Ruling House- Borjigin (plural
Borjigid;
Mongolian:
Боржигин,
Borjigin;
Борджигин,
Bordjigin;
Mongolian script:
,
Borjigit), is the last name of the imperial
clan of
Genghis Khan and his successors. The senior Borjigids provided ruling princes for
Mongolia and
Inner Mongolia until the 20th century.
The clan formed the ruling class among the
Mongols and some other peoples of
Central Asia and
Eastern Europe. Today, the Borjigid are found in most of Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and
Xinjiang,
although genetic research has shown that
descent from Genghis Khan is common in Central Asia. The patrilineage began with Blu-grey
Wolf (Börte Chino) and Fallow
Doe (Gua Maral). As in
The Secret History of the Mongols, their 11th generation descendant Dobu Mergen's widow
Alan Gua the Fair was impregnated by a ray of light. Her youngest son became the ancestor of the later Borjigid. He was
Bodonchar Munkhag , who along with his brothers sired the entire Mongol nation. According to
Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, many of the older Mongolian clans were founded by members of the Borjigin —
Barlas, Urud,
Manghud,
Taichiut,
Chonos, Kiyat, etc. The first Khan of the Mongol was Bodonchar Munkhag's great-great-grandson
Khaidu Khan. Khaidu's grandsons
Khabul Khan and
Ambaghai Khan (founder of the
Taichiut clan) succeeded him. Thereafter, Qabul's sons,
Hotula Khan and
Yesugei, and great-grandson
Temujin (
Genghis Khan) ruled the
Khamag Mongol. By the unification of the Mongols in 1206, virtually all of Temujin's uncles and first cousins died, and from then on only the descendants of Yesugei Baghatur formed the Borjigid. The Borjigin held power over Mongolia for many centuries (even during
Qing period) and only lost power when
Communists took control in the 20th century. Aristocratic descent was something to be forgotten in the
socialist period.
[12] Joseph Stalin's henchmen executed some 30,000 Mongols including Borjigin nobles in a series of campaigns against their culture and religion. Clan association has lost its practical relevance in the 20th century, but is still considered a matter of honour and pride by many
Mongolians. In 1920s the communist regime banned the use of clan names. When the ban was lifted again in 1997, and people were told they had to have surnames, most families had lost knowledge about their clan association. Because of that, a disproportionate number of families registered the most prestigious clan name Borjigin, many of them without historic justification. The label Borjigin is used as a measure of cultural supremacy.
In
Inner Mongolia, the Borjigid or Kiyad name became the basis for many Chinese surnames adopted by
ethnic Inner Mongols. The Inner Mongolian Borjigin Taijis took the surname
Bao (
鲍, from Borjigid) and in
Ordos Qi (
奇, Qiyat). A
genetic research has proposed that as many as 16 million men from populations as far apart as
Hazaras in the West and
Hezhe people to the east may have Borjigid-Kiyad ancestry, but the professionalism of that study is being criticised.
[citation needed] The Qiyat clan name is still found among the
Kazakhs,
Uzbeks and
Karakalpaks.
