59/
表面活性劑（又稱界面活性劑） Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension (or interfacial tension) between two liquids, between a gas and a liquid, or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wettingagents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants.
- A wetting agent is a surfactant that, when dissolved in water, lowers the advancing contact angle, aids in displacing an air phase at the surface, and replaces it with a liquid phase. Examples of application of wetting to pharmacy and medicine include the displacement of air from the surface of sulfur, charcoal, and other powders for the purpose of dispersing these drugs in liquid vehicles; the displacement of air from the matrix of cotton pads and bandages so that medicinal solutions can be absorbed for application to various body areas; the displacement of dirt and debris by the use of detergents in the washing of wounds; and the application of medicinal lotions and sprays to surface of skin and mucous membranes.
- The human body produces different types of surfactant in different parts or organs for different purposes. Pulmonary surfactant is produced in lungs in order to facilitate breathing by increasing total lung capacity, TLC, and lung compliance. In respiratory distress syndrome or RDS surfactant replacement therapy helps patients have normal respiration by using pharmaceutical forms of the surfactants. One example of pharmaceutical pulmonary surfactants is Survanta (beractant) or its generic form Beraksurf produced by Abbvie and Tekzima respectively.
- Surfactants play an important role as cleaning, wetting, dispersing, emulsifying, foaming and anti-foaming agents in many practical applications and products, including detergents, fabric softeners, emulsions, soaps, paints, adhesives, inks, anti-fogs, ski waxes, snowboard wax, deinking of recycled papers, in flotation, washing and enzymatic processes, laxatives. Also agrochemical formulations such as Herbicides (some), insecticides, biocides (sanitizers), and spermicides (nonoxynol-9). Personal care products such as cosmetics, shampoos, shower gel, hair conditioners (after shampoo), toothpastes. Surfactants are used in firefighting and pipelines (liquid drag reducing agents). Alkali surfactant polymers are used to mobilize oil in oil wells). Surfactants are used as plasticizer in nanocellulose Ferrofluids, and leak detectors. Surfactants are used with quantum dots in order to manipulate growth. and assembly of the dots, reactions on their surface, electrical properties, etc., it is important to understand how surfactants arrange on the surface of the quantum dots.
- In colloidal and surface chemistry, the critical micelle concentration (CMC) 臨界微胞濃度 is defined as the concentration of surfactants above which micelles form and all additional surfactants added to the system go to micelles.
- companies
塑化劑，或稱增塑劑、可塑劑A plasticizer (UK: plasticiser) is a substance that is added to a material to make it softer and more flexible, to increase its plasticity, to decrease its viscosity, or to decrease friction during its handling in manufacture.Plasticizers are commonly added to polymers such as plastics and rubber, either to facilitate the handling of the raw material during fabrication, or to meet the demands of the end product's application. For example, plasticizers are commonly added to polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which otherwise is hard and brittle, to make it soft and pliable; which makes it suitable for products such as clothing, bags, hoses, and electric wire coatings.Plasticizers are also often added to concrete formulations to make them more workable and fluid for pouring, thus allowing the water contents to be reduced. Similarly, they are often added to clays, stucco, solid rocket fuel, and other pastes prior to molding and forming. For these applications, plasticizers largely overlap with dispersants.
A hydrotrope is a compound that solubilizes hydrophobic compounds in aqueous solutions by means other than micellar solubilization. Typically, hydrotropes consist of a hydrophilic part and a hydrophobic part (similar to surfactants), but the hydrophobic part is generally too small to cause spontaneous self-aggregation. Hydrotropes do not have a critical concentration above which self-aggregation spontaneously starts to occur (as found for micelle- and vesicle-forming surfactants, which have a critical micelle concentration (cmc) and a critical vesicle concentration (cvc)). Instead, some hydrotropes aggregate in a step-wise self-aggregation process, gradually increasing aggregation size. However, many hydrotropes do not seem to self-aggregate at all, unless a solubilizate has been added. Examples of hydrotropes include urea, tosylate, cumenesulfonate and xylenesulfonate.Hydrotropes are in use industrially and commercially in cleaning and personal care product formulations to allow more concentrated formulations of surfactants.
colloid 膠體 is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid;[1] the term colloidal suspension refers unambiguously to the overall mixture (although a narrower sense of the word suspension is distinguished from colloids by larger particle size). Unlike a solution, whose solute and solvent constitute only one phase, a colloid has a dispersed phase (the suspended particles) and a continuous phase (the medium of suspension) that arise by phase separation. To qualify as a colloid, the mixture must be one that does not settle or would take a very long time to settle appreciably.
- Milk is an emulsified colloid of liquid butterfat globules dispersed within a water-based solution.
叶蜡石 Pyrophyllite is a phyllosilicate mineral composed of aluminium silicate hydroxide: Al2Si4O10(OH)2. It occurs in two forms (habits): crystalline folia and compact masses; distinct crystals are not known.The compact variety of pyrophyllite is used for slate pencils and tailors' chalk (French chalk), and is carved by the Chinese into small images and ornaments of various kinds. Other soft compact minerals (steatite and pinite) used for these Chinese carvings are included with pyrophyllite under the terms agalmatolite and pagodite.[citation needed]Pyrophyllite is easily machineable and has excellent thermal stability, so it is added to clay to reduce thermal expansion when firing, but it has many other industry uses when combined with other compounds, such as in insecticide and for making bricks. Pyrophyllite is also widely used in high-pressure experiments, both as a gasket material and as a pressure-transmitting medium.工业用途广泛，如耐火材料、陶瓷、电瓷、坩埚、玻璃纤维、橡胶、造纸、颜料、製药、製糖、化妆品、塑料制品的辅助材料。少部分材质好的叶蜡石在中国作为篆刻的石料。中国著名四大印石矿是：寿山石、青田石、巴林石、昌化石。
Potassium Hexafluorotitanate(IV) is a water insoluble Titanium source for use in oxygen-sensitive applications, such as metal production. In extremely low concentrations (ppm), fluoride compounds are used in health applications. Fluoride compounds also have significant uses in synthetic organic chemistry. They are commonly also used to alloy metal and for optical deposition. Certain fluoride compounds can be produced at nanoscale and in ultra high purity forms. https://www.americanelements.com/potassium-hexafluorotitanate-iv-16919-27-0
Panthenol (also called pantothenol) is the alcohol analog of pantothenic acid (vitamin B5), and is thus a provitamin of B5. In organisms it is quickly oxidized to pantothenic acid. It is a viscous transparent liquid at room temperature. Panthenol is used as a moisturizer and to improve wound healing in pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.In pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and personal-care products, panthenol is a moisturizer and humectant, used in ointments, lotions, shampoos, nasal sprays, eye drops, lozenges, and cleaning solutions for contact lenses.In ointments it is used for the treatment of sunburns, mild burns, minor skin injuries and disorders (in concentrations of up to 2–5%).[2] It improves hydration, reduces itching and inflammation of the skin, improves skin elasticity, and accelerates epidermal wounds' rate of healing.
Denatured alcohol, also called methylated spirits (in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom) or denatured rectified spirit,[1] is ethanol that has additives to make it poisonous, bad-tasting, foul-smelling, or nauseating to discourage recreational consumption. It is sometimes dyed so that it can be identified visually. Pyridine, methanol, or both can be added to make denatured alcohol poisonous, and denatoniumcan be added to make it bitter.Denatured alcohol is used as a solvent and as fuel for alcohol burners and camping stoves. Because of the diversity of industrial uses for denatured alcohol, hundreds of additives and denaturing methods have been used. The main additive has traditionally been 10% methanol, methyl alcohol, giving rise to the term "methylated spirits". Other typical additives include isopropyl alcohol, acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and methyl isobutyl ketone.
- 生產蟲膠及其產品中常用變性乙醇作為溶劑。另外因其揮發性和溫和性，衣物、家具、玻璃和金屬的高效清潔也可使用變性乙醇。版畫印刷中還可用變性乙醇溶解松香。露營爐具常用變性乙醇作為燃料，主要因為它價格低廉，易於用水撲滅，而且便於運輸。變性乙醇作為爐具燃料比純淨乙醇更安全，因為乙醇的火焰幾乎無色，有人從旁邊經過而未加注意就可能被燒傷。在建築工程中有時需要打磨木材，木材打磨完後會有木屑產生的沙粒。用變性乙醇作為打磨助劑後可以有效去除這些沙粒，乙醇蒸發後木頭表面塗層會更加光滑。
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a silvery-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodic table. In some respects, zinc is chemically similar to magnesium: both elements exhibit only one normal oxidation state (+2), and the Zn2+ and Mg2+ ions are of similar size. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest workable lodes are in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc is refined by froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity (electrowinning).鋅（拼音：xīn，注音：ㄒ丨ㄣ，粤拼：san1；英語：Zinc），是一種化學元素，其化學符號为Zn，原子序數为30，原子量為65.38 u，属于過渡金屬；鋅由於形、色類似鉛，故也稱為亞鉛，古稱倭鉛。鋅在常溫下為硬脆物質，且帶有藍銀色光澤。鋅為元素周期表第十二族中的第一個元素。在某些方面，鋅的化學性質與鎂相似：兩者皆呈現單一氧化態 (+2)，且Zn2+和Mg2+離子大小相似。鋅為地殼中含量第二十四多的元素，有五個穩定的同位素。最常見的含鋅礦石為閃鋅礦，是鋅硫化物。最大可開採的礦脈位於澳洲、亞洲及美國。鋅礦物利用泡沫浮選法精煉，並經過焙燒和電（解提）煉。黃銅為依各種比例混合的銅及鋅的合金，早在西元三千年前的愛琴海、伊拉克、阿拉伯聯合酋長國、卡尔梅克共和国、土庫曼斯坦及格魯吉亞，和西元兩千年前的印度西部、烏茲別克斯坦、伊朗、敘利亞、 伊拉克及以色列/巴勒斯坦就已經被人們利用. [1] [2] [3]。儘管人們在古代羅馬跟希臘時就知道鋅金屬，但直到十二世紀時才在印度被大規模生產[4]。藉由拉賈斯坦邦的礦物我們獲得確切的證據，將鋅的生產回溯至西元前六世紀[5]。迄今，最古老的純鋅來自拉賈斯坦邦的扎瓦爾，早在西元九世紀時便利用蒸餾法來生產純鋅了[6]。煉金術士在空氣中燃燒鋅，用來產生氧化鋅，他們稱之為「白雪」。此元素可能是由煉金術士帕拉塞爾蘇斯經德語：Zinke（叉、牙齒之意）所命名。純金屬鋅在1746年被德國化學家馬格拉夫發現。1800年時，路易吉·伽伐尼和亞歷山德羅·伏打揭示了鋅的電化學性質。鋅最主要的應用為抗腐蝕的鐵鍍鋅（熱浸鍍鋅），在現代工業中對於碳锌电池製造上有不可磨滅的地位，最具代表性之用途為「鍍鋅鐵板」，該技術被廣泛用於汽車、電力、電子及建築等各種產業中。其他應用在電池、小型非結構鑄件及合金像是黃銅等。人們在生活中普遍的使用各種鋅化合物，例如碳酸鋅和葡萄糖酸鋅（膳食補充劑）、氯化鋅（除臭劑）、吡硫鎓鋅（去屑洗髮精）、硫化鋅（螢光塗料），及有機實驗室的二甲基鋅或二乙基鋅。鋅為必需礦物質，包含產前生長及產後發育[7]。發展中國家約有二十億的人受到缺鋅症的影響，及其連帶的疾病[8]。若孩童缺乏鋅，將導致生長遲緩、性晚熟、免疫力下降及下痢[7]。在生物化學中，鋅為酵素中廣泛存在的輔酶，例如人體的乙醇脫氫酶[9]。食用過量鋅可能造成運動失調、精神萎靡和缺銅症。
- Kẽm in viet
- 日本福島縣一間化學工廠周二發生爆炸，造成至少4人受傷，其中兩人傷勢嚴重。涉事工廠製造用於化妝品等產品的鋅粉，位於JR常磐線湯本站以南約3公里，事故原因尚待調查。有在附近工作的男子表示，看到現場出現蘑菇雲，並嗅到化學物質的氣味。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210512/00180_016.html
Zinc oxide is an inorganic compound with the formula ZnO. ZnO is a white powder that is insoluble in water, and it is widely used as an additive in numerous materials and products including rubbers, plastics, ceramics, glass, cement, lubricants, paints, ointments, adhesives, sealants, pigments, foods, batteries, ferrites, fire retardants, and first-aid tapes. Although it occurs naturally as the mineral zincite, most zinc oxide is produced synthetically.氧化锌是锌的氧化物，难溶于水，可溶于酸和强碱。它是白色固体，故又称锌白。它能通过燃烧锌或焙烧闪锌矿（硫化锌）取得。在自然中，氧化锌是矿物红锌矿的主要成分。人造氧化锌有两种制造方法：由纯锌氧化或烘烧锌矿石而成。
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a partially permeable membrane to remove ions, unwanted molecules and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property, that is driven by chemical potentialdifferences of the solvent, a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and suspended chemical species as well as biological ones (principally bacteria) from water, and is used in both industrial processes and the production of potable water. The result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be "selective", this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution (such as solvent molecules, i.e., water, H2O) to pass freely.逆滲透（Reverse osmosis、又稱 RO）、反滲透，是一種淨化水的辦法。原理是利用滲透作用，將清水（低張溶液）和鹹水（高張溶液）置於一管中，中間以一支允許水通過的半透膜分隔開來，可見到水從滲透壓低（低張溶液）的地方流向滲透壓高（高張溶液）的地方。然若在高張溶液處施予力，則可見水由滲透壓高的地方流向滲透壓低的地方。逆滲透是“正滲透”的反向，通常比正滲透的自然過程，耗費更多的能量。正滲透分離技術，逐漸成為新趨勢。