-
Toghon Temür (Mongolian: Тогоонтөмөр, Togoontömör; 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370), also known by the temple name Emperor Huizong (Chinese: 惠宗) bestowed by the Northern Yuan dynasty in Mongolia and by the posthumous name Shundi (Chinese: 順帝; Wade–Giles: Shun-ti) bestowed by the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynastyChina, was a son of Khutughtu Khan Kusala who ruled as emperor of the Yuan dynasty. Apart from Emperor of China, he is also considered the last Khagan of the Mongol Empire, although it was only nominal due to the division of the empire at the start of the Yuan dynasty. During the last years of his reign, the Yuan was overthrown by the Red Turban Rebellion, which established the Ming dynasty, although the Mongols remained in control of Mongolia. Emperor Huizong was a Buddhist student of the Karmapas (heads of the Karma Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism) and is considered a previous incarnation of the Tai Situpas. He also notably invited the Jonang savant Dölpopa Shérab Gyeltsen to teach him, but was rebuffed. Toghon Temür was born to Kuśala, known as Khutughtu Khan or Emperor Mingzong, when he was in exile in Central Asia. Toghon Temür's mother was Mailaiti, descendant of Arslan Khan, the chief of the Karluks. According to a story the former Chinese Southern Song Emperor Gong of Song, Zhao Xian, had an affair with Yuan Empress Mailaiti. Zhao Xian allegedly fathered Yuan Toghon Temür with Mailaiti as a bastard child.[6] The Mongols circulated a similar story about the Yongle Emperor.In 1333, Toghon Temür first met Lady Ki, a Korean concubine whom he fell deeply in love with.[7] Lady Ki had been sent to China sometime in the late 1320s as "human tribute" as the kings of Goryeo were required to send a certain number of beautiful teenage girls to Yuan to serve as concubines after the Mongol invasions.- 元顺帝幼时曾在广西静江受过一年的汉文教育，即位后“寻召奎章儒臣侍讲六经禁中”。 [73] 但是权臣伯颜反对汉化，主张“休教读汉儿人书” [11] ，因此顺帝的汉学水平一度停滞。顺帝联合脱脱扳倒伯颜以后，脱脱请求顺帝“留心圣学” ，于是顺帝开经筵，后又将文宗朝的奎章阁改为宣文阁，作为经筵的固定场所。顺帝以丞相脱脱领经筵事，其下有兼经筵官、参赞官、译文官及译史三人、检讨四人、书写五人、宣使四人，进一步完善了泰定帝以来的经筵制度。 顺帝在经筵上随各族儒臣“读五经、四书，写大字，操琴弹古调”。
- 元顺帝在建筑工艺、机械工程等方面是一个天才，建造宫殿时，顺帝自画屋样，又亲自削木构宫，让工匠按他的图纸来搭建。 [8] 建龙船时，也是亲自出马，绘制其样本，船首尾长一百二十尺，广二十尺，前瓦帘棚、穿廊、两暖阁 ，后吾殿楼子，龙身与殿宇用五彩金妆，前有两爪。上用水手二十四人，身衣紫衫、金荔枝带、四带头巾，于船两旁下各执篙一。龙船建好后，顺帝坐着船自后宫至前宫山下海子内往来游戏，船行驶时，其龙首眼口爪尾皆动。 [61] 又自制宫漏，高约六七尺，宽大约是其一半，造木为匮，藏在诸壶其中，运水上下。匮上设西方三圣殿，匮腰立玉女捧时刻筹，时间到了以后，就浮水而上。
- vatican
- Pope John XXII and Pope Benedict XII successfully extended a network of Catholic churches throughout the Mongol Empire from Crimea to China between 1317 and 1343. The archbishop of Khanbaligh, John of Montecorvino, died in 1328. With the backing of the Toghon Temür, the Alans wrote to Pope Benedict XII in 1336 asking for a new metropolitan. In 1338, the pope sent back the embassy headed by Giovanni de' Marignolli, who stayed at Beijing three or four years. They brought gifts for Toghon Temür that included fine European horses.
- 高丽抓获一日本渔船，认为该渔船是间谍船，并将该船送往宗主元朝，順帝命令释放回国，足利幕府派遣由一名和尚带领的使团访问表示感谢。
government
- [maritime museum] yuan court established chongfusi 崇福司 ministry honouring the blessings in both central government and local administrations
Governance
- "
土司制度"是
封建王朝统治阶级用来解决西南
少数民族地区的民族政策,其义在于羁縻勿绝,仍效仿唐代的"
羁縻制度"。政治上巩固其统治,经济上让原来的生产方式
维持下去,满足于征收纳贡。
广西壮族自治区的土司制度,开始于唐代的"羁縻制度",形成于宋代,繁荣于明代,崩溃于清代,结束于20世纪初,长达一千多年。
土司制度是元明清中央与地方各民族统治阶级互相联合、斗争的一种妥协形式。在土司统治下,土地和人民都归土司世袭所有,土司各自形成一个个势力范围,造成分裂割据
状态,从而使民族之间和民族内部产生仇恨和战争。
- official language
- In Genghis's time, English was uncommon outside of England; in fact, the official language of the court was technically still French.https://www.quora.com/How-come-Genghis-Khan-never-spoke-English/answer/Ed-Lee-29
imperial palace
-
用铜铸造宫殿，是中国古代建筑的一个类型。歷史上有文献记载的铜殿大多出现在元明清三代，现存可见最早的是建于元大德十一年（一三○七年）的武当山小铜殿http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170301/PDF/b16_screen.pdfpeople- Kublai Khan (; Mongolian: Хубилай хаан, Xubilaĭ xaan; Middle Mongol: Qubilai Qaγan, "Khagan Qubilai"; September 23, 1215 – February 18, 1294), born Kublai (Mongolian: Хубилай, Xubilaĭ; Middle Mongol: Qubilai; also spelled Khubilai) and also known by the temple name Shizu (Emperor Shizu of Yuan; Chinese: 元世祖; pinyin: Yuán Shìzǔ; Wade–Giles: Yüan Shih-tsu), was the fifth Khagan (Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire (Ikh Mongol Uls), reigning from 1260 to 1294 (although due to the division of the empire this was a nominal position). He also founded the Yuan dynasty in China as a conquest dynasty in 1271, and ruled as the first Yuan emperor until his death in 1294. Kublai was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. - Yelü Chucai (Yeh-lu Chu-tsai; 耶律楚材; pinyin: Yēlǜ Chǔcái; Wade–Giles: Yeh1-lü4 Ch'u3-ts'ai2; Mongolian: Urtu Saqal, 吾圖撒合里, "long beard"; the components of his name also variously spelt Yeh-Lu, Ye Liu, Yeliu, Chutsai, Ch'u-Ts'ai, etc.) (July 24, 1190 - June 20, 1244[1]) was a statesman of Khitan ethnicity with royal family lineage to the Liao Dynasty, who became a vigorous adviser and administrator of the early Mongol Empire in the Confucian tradition. He was the first of Genghis Khan's retainers to formulate policy during the Mongol conquests, and he also introduced many administrative reforms in North China during the reign of Genghis Khan and his successor Ögedei.Yelü Chucai was a Confucian scholar who was born close to Beijing, during the Jin dynasty. Well versed in Buddhist scriptures and a practitioner in Taoism, Yelü Chucai has become best known for his service as the chief adviser to Genghis Khan. Yelü Chucai's father Yelu Lu, served with the Jurchen Jin dynasty, which defeated the Liao Dynasty in 1125. When the unified Mongolian army under Genghis Khan began a war of conquest against the Jin dynasty in 1211, both Jurchen and Khitan rebels joined the Mongols in the fight against the Jin dynasty. Yelü Chucai then joined Genghis Khan's administration in the year 1218 at the age of 28.While Northern China was capitulating to the Mongol onslaught, Yelü Chucai instituted several administrative reforms, like separating civil and military powers and introducing numerous taxes and levies. In response to the tough resistance the Mongol army faced while trying to conquer the Jurchen Jin's southern capital of Kaifeng, some Mongol officers in high command recommended the complete razing of Kaifeng and the deaths of all its occupants. But Yelü Chucai convinced Genghis Khan to rule and tax the people, and make use of their extraordinary talents instead of killing all of them in order to further their own riches.