- In addition to desalination, reverse osmosis is a more economical operation for concentrating food liquids (such as fruit juices) than conventional heat-treatment processes. Research has been done on concentration of orange juice and tomato juice. Its advantages include a lower operating cost and the ability to avoid heat-treatment processes, which makes it suitable for heat-sensitive substances such as the protein and enzymes found in most food products. Reverse osmosis is extensively used in the dairy industry for the production of whey protein powders and for the concentration of milk to reduce shipping costs. In whey applications, the whey (liquid remaining after cheese manufacture) is concentrated with reverse osmosis from 6% total solids to 10–20% total solids before ultrafiltration processing. The ultrafiltration retentate can then be used to make various whey powders, including whey protein isolate. Additionally, the ultrafiltration permeate, which contains lactose, is concentrated by reverse osmosis from 5% total solids to 18–22% total solids to reduce crystallization and drying costs of the lactose powder.
- RO逆透纯水机源于美国太空技术，在90年代引入我国。
- use in keep cool products http://www.trycompany.co.jp/59/
表面活性劑（又稱界面活性劑） Surfactants are compounds that lower the surface tension (or interfacial tension) between two liquids, between a gas and a liquid, or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wettingagents, emulsifiers, foaming agents, and dispersants.
- A wetting agent is a surfactant that, when dissolved in water, lowers the advancing contact angle, aids in displacing an air phase at the surface, and replaces it with a liquid phase. Examples of application of wetting to pharmacy and medicine include the displacement of air from the surface of sulfur, charcoal, and other powders for the purpose of dispersing these drugs in liquid vehicles; the displacement of air from the matrix of cotton pads and bandages so that medicinal solutions can be absorbed for application to various body areas; the displacement of dirt and debris by the use of detergents in the washing of wounds; and the application of medicinal lotions and sprays to surface of skin and mucous membranes.
- The human body produces different types of surfactant in different parts or organs for different purposes. Pulmonary surfactant is produced in lungs in order to facilitate breathing by increasing total lung capacity, TLC, and lung compliance. In respiratory distress syndrome or RDS surfactant replacement therapy helps patients have normal respiration by using pharmaceutical forms of the surfactants. One example of pharmaceutical pulmonary surfactants is Survanta (beractant) or its generic form Beraksurf produced by Abbvie and Tekzima respectively.
- Surfactants play an important role as cleaning, wetting, dispersing, emulsifying, foaming and anti-foaming agents in many practical applications and products, including detergents, fabric softeners, emulsions, soaps, paints, adhesives, inks, anti-fogs, ski waxes, snowboard wax, deinking of recycled papers, in flotation, washing and enzymatic processes, laxatives. Also agrochemical formulations such as Herbicides (some), insecticides, biocides (sanitizers), and spermicides (nonoxynol-9). Personal care products such as cosmetics, shampoos, shower gel, hair conditioners (after shampoo), toothpastes. Surfactants are used in firefighting and pipelines (liquid drag reducing agents). Alkali surfactant polymers are used to mobilize oil in oil wells). Surfactants are used as plasticizer in nanocellulose Ferrofluids, and leak detectors. Surfactants are used with quantum dots in order to manipulate growth. and assembly of the dots, reactions on their surface, electrical properties, etc., it is important to understand how surfactants arrange on the surface of the quantum dots.
- In colloidal and surface chemistry, the critical micelle concentration (CMC) 臨界微胞濃度 is defined as the concentration of surfactants above which micelles form and all additional surfactants added to the system go to micelles.
- companies
- www.surfacechemistry.nouryon.com
- www.schaerer-surfactants.com
塑化劑，或稱增塑劑、可塑劑A plasticizer (UK: plasticiser) is a substance that is added to a material to make it softer and more flexible, to increase its plasticity, to decrease its viscosity, or to decrease friction during its handling in manufacture.Plasticizers are commonly added to polymers such as plastics and rubber, either to facilitate the handling of the raw material during fabrication, or to meet the demands of the end product's application. For example, plasticizers are commonly added to polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which otherwise is hard and brittle, to make it soft and pliable; which makes it suitable for products such as clothing, bags, hoses, and electric wire coatings.Plasticizers are also often added to concrete formulations to make them more workable and fluid for pouring, thus allowing the water contents to be reduced. Similarly, they are often added to clays, stucco, solid rocket fuel, and other pastes prior to molding and forming. For these applications, plasticizers largely overlap with dispersants.