[6] He was six-foot eight-inches tall and had a waist-length beard.[7] He was buried by Kunming Lake in Beijing, and a temple constructed in his memory stood until 1966, when it was razed during the looting of the Summer Palace by communist Red Guards as part of the “Cultural Revolution”. Yelü Chucai was the last recorded person to be able to speak the Khitan language and read and write the Khitan script.楚材の家は遼（契丹）の太祖耶律阿保機の長男である東丹国の懐王（義宗･天譲帝）耶律突欲（とつよく、または図欲＝とよく、漢姓名は劉倍）の9世の末裔とする遼の宗族出身であり、出自は契丹人であるが、代々中国の文化に親しんで漢化した家系である。遼の滅亡後は金に官僚として仕え、祖父は耶律聿魯で、父の耶律履は金制においては宰相級の重職である尚書右丞に昇った。楚材は父が高齢になり、三男（末子）として生まれた子で、3歳の時に父が61歳で死んだため漢人である生母の楊氏に厳しく育てられた。また、異母兄の耶律弁才・耶律善才は彼よりも20歳も年が離れていたが、彼は生母と共に兄たちから養われたという。- しかしオゴデイの晩年には、西アジア式に人を単位として課税する人頭税制度を中国に導入することを説く中央アジア出身のムスリム（イスラム教徒）財務官僚層が台頭して中国行政について干渉するようになり、伝統的な中国式統治システムを維持しようとする楚材らの派と対立した。結局、西アジアの財務官僚に任せる方が単純に収入を確保しやすいことからモンゴル人は彼らを重用するようになり、楚材らは信任を失っていった。
- が30前後で早世したために、鄭氏（蘇氏の説あり）が産んだ末子の
- son 耶律鋳（1221年 - 1285年）：元の中書左丞相、生母・蘇氏（蘇東坡の玄孫娘、蘇公弼の娘）
- note his relation to windmill
- 色目人，意為各色名目之人，是元朝時中亞、西亞、歐洲民族的統稱，也是元朝的四類人民之一。一切非蒙古人、漢人、南人的都算是色目人。元大德八年（1304年）規定除蒙古人，漢人、蠻子、高麗人外，均為色目人。色目人包括回回人、粟特人、党項人、吐蕃人、亞述人、阿拉伯人、畏兀兒人、波斯人、猶太人、突厥人、斯拉夫人等，當中以畏兀兒人為主。陶宗儀的《南村輟耕錄》中認為色目人有31種：葛邏祿、欽察、唐兀（党項）、阿速（奧塞梯人）、禿八（圖瓦）、康里、苦裏魯、阿兒渾、合魯歹、火里剌、撒里哥、土伯特（吐蕃）、雍古歹（汪古）、密赤思、夯力、苦魯丁、貴赤、匣拉魯、禿魯花、掘兒察歹、刺乞歹、赤乞歹、畏魯兒（畏兀兒）、回回、南蠻、火里剌、甘土魯、乞失迷兒（克什米爾人）、哈剌吉答歹、禿魯八歹、撒兒哥（切爾克斯人）。清代錢大昕說有三十三種色目人。箭內亙認為色目人其實只有二十種上下。苦裏魯與火里剌，匣拉魯是葛邏祿的重覆，禿魯花是一種蒙古軍人，夯力是康里的重覆。日本學者舩田善之指出「色目人」是漢語詞匯，在同時期的蒙古語史料中找不到相當於色目人的詞匯或概念- 生活在這幅畫裏的是圖瓦（Tuva）人 。他們散居在俄羅斯、蒙古國和中國，在 國內僅有一千八百多人，集中居住在新疆 的喀納斯、禾木和白哈巴三個地區。他們 操蒙古語，但沒有自己的文字，所以人文 學科未把他們立項為 「民族」 。 有人說中國圖瓦人的祖家在俄羅斯西 伯利亞一帶；也有說 「圖瓦」 本是一個部 落，後來歸化了成吉思汗；更多圖瓦人自 稱是成吉思汗的後代。成吉思汗的死亡也有多種傳說，據《 馬可孛羅遊記》的說法，他死於討伐西夏 之戰的箭傷。成吉思汗離世後，他的大軍 也漸離了激情的征戰，補給隊伍的後人圖 瓦人也走向了 「歲月靜好」 。他們早年靠 狩獵為生， 「禾木」 二字在圖瓦語中，指 黑熊腰上的肥膘，這是他們狩獵史的佐證 。後來他們轉向遊牧加農耕的生活。再後 來，也就是現在，他們靠旅遊業來討生計 。禾木村許多家開設了民宿、飯店、商店 ，門口擺着小攤，掛着別致的招牌或圖騰 。做飯店的，還把殺好的雞鴨或半邊豬羊 牛高高吊起，以做招徠。 禾木村被禾木河分隔成兩部分，一部 分在山上，一部分在山下大馬路的兩旁。 上山經過的木橋，全用黑舊的原木，古樸 而粗礪。河面寬二十多米，流着山頂融化 的雪水。水量很足，帶着嘩嘩聲流淌。河 床時見大石，水流遇上，便共同繪下 「捲 起千堆雪」 的畫面。 過河就見到了一片白樺林。白樺葉在 深秋風中片片飄落，鋪了一地金黃。遊客 騎馬娛樂，在白樺林中踏着落葉緩緩穿行 ，繪出人在畫中遊的畫面。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190825/PDF/a21_screen.pdf
- examples
- According to 蕭若元, he is an arab
Khanbaliq or Dadu was the capital of the Yuan dynasty, the main center of the Mongol Empire founded by Kublai Khan and in what is now Beijing, also the capital ofChina today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) directly administered the Central Region (腹裏) of the Yuan Empire (comprising present-day Beijing, Hebei, Shandong, Shanxi, and parts of Henan and Inner Mongolia) and dictated policies for the other provinces. Kublai and his successors also claimed supremacy over the entire Mongol Empire, although in practice that had already fragmented into a number of khanates since the death ofMöngke Khan.The name Khanbaliq comes from the Mongolian and Uyghur[1] words khan and balik[2] ("town", "permanent settlement"): "City of the Khan". It was actually in use among the Eastern Turks and Mongols before the fall of Zhongdu, in reference to the Jin emperors. It is traditionally written as Cambaluc in English, after its spelling inRustichello's retelling of Marco Polo's travels. (The Travels also uses the spellings Cambuluc and Kanbalu.) The name Dadu, formerly romanized as Ta-Tu, is the pinyin transcription of the Chinese name 大都, meaning "Grand Capital". The Mongols also called the city Daidu,[3]which was a transliteration directly from the Chinese. In modern Chinese, it is referred to as Yuan Dadu to distinguish it from other cities which have borne similar names.
trade- quanzhou took over guangzhou's place as an international port
industry- seafood farming- [烹調知識2002年9期] according to 四明續志,元至正六年(1346年)鮮埼一帶野生蚶子進入人工繁殖
catholicism- John of Montecorvino or Giovanni da Montecorvino in Italian (1247–1328) was an Italian Franciscan missionary, traveller and statesman, founder of the earliest Roman Catholic missions in India and China, and archbishop of Peking.John was born at Montecorvino Rovella, in what is now Campania, Italy. As a member of a Roman Catholic religious order which at that time was chiefly concerned with the conversion of non-Catholics, he was commissioned in 1272 by the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos to Pope Gregory X, to negotiate for the reunion of the 'Greek' (Orthodox) and Latin churches. Commissioned by Pope Nicholas IV to preach Christianity in the Nearer and Middle East, especially to the Asiatic hordes then threatening the West, he devoted himself incessantly from 1275 to 1289 to the Eastern missions, first that of Persia. In 1286 Arghun, the Ilkhan who ruled this kingdom, sent a request to the pope through the Nestorian monk, Rabban Bar Sauma, to send Catholic missionaries to the Court of the Great Khan (Mongol emperor) of China, Kúblaí Khan (1260–94), who was well disposed towards Christianity. Pope Nicholas entrusted him with the important mission to Farther China, where about this time Marco Polo, the celebrated Venetian lay traveller, still lingered. In 1289 John revisited the Papal Court and was sent out as papal legate to the Great Khan, the Ilkhan of Persia, and other leading personages of the Mongol Empire, as well as to the Emperor of Ethiopia. He started on his journey in 1289, provided with letters to Arghun, to the great Emperor Kúblaí Khan, to Kaidu, Prince of the Tatars, to the King of Armenia and to the Patriarch of the Jacobites. His companions were the Dominican Nicholas of Pistoia and the merchant Peter of Lucalongo. He reached Tabriz (in Iranian Azerbeijan), then the chief city of Mongol Persia, if not of all Western Asia. From Persia they moved down by sea to India, in 1291, to the Madras region or "Country of St Thomas" where he preached for thirteen months and baptized about one hundred persons; his companion Nicholas died. From there Montecorvino wrote home, in December 1291 (or 1292), the earliest noteworthy account of the Coromandel Coast furnished by any Western European. Travelling by sea from Nestorian Meliapur in Bengal, he reached China in 1294, appearing in the capital "Cambaliech" or Khanbaliq (now Beijing), only to find that Kúblaí Khan had just died, and Temür (1294–1307) had succeeded to the Mongol throne. Though the latter did apparently not embrace Christianity, he threw no obstacles in the way of the zealous missionary. Very soon, John won the confidence of the Yuan dynasty ruler in spite of the opposition of the Nestorians who had already settled there under the name of Jingjiao/Ching-chiao (景教). In 1299 John built a church at Khanbaliq (now Beijing) and in 1305 a second church opposite the imperial palace, together with workshops and dwellings for two hundred persons. He gradually bought from heathen parents about one hundred and fifty boys, from seven to eleven years of age, instructed them in Latin and Greek, wrote psalms and hymns for them and then trained them to serve Mass and sing in the choir. At the same time he familiarized himself with the native language, preached in it, and translated the New Testament and the Psalms into the Uyghur used commonly by the Mongol ruling class in China. Among