A hydrotrope is a compound that solubilizes hydrophobic compounds in aqueous solutions by means other than micellar solubilization. Typically, hydrotropes consist of a hydrophilic part and a hydrophobic part (similar to surfactants), but the hydrophobic part is generally too small to cause spontaneous self-aggregation. Hydrotropes do not have a critical concentration above which self-aggregation spontaneously starts to occur (as found for micelle- and vesicle-forming surfactants, which have a critical micelle concentration (cmc) and a critical vesicle concentration (cvc)). Instead, some hydrotropes aggregate in a step-wise self-aggregation process, gradually increasing aggregation size. However, many hydrotropes do not seem to self-aggregate at all, unless a solubilizate has been added. Examples of hydrotropes include urea, tosylate, cumenesulfonate and xylenesulfonate.Hydrotropes are in use industrially and commercially in cleaning and personal care product formulations to allow more concentrated formulations of surfactants.
colloid 膠體 is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid;[1] the term colloidal suspension refers unambiguously to the overall mixture (although a narrower sense of the word suspension is distinguished from colloids by larger particle size). Unlike a solution, whose solute and solvent constitute only one phase, a colloid has a dispersed phase (the suspended particles) and a continuous phase (the medium of suspension) that arise by phase separation. To qualify as a colloid, the mixture must be one that does not settle or would take a very long time to settle appreciably.
- Milk is an emulsified colloid of liquid butterfat globules dispersed within a water-based solution.
N-香草基壬酰胺（N-vanillylnonanamide，Nonivamide）又称壬酸香兰基酰胺（Nonyl Vanillylamide）、天竺葵酸香兰基酰胺（pelargonic acid vanillylamide，缩写PAVA）、诺香草胺（Nonivamide）、合成辣椒素等 Nonivamide, also called pelargonic acid vanillylamide or PAVA, is an organic compound and a capsaicinoid. It is an amide of pelargonic acid (n-nonanoic acid) and vanillyl amine. It is present in chili peppers, but is commonly manufactured synthetically. It is more heat-stable than capsaicin. Nonivamide is used as a food additive to add pungency to seasonings, flavorings, and spice blends. It is also used in the confectionery industry to create a hot sensation, and in the pharmaceutical industry in some formulations as a cheaper alternative to capsaicin. Like capsaicin, it can deter mammals (but not birds or insects) from consuming plants or seeds (e.g. squirrels and bird feeder seeds).[3] This is consistent with nonivamide's role as a TRPV1 ion channel agonist. Mammalian TRPV1 is activated by heat and capsaicin, but the avian form is insensitive to capsaicin. Nonivamide is used (under the name PAVA) as the payload in "less-lethal munitions" such as the Fabrique Nationale Herstal FN 303[5] or as the active ingredient in most pepper sprays – in both applications, the idea is to temporarily incapacitate people so that they can either be detained prior to arrest or deterred from acts of violence toward law-enforcement personnel or third parties (such as rioting or other group violence).
叶蜡石 Pyrophyllite is a phyllosilicate mineral composed of aluminium silicate hydroxide: Al2Si4O10(OH)2. It occurs in two forms (habits): crystalline folia and compact masses; distinct crystals are not known.The compact variety of pyrophyllite is used for slate pencils and tailors' chalk (French chalk), and is carved by the Chinese into small images and ornaments of various kinds. Other soft compact minerals (steatite and pinite) used for these Chinese carvings are included with pyrophyllite under the terms agalmatolite and pagodite.[citation needed]Pyrophyllite is easily machineable and has excellent thermal stability, so it is added to clay to reduce thermal expansion when firing, but it has many other industry uses when combined with other compounds, such as in insecticide and for making bricks. Pyrophyllite is also widely used in high-pressure experiments, both as a gasket material and as a pressure-transmitting medium.工业用途广泛，如耐火材料、陶瓷、电瓷、坩埚、玻璃纤维、橡胶、造纸、颜料、製药、製糖、化妆品、塑料制品的辅助材料。少部分材质好的叶蜡石在中国作为篆刻的石料。中国著名四大印石矿是：寿山石、青田石、巴林石、昌化石。
Potassium Hexafluorotitanate(IV) is a water insoluble Titanium source for use in oxygen-sensitive applications, such as metal production. In extremely low concentrations (ppm), fluoride compounds are used in health applications. Fluoride compounds also have significant uses in synthetic organic chemistry. They are commonly also used to alloy metal and for optical deposition. Certain fluoride compounds can be produced at nanoscale and in ultra high purity forms. https://www.americanelements.com/potassium-hexafluorotitanate-iv-16919-27-0
卵磷脂屬於一種混合物，是存在於植物組織以及卵黃之中的一組黃褐色的油脂性物質，其構成成分包括磷酸、膽鹼、脂肪酸、甘油、糖脂、三酸甘油酯以及磷脂（如磷脂酰膽鹼、磷脂酰乙醇胺和磷脂酰肌醇）。然而，卵磷脂有時還是純磷脂酰膽鹼的同義詞（生物化學），而磷脂酰膽鹼只是一種作為其磷脂部分主要成分的磷脂。採用機械方法或者化學方法（利用己烷萃取），可以從卵黃（希臘語：λέκιθος）或大豆之中分離出卵磷脂。1846年，法國化學家及藥理學家Theodore Nicolas Gobley首次分離出卵磷脂。1850年，他將磷酸酰膽鹼命名為「léchithine」[2]。因為Gobley一開始是從蛋黃中萃取出卵磷脂—，而「λέκιθος 」（lekithos）為古希臘語的「蛋黃」之意—，並在1874年鑑定出結構。卵磷脂在水中的溶解度較低。在水溶液中，根據不同的水合和溫度條件，其磷脂可以形成脂質體、脂質雙分子層、微團（micelles）或板層狀結構。從而，人們通常將其歸為一種具有兩性（amphoteric）特徵的表面活性劑。市場上銷售的卵磷脂有的屬於食品添加劑，而有的則屬於醫療用途。Commercial lecithin, as used by food manufacturers, is a mixture of phospholipids in oil. The lecithin can be obtained by water degumming the extracted oil of seeds. It is a mixture of various phospholipids, and the composition depends on the origin of the lecithin. A major source of lecithin is soybean oil. Because it contains phosphatidylcholines, lecithin is a source of choline, an essential nutrient. Clinical studies have shown benefit in acne, in improving liver function, and in lowering cholesterol, but older clinical studies in dementia and dyskinesias had found no benefit.Soy-derived lecithin is considered by some to be kitniyot and prohibited on Passover for Ashkenazi Jews when many grain-based foods are forbidden, but not at other times. This does not necessarily affect Sephardi Jews, who do not have the same restrictions on rice and kitniyot during Passover.Muslims are not forbidden to eat lecithin per se; however, since it may be derived from animal as well as plant sources, care must be taken to ensure this source is halal. Lecithin derived from plants and egg yolks is permissible, as is that derived from animals slaughtered according to the rules of dhabihah.对于大多数穆斯林来说，允许食用卵磷脂或任何其他源自植物、卵黄或动物的衍生物。[來源請求]对于禽蛋来源的卵磷脂而言，素食主义者之间目前尚未达成任何的普遍共识，但由于其属于动物来源，耆那教徒、严格的素食主义者以及严守素食主义者（vegans）都不予以选择食用。
Copper(II) sulfate, also known as copper sulphate, are the inorganic compounds with the chemical formula CuSO4(H2O)x, where x can range from 0 to 5. The pentahydrate (x = 5) is the most common form. Older names for this compound include blue vitriol, bluestone,[9]vitriol of copper,[10] and Roman vitriol.