the six thousand converts of John of Montecorvino was a Nestorian Ongutprince named George, allegedly of the race of Prester John, a vassal of the great khan, mentioned by Marco Polo. John wrote letters of 8 January 1305 and 13 February 1306, describing the progress of the Roman mission in the Far East, in spite of Nestorian opposition; alluding to the Roman Catholic community he had founded in India, and to an appeal he had received to preach in "Ethiopia" and dealing with overland and oversea routes to "Cathay," from the Black Sea and the Persian Gulf respectively. After he had worked alone for eleven years, the German Franciscan Arnold of Cologne was sent to him (1304 or 1303) as his first colleague. In 1307 Pope Clement V, highly pleased with the missionary's success, sent seven Franciscan bishops who were commissioned to consecrate John of Montecorvino archbishop of Peking and summus archiepiscopus 'chief archbishop' of all those countries; they were themselves to be his suffragan bishops. Only three of these envoys arrived safely: Gerardus, Peregrinus and Andrew of Perugia (1308). They consecrated John in 1308 and succeeded each other in the episcopal see of Zaiton (Quanzhou), which John had established. In 1312 three more Franciscans were sent out from Rome to act as suffragans, of whom one at least reached East Asia. For the next 20 years the Chinese-Mongol mission continued to flourish under his leadership. A Franciscan tradition that about 1310 John of Montecorvino converted the new Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, also called Khaishan Kuluk (he was also the third Emperor of the Yuan dynasty; 1307–1311) is disputed. His mission unquestionably won remarkable successes in North and East China. Besides three mission stations in Peking, he established one near Amoy harbour, opposite Formosa island (Taiwan). John of Montecorvino translated the New Testament into Uyghur and provided copies of the Psalms, the Breviary and liturgical hymns for the Öngüt. He was instrumental in teaching boys the Latin chant, probably for a choir in the liturgy and with the hope that some of them might become priests. He converted Armenians in China and Alans to Roman Catholicism in China. John of Montecorvino died about 1328 in Peking. He was apparently the only effective European bishop in medieval Peking. Even after his death, the mission in China endured for the next forty years.- ***********Toghun Temür, the last Mongol (Yuan dynasty) emperor of China, sent an embassy to the French Pope Benedict XII in Avignon, in 1336. The embassy was led by a Genoese in the service of the Mongol emperor, Andrea di Nascio, and accompanied by another Genoese, Andalò di Savignone.[3] These letters from the Mongol ruler represented that they had been eight years (since Montecorvino's death) without a spiritual guide, and earnestly desired one. The pope replied to the letters, and appointed four ecclesiastics as his legates to the khan's court. In 1338, a total of 50 ecclesiastics were sent by the Pope to Peking, among them John of Marignolli. In 1353 John returned to Avignon, and delivered a letter from the great khan to Pope Innocent VI. Soon, the Chinese rose up and drove the Mongols from China, thereby establishing the Ming Dynasty (1368). By 1369, all Christians, whether Roman Catholic or Syro-Oriental, were expelled by the Ming rulers. Six centuries later, Montecorvino acted as the inspiration for another Franciscan, the Blessed Gabriele Allegra to go to China and complete the first translation of the Catholic Bibleinto Chinese in 1968.
Islam- In the early Yuan dynasty, since the Pu Shougeng (蒲寿庚) family, part of the Islamic SunniSemu, helped rebel against the Song dynasty and establish the Yuan dynasty, they earned public support from the Mongols and as a result became stronger and had more influence over politics and the economy. The Sunni Muslims in Quanzhou became more dominant in Quanzhou, excluding the Shiites and causing them to be unhappy. In 1282 (the 19th year of the Yuan dynasty), the Yuan dynasty stationed 3000 Shiite forces in Quanzhou, but even then there were still too few Shiites in Quanzhou.
Le manichéisme,
Móníjiào (摩尼教) « école de
Mani » ou
Míngjiào (明教) « école de la Lumière », pénètre en Chine à partir du
vie siècle en suivant les mêmes voies que l’
islam, le
nestorianisme ou le
zoroastrisme : terrestre,
route de la soie (régions nord-ouest) et maritime (ports du sud-est). Il prend de l’importance au
viiie siècle où sa pratique est officiellement autorisée, mais seulement pour les « étrangers », en majorité des marchands
sogdiens. Soutenu à partir du milieu du
viiie siècle essentiellement par le patronage des
Ouïghours, toléré par les empereurs pour des raisons militaires et diplomatiques, il est banni dès le milieu du
ixe siècle, non sans avoir fait des émules parmi les Chinois malgré l’interdiction du prosélytisme. Il devient alors, sous le nom de
mingjiao, l’un de ces courants populaires réprouvés qui remplissent le paysage religieux chinois. Il est particulièrement bien implanté dans les zones côtières du
Fujian, surtout au voisinage du port de
Quanzhou, aboutissement de la « route maritime de la soie », où ses traces étaient encore visibles au
xxe siècle.
Sous la dynastie Yuan l’interdit est levé ; c'est pourtant une révolte menée par Han Shantong (韓山童) et son fils, inspirés partiellement par le manichéisme, qui amène la fin de la domination mongole et l’avènement de la dynastie Ming (lumière). Une croyance populaire prétend que Zhu Yuanzhang, son fondateur, arrivé au pouvoir en s'appuyant sur la secte de Han Shantong, a choisi le nom de sa dynastie en référence au mingjiao. Empereur, il s'empresse néanmoins de remettre le manichéisme hors-la-loi, ayant pu apprécier de l’intérieur le danger des sectes pour le pouvoir. En effet, les courants mingjiao se sont fondus avec d’autres courants taoïsto-bouddhistes qui conditionnent le salut de l’humanité à la disparition du monde présent corrompu : secte du Lotus blanc, culte de Maitreya, mouvement Xiantiandao. Certaines de ces écoles, arborant le pavillon du Lotus blanc, seront à l’origine de révoltes. Avant celle de la fin des Yuan, la rébellion de Fangxi (方臘) en 1120 s’appuyait déjà en partie sur le manichéisme. Longtemps négligé par l’histoire officielle chinoise, le manichéisme fait l’objet d’un regain d’intérêt depuis le xxe siècle, lié à la redécouverte de documents et, depuis la fin des années 1970, à l’attention accrue portée aux formes populaires de la religion. C’est ainsi que des ethnologues de l’Académie chinoise des sciences sociales ont pu mettre en évidence la survivance de son influence dans le taoïsme du Fujian. Le temple bouddhiste Cao'an (草庵), situé au sud-ouest de Quanzhou au pied du mont Wanshi (萬石) / Huabiao (華表), dans lequel se trouve l'effigie d’une divinité manichéenne honorée comme un bouddha, est le dernier vestige confirmé de cette religion dans le domaine Han. Le siècle de patronage ouïghour a laissé de très belles enluminures retrouvées à Qočo (Gaochang) près de Tourfan.