-業界人士指出，不少農民種植蔬菜時，均會噴灑藍礬溶液，能起到防腐保鮮之用，也可令蔬菜色澤更鮮艷；至於藍礬混合熟石灰後，即製成波爾多液，可用作殺菌劑。該人士補充，菜農收割前一至兩周「停藥期」，期間的雨水、露水或噴灑作業均已逐步把殘留的波爾多液洗掉，估計有農戶不嚴格執行「停藥期」，導致有殘留情況。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210114/00178_014.html硫化氫Hydrogen sulfide is the chemical compound with the formula H2S. It is a colorless chalcogen hydride gas with the characteristic foul odor of rotten eggs. It is poisonous, corrosive, and flammable.Hydrogen sulfide is often produced from the microbial breakdown of organic matterin the absence of oxygen gas, such as in swamps and sewers; this process is commonly known as anaerobic digestionwhich is done by sulfate-reducing microorganisms. H
2S also occurs in volcanic gases, natural gas, and in some sources of well water.[10] The human bodyproduces small amounts of H
2S and uses it as a signaling molecule.
Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele is credited with having discovered the chemical composition of hydrogen sulfide in 1777.Hydrogen sulfide was used by the British Army as a chemical weapon during World War I. It was not considered to be an ideal war gas, but, while other gases were in short supply, it was used on two occasions in 1916.The gas, produced by mixing certain household ingredients, was used in a suicide wave in 2008 in Japan.[76] The wave prompted staff at Tokyo's suicide prevention center to set up a special hotline during "Golden Week", as they received an increase in calls from people wanting to kill themselves during the annual May holiday.
- 山東濰坊諸城市日前發生一宗違法傾倒化工廢料事件，導致38人吸入廢料揮發產生的有害氣體後中毒，其中4人經搶救後不治。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210206/00178_005.html- 其中含有鋁，對人體有害的明礬同樣被炒貨廠用來加工瓜子，加了明礬炒煮的瓜子會變得更脆，口感更好http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/08/20/b06-0820.pdf
甘油
- subsitute
玉米糖漿 Corn syrup's major uses in commercially prepared foods are as a thickener, a sweetener, and as a humectant – an ingredient that retains moisture and thus maintains a food's freshness.[11] Corn syrup (or HFCS) is the primary ingredient in most brands of commercial "pancake syrup", as a less expensive substitute for maple syrup.In the United States, cane sugar quotas raise the price of sugar;[13] hence, domestically produced corn syrup and high-fructose corn syrup are less costly alternatives that are often used in American-made processed and mass-produced foods, candies, soft drinks, and fruit drinks.Glucose syrup was the primary corn sweetener in the United States prior to the expanded use of high fructose corn syrup production.[when?] HFCS is a variant in which other enzymes are used to convert some of the glucose into fructose. The resulting syrup is sweeter and more soluble.If mixed with sugar, water, and cream of tartar, corn syrup can be used to make sugar glass.
Chlorinated paraffins 氯化石蜡是一种有机物，石蜡烃的氯化衍生物，具有低挥发性、阻燃、电绝缘性良好、价廉等优点，可用作阻燃剂和聚氯乙烯辅助增塑剂。广泛用于生产电缆料、地板料、软管、人造革、橡胶等制品。以及应用于聚氨酯防水涂料、聚氨酯塑胶跑道，润滑油，等的添加剂。
- 氯化石蠟常被作為增塑劑，添加在塑膠材料中，增加塑膠的柔韌度；按照碳鏈長度，可分為短鏈、中鏈及長鏈，其中短鏈、中鏈氯化石蠟具一定生物毒性，通常碳鏈愈短，毒性愈強。深圳市計量質量檢測研究院對現時在市場流通的82批次學生書包樣本進行檢測，42批次檢出短鏈氯化石蠟，含量範圍為0.007%至9.5%；其中25批次樣本的含量更超出歐盟有關法規限制要求。短鏈氯化石蠟僅允工業用該院工程師馮岸紅表示，學生幾乎每天都接觸書包，午休時甚至枕着書包入睡。研究數據表明，書包存在短鏈氯化石蠟的暴露風險，有毒物質可通過呼吸道等途徑進入人體，進而損害學生的健康。相關部門公布的《危險化學品目錄》中，短鏈氯化石蠟就被列入「致癌性類別2」、「急性危害類別1」及「長期危害類別1」，表明是懷疑導致癌症、對水生生物毒性大，且具有長期持續影響的物質。另短鏈氯化石蠟亦被列入《中國嚴格限制的有毒化學品名錄》，僅允許使用於工業用途。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210423/00178_013.html
Carbonated water (also known as soda water, sparkling water, fizzy water, water with gas or, especially in the U.S., seltzer or seltzer water) is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure or occurring due to natural geological processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quality. Common forms include sparkling natural mineral water, club soda, and commercially produced sparkling water.Club soda and sparkling mineral water and some other sparkling waters contain added or dissolved minerals such as potassium bicarbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium citrate, or potassium sulfate. These occur naturally in some mineral waters but are also commonly added artificially to manufactured waters to mimic a natural flavor profile. Various carbonated waters are sold in bottles and cans, with some also produced on demand by commercial carbonation systems in bars and restaurants, or made at home using a carbon dioxide cartridge.Natural and manufactured carbonated waters may contain a small amount of sodium chloride, sodium citrate, sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium citrate, potassium sulfate, or disodium phosphate, depending on the product. These occur naturally in mineral waters but are added artificially to commercially produced waters to mimic a natural flavor profile.[citation needed]Artesian wells in such places as Mihalkovo in the Bulgarian Rhodope Mountains, Medžitlija in North Macedonia, and most notably in Selters in the German Taunus mountains, produce naturally effervescent mineral waters.
氣懸膠體（aerosol；又称 氣膠、煙霧質），是指固体或液体微粒稳定地悬浮于气体介质中形成的分散体系，其中顆粒物質則被稱作懸浮粒子，其粒徑大小多在0.01-10微米之間，根據其生成原因可分為自然源及人為源兩種。氣懸膠體會吸收或散射大氣輻射減少到達地表之輻射量，另外也會成為凝結核而影響雲的性質，進而改變地球的氣候。Examples of natural aerosols are fog, mist, dust, forest exudates and geyser steam. Examples of anthropogenic aerosols are particulate air pollutants and smoke. The liquid or solid particles have diameters typically less than 1 μm; larger particles with a significant settling speed make the mixture a suspension, but the distinction is not clear-cut. In general conversation, aerosol usually refers to an aerosol spray that delivers a consumer product from a can or similar container. Other technological applications of aerosols include dispersal of pesticides, medical treatment of respiratory illnesses, and combustion technology. Diseases can also spread by means of small droplets in the breath, also called aerosols (or sometimes bioaerosols).Aerosol science covers generation and removal of aerosols, technological application of aerosols, effects of aerosols on the environment and people, and other topics.
- 香港城市大學（城 大）發現，生物氣溶膠研究可以解決香港及全球 面對的迫切問題，快速偵測及殺滅空氣中的病原 體，包括新冠病毒。研究計劃為期四年，名為 「生物氣溶膠的快速檢測及遠紫外線和負離子 的協同消毒效應：機理與現場研究」 ，此項計 劃獲研究資助局的研究影響基金撥款615萬元資 助。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20210301/PDF/a5_screen.pdf
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, commonly known as DDT, is a colorless, tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound, an organochloride. Originally developed as an insecticide, it became infamous for its environmental impacts. DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by the Austrian chemist Othmar Zeidler. DDT's insecticidal action was discovered by the Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller in 1939. DDT was used in the second half of World War II to limit the spread of the insect-born diseases malaria and typhus among civilians and troops. Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948 "for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several arthropods".By October 1945, DDT was available for public sale in the United States. Although it was promoted by government and industry for use as an agricultural and household pesticide, there were also concerns about its use from the beginning.[7] Opposition to DDT was focused by the 1962 publication of Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring.
- 美國傳媒日前報道，發現疑似大量滴滴涕（DDT，化學名稱是二氯二苯基三氯乙烷）被棄置在美國聖卡塔利娜島附近海底3,000呎下深處，情況嚇人。原來，1947年Montrose化工廠成立，由於DDT利潤好，以生產DDT起家。早期DDT的發現，可以說是人類救星，它殺蟲力強，治蟲和防蟲功效令全球增加三分之一糧食，亦成功遏制了虐疾、腦炎、霍亂、傷寒等疾病，當年可以說，它拯救了不少人。然而，DDT這種化學物質非常穩定，它可以長期遺害環境，會污染環境，改變成對人類有害的狀況；而它在食物鏈中向上移，最後也會傷害人。上世紀60年代，「環保之母」Rachel Carson出版《寂靜的春天》後，反DDT運動興起，而在1969年，加州發現竹莢魚體內DDT含量是美國食品及藥物管理局規定的兩倍，亦是加州海獅患癌的元兇。其後，醫學上更證明DDT是2A類致癌物，可導致女性乳腺癌和糖尿病風險，而且可以遺傳兩代，令反DDT運動更烈。美國遂於1972年設立《海洋傾廢法》，禁止在海洋棄置DDT，並於1979年徹底禁用DDT。然而，Montrose化工廠卻把DDT丟入海底，每月2,000桶，大概有767噸。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20210430/00184_005.html
chemicals for making explosives
- 硫酸 一種具有高腐蝕性的強礦物酸，一般為透明至微黃色，在任何濃度下都能與水混溶且放熱。它能對人體皮肉造成極大傷害，除可造成化學性燒傷，迅速將皮肉碳化外，還會造成二級火焰性灼傷。若不慎接觸到眼睛，視網膜會受嚴重破壞而可能造成永久性失明；若不慎誤服，則會對體內器官造成不可逆轉的傷害，甚至致命。硝酸 一種強酸，其水溶液俗稱「硝鏹水」。純硝酸為無色液體，不論濃稀溶液都有氧化性和腐蝕性，對人非常危險，僅濺到皮膚上可引起嚴重燒傷，皮膚會慢慢變黃，最後變黃的表皮會起皮脫落。此外，濃硝酸受到光照反應會釋出有毒的二氧化氮，人體若吸入會對肺組織造成強烈刺激性和腐蝕性傷害。己烷 是常用的非極性具汽油味的有機溶劑，其具一定毒性，可通過呼吸道、皮膚等途徑進入人體，長期接觸可致人體出現頭痛、頭暈、乏力、四肢麻木等慢性中毒症狀，嚴重的可導致暈倒、神志喪失、甚至死亡。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/11/18/a04-1118.pdf
- HMTD屬高爆炸性炸藥，坊間不容易 買到，要在化學品店、大學實驗室都可找 到。要製作高爆炸性的HMTD，其反應物 叫做六亞甲基四胺，並要混入雙氧水及檸 檬酸，產生化學反應才會成為HMTD。至 於土製炸彈內另一種化學品硝酸鋁不是炸 藥，本身是很強的氧化劑，當HMTD引爆 時候，令硝酸鋁快速分解，會產生大量熱 力，令炸彈火勢更強。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20191211/PDF/a2_screen.pdf
- 化學名稱為「三過氧化三丙酮」的TATP，有「撒旦之母」之稱，是雙氧水、鹽酸等化學物的常見成分。TATP外形為白色細小晶體，屬於烈性炸藥，只要稍微震動、摩擦甚至太陽照射就會爆炸。由於製作簡單、引爆且殺傷力強，TATP常用於恐怖攻擊，只要純度夠高，爆炸威力可能比同等質量的黃色炸藥大。
https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191215/00178_002.html
鹽析