arts and culture- porcelain- 以元代景德鎮 創始的 「釉裏紅」釉下彩瓷器而言， 釉色已算鮮純。蓋元代 「釉裏紅」初 期還在實驗與摸索階段，工藝技術尚 不熟練，呈色不夠穩定，常發灰或發 黑，甚至局部不發色，或見暈散；因 銅元素屬性不穩，高溫燒製時易游離 而散失，繪料中氧化銅的還原氣氛極 難掌握，成功率甚低，故元代釉色鮮 純和近乎理想者極稀。 元人留存迄今的一些文物，常見 這類鸞鳳的圖飾，應為鵷鶵（宛雛） 同一屬的古鳥http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170308/PDF/b9_screen.pdf
- 枢府瓷又称卵白釉——釉呈失透状，色白微青，好似鹅卵色泽，故名，元代景德镇窑始烧，元代军事机关枢密院在景德镇订烧的卵白釉瓷，在印花花卉间印有对称的“枢府”二字款，卵白釉瓷延烧到明初。元人尚白，枢府釉瓷器大量生产与元人尚白的习俗有密切关系，以蒙古贵族为主的封建政权，和其他时代汉人政权一样，整个社会有层层阶梯，枢府釉也分为不同的等级。
- yuhuchunping vase (spring kiln vase) is one of the ceramic forms to have its origins for mass production in yuan dynasty
- jade- 虽然元代歷朝统治阶层仍重视玉器，但是北方民族的文化与生活习性有别，审美观也不同，故所雕琢玉器，大多粗犷简拙，欠缺细緻秀雅和玩味。元代传世玉器较 多，考古发现的出土珍品并不丰富；寻且大多属于实用与陈设器皿，诸如杯、盌、带扣、炉顶、带勾、臂格等。初期的圆雕童子，乃秉承宋代遗风，只是髮式、脸 相、五官和衣饰有别。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170328/PDF/b15_screen.pdf
- 絹幡- 元朝佛幡http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20181014/PDF/a18_screen.pdf
- 昆曲早在元朝末期（14世纪中叶）即产生于苏州昆山一带，它与起源于浙江的海盐腔、余姚腔和起源于江西的弋阳腔，被称为明代四大声腔，同属南戏系统。昆山腔开始只是民间的清曲、小唱。其流布区域，开始只限于苏州一带，到了万历年间，便以苏州为中心扩展到长江以南和钱塘江以北各地，万历末年还流入北京。这样昆山腔便成为明代中叶至清代中叶影响最大的声腔剧种。昆曲是明朝中叶至清代中叶戏曲中影响最大的声腔剧种，很多剧种都是在昆剧的基础上发展起来的，被称为“百戏之祖，百戏之师”，有 “中国戏曲之母”的雅称。即时，无锡昆曲社对昆曲起到了繁荣推广的作用。昆剧是中国戏曲史上具有最完整表演体系的剧种，它的基础深厚，遗产丰富，是中国传统文化艺术高度发展的成果，在中国文学史、戏曲史、音乐史、舞蹈史上占有重要的地位。昆曲的表演，也有它独特的体系、风格，它最大的特点是抒情性强、动作细腻，歌唱与舞蹈的身段结合得巧妙而和谐。在语言上，该剧种原先分南曲和北曲：南昆以苏州白话为主，北昆以大都韵白和京白为主。- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/03/22/a19-0322.pdf
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The Orphan of Zhao (趙氏孤兒) is a Chinese play from the Yuan era, attributed to the 13th-century dramatist Ji Junxiang (紀君祥). The play has as its full name The Great Revenge of the Orphan of Zhao (趙氏孤兒大報仇).[2] The play is classified in the zaju genre of dramas.[3] It revolves around the central theme of revenge.The Orphan of Zhao was the first Chinese play to be translated into any European language.[20] The Jesuit father Joseph Henri Marie de Prémare translated the play, which he titled L'Orphelin de la Maison de Tchao, into French in 1731.[21] In Premaré's work, the dialogue was translated, but not the songs.[22] The story caught the imagination of European minds at a time when chinoiserie was in vogue and this translation was the basis for adaptations over the next few decades. Premaré sent the translation to be delivered to Étienne Fourmont, a member of the French Academy.[24][25] However, Jean Baptiste Du Halde instead took possession and published it in his Description Géographique, Historique, Chronologique, Politique et Physique de l'Empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie Chinois in 1735, although he had no permission from Prémare or Fourmont to do so.[24] Whatever the circumstances, Du Halde published the first European translation of a genuine