- 位於陝西省咸陽市乾縣的乾陵博物館，日前遭網民揭發館內有部分文物長滿「小絨毛」，引來外界關注。博物館負責人周二回應指，相關文物因天氣、溫度變化出現鹽析，目前已經撤展並在文物修復室進行處理、養護，館方將聯繫文物專家進行深入檢查。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210617/00178_023.html
甲-x chemicals
- 甲酸甲酯無色有香味的易揮發液體。與乙醇混溶，溶於甲醇、乙醚。容易水解，潮濕空氣中的水分也會使其發生水解。對呼吸道、眼、鼻有較強的刺激作用，可引起胸部壓迫感、呼吸困難。Methyl formate, also called methyl methanoate, is the methyl ester of formic acid. The simplest example of an ester, it is a colorless liquid with an ethereal odour, high vapor pressure, and low surface tension. It is a precursor to many other compounds of commercial interest.Because of its high vapor pressure, it is used for quick-drying finishes and as a blowing agent for some polyurethane foam applications and as a replacement for CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs. Methyl formate has zero ozone depletion potential and zero global warming potential[citation needed]. It is also used as an insecticide.A historical use of methyl formate, which sometimes brings it attention, was in refrigeration. Before the introduction of less-toxic refrigerants, methyl formate was used as an alternative to sulfur dioxide in domestic refrigerators, such as some models of the famous GE Monitor Top.
乙-x chemicals
-乙烷 Ethane (/ˈɛθeɪn/ or /ˈiːθeɪn/) is an organic chemical compound with chemical formula C
2H
6. At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colorless, odorless gas. Like many hydrocarbons, ethane is isolated on an industrial scale from natural gas and as a petrochemical by-product of petroleum refining. Its chief use is as feedstock for ethyleneproduction.Related compounds may be formed by replacing a hydrogen atom with another functional group; the ethane moiety is called an ethyl group. For example, an ethyl group linked to a hydroxyl group yields ethanol 乙醇, the alcohol in beverages.
甲-x chemicals
- 甲酸甲酯無色有香味的易揮發液體。與乙醇混溶，溶於甲醇、乙醚。容易水解，潮濕空氣中的水分也會使其發生水解。對呼吸道、眼、鼻有較強的刺激作用，可引起胸部壓迫感、呼吸困難。Methyl formate, also called methyl methanoate, is the methyl ester of formic acid. The simplest example of an ester, it is a colorless liquid with an ethereal odour, high vapor pressure, and low surface tension. It is a precursor to many other compounds of commercial interest.Because of its high vapor pressure, it is used for quick-drying finishes and as a blowing agent for some polyurethane foam applications and as a replacement for CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs. Methyl formate has zero ozone depletion potential and zero global warming potential[citation needed]. It is also used as an insecticide.A historical use of methyl formate, which sometimes brings it attention, was in refrigeration. Before the introduction of less-toxic refrigerants, methyl formate was used as an alternative to sulfur dioxide in domestic refrigerators, such as some models of the famous GE Monitor Top.
乙-x chemicals
-乙烷 Ethane (/ˈɛθeɪn/ or /ˈiːθeɪn/) is an organic chemical compound with chemical formula C
2H
6. At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colorless, odorless gas. Like many hydrocarbons, ethane is isolated on an industrial scale from natural gas and as a petrochemical by-product of petroleum refining. Its chief use is as feedstock for ethyleneproduction.Related compounds may be formed by replacing a hydrogen atom with another functional group; the ethane moiety is called an ethyl group. For example, an ethyl group linked to a hydroxyl group yields ethanol 乙醇, the alcohol in beverages.
- 乙二醇（ethylene glycol (IUPAC ethane-1,2-diol)），又名甘醇、水精。化学式HOCH2—CH2OH。屬於最简单的二元醇。无色无臭、有甜味液体，能与水以任意比例混合。用作溶剂、防冻剂以及PETE等的原料。乙二醇是化纖產業的基礎原料之一。 It is mainly used for two purposes, as a raw material in the manufacture of polyester fibers and for antifreeze formulations. It is an odorless, colorless, sweet-tasting, viscous liquid. Ethylene glycol is produced from ethylene (ethene), via the intermediate ethylene oxide. Ethylene glycol is primarily used in antifreeze formulations (50%) and as a raw material in the manufacture of polyesters such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (40%).
- https://www.jetro.go.jp/ttppoas/anken/0001167000/1167602_e.html Technology to produce Ethylene Glycol
- 乙二醇是一種有毒化學物質，通常用於防凍劑，攝入人體後會傷害腎臟，服用過量甚至會導致器官衰竭。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210201/00180_026.html
- Ethylene (IUPAC name: ethene) is a hydrocarbon which has the formula C2H4 or H2C=CH2. It is a colorless flammable gas with a faint "sweet and musky" odour when pure. It is the simplest alkene (a hydrocarbon with carbon-carbon double bonds). Ethylene is widely used in the chemical industry, and its worldwide production (over 150 million tonnes in 2016) exceeds that of any other organic compound. Much of this production goes toward polyethylene, a widely used plastic containing polymer chains of ethylene units in various chain lengths. Ethylene is also an important natural plant hormone and is used in agriculture to force the ripening of fruits. Ethylene's hydrate is ethanol. 乙烯是由两个碳原子和四个氢原子组成的化合物。两个碳原子之间用双键连接。乙烯为合成纤维、合成橡胶、合成塑料（聚乙烯及聚氯乙烯）、合成乙醇（酒精）的基本化工原料，也用于制造氯乙烯、苯乙烯、环氧乙烷、醋酸、乙醛、乙醇和炸药等，且可用作水果和蔬菜的催熟剂，是一种已证实的植物激素，也是石油化工发展水准之指标。
- Tetrachloroethylene 四氯乙烯，又稱全氯乙烯，是一種有機化學品，被廣泛用於乾洗和金屬除油，也被用來製造其他化學品和消費品。 室溫下是不易燃的液體。容易揮發，有刺激的甜味。
- Isopropyl alcohol is used in the manufacture of a wide variety of industrial and household chemicals and is a common ingredient in chemicals such as antiseptics, disinfectants, and detergents.異丙醇可與水，醇，醚和氯仿混溶。它會溶解乙基纖維素、聚乙烯醇縮丁醛、多種油、生物鹼、樹膠和天然樹脂。不同於乙醇或甲醇，它不溶於含鹽溶液中。故異丙醇可以藉由在水溶液中加入鹽，如氯化鈉，硫酸鈉，或任何其它幾種無機鹽分離出來.異丙醇可被氧化為丙酮，反應可藉由通過使用氧化劑（如鉻酸）進行
- 正丙醇（n-propanol ），又称1-丙醇、丙醇。 1-Propanol is a primary alcohol with the formula CH
3CH
2CH
2OH (sometimes represented as PrOH or n-PrOH). 具有醇的通性。1-丙醇在室溫及常壓下，是無色的透明液體，有香味。丙醇直接用作溶剂或合成乙酸丙酯，用于涂料溶剂、印刷油墨、化妆品等，用于生产医药、农药的中间体正丙胺，用于生产饲料添加剂、合成香料等。丙醇在医药工业中用于生产丙磺舒、丙戊酸钠、红霉素、癫健安、粘合止血剂BCA、丙硫硫胺、2,5-吡啶二甲酸二丙酯等；相丙醇合成的各种酯，用于食品添加剂、增塑剂、香料等许多方面；正丙醇的衍生物，特别是二正丙胺在医药、农药生产中有许多应用，用来生产农药胺磺灵、菌达灭、异丙乐灵、灭草猛、磺乐灵、氟乐录等。
丁-x chemicals
- 丁烷，又稱正丁烷 Butane (/ˈbjuːteɪn/) is an organic compound with the formula C4H10 that is an alkane with four carbon atoms. Butane is a gas at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. The term may refer to either of two structural isomers, n-butane or isobutane (also called "methylpropane"), or to a mixture of these isomers.
Normal butane can be used for gasolineblending, as a fuel gas, fragrance extraction solvent, either alone or in a mixture with propane, and as a feedstock for the manufacture of ethylene and butadiene, a key ingredient of synthetic rubber. Isobutane is primarily used by refineries to enhance (increase) the octanenumber of motor gasoline.在有充足的氧氣的情況下，丁烷燃燒時會產生二氧化碳和水蒸氣
- 丁苯
丁苯橡膠(Styrene-Butadiene Rubber，SBR)是合成橡膠的一種，由苯乙烯和丁二烯聚合而成。
己- x chemicals
- Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān (Arabic/Persian جابر بن حیان, often given the nisbas, al-Azdi, al-Kufi, al-Tusi or al-Sufi; fl. c. 721 – c. 815),[2] also known by the Latinization Geber was a polymath: a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geographer, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician. Born in Tus, he later traveled to Yemen and Kufa where he lived most of his life. He has been described as "the father of early chemistry". As early as the 10th century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Jabir was in dispute in Islamic circles.[6] His name was Latinized as "Geber" in the Christian West and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as Pseudo-Geber, produced alchemical and metallurgical writings under the pen-name Geber.
己- x chemicals
己烷，化學式C6H14，是烷烴中的第六個成員。己烷是常用的非極性具汽油味的有機溶劑，被廣泛應用於色譜法中。正己烷作为良好的有机溶剂，被广泛使用在化工有机合成，机械设备表面清洗去污等环节。但其具有一定的毒性，会通过呼吸道、皮肤等途径进入人体，长期接触可导致人体出现头痛、头晕、乏力、四肢麻木等慢性中毒症状，严重的可导致晕倒、神志丧失、甚至死亡。Hexane (/ˈhɛkseɪn/) is a straight-chain alkane with six carbon atoms, it is a significant constituent of gasoline. It is a colorless liquid, odorless when pure, and with boiling points approximately 69 °C (156 °F). It is widely used as a cheap, relatively safe, largely unreactive, and easily evaporated non-polar solvent.In industry, hexanes are used in the formulation of glues for shoes, leather products, and roofing. They are also used to extract cooking oils (such as canola oil or soy oil) from seeds, for cleansing and degreasing a variety of items, and in textile manufacturing. They are commonly used in food based soybean oil extraction in the United States, and are potentially present as contaminants in all soy food products in which the technique is used; the lack of regulation by the FDA of this contaminant is a matter of some controversy.Hexanes are chiefly obtained by refining crude oil.
- Abu Mūsā Jābir ibn Hayyān (Arabic/Persian جابر بن حیان, often given the nisbas, al-Azdi, al-Kufi, al-Tusi or al-Sufi; fl. c. 721 – c. 815),[2] also known by the Latinization Geber was a polymath: a chemist and alchemist, astronomer and astrologer, engineer, geographer, philosopher, physicist, and pharmacist and physician. Born in Tus, he later traveled to Yemen and Kufa where he lived most of his life. He has been described as "the father of early chemistry". As early as the 10th century, the identity and exact corpus of works of Jabir was in dispute in Islamic circles.[6] His name was Latinized as "Geber" in the Christian West and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as Pseudo-Geber, produced alchemical and metallurgical writings under the pen-name Geber.
- The identity of the author of works attributed to Jabir has long been discussed. According to a famous controversy,[49] pseudo-Geber has been considered as the unknown author of several books in Alchemy.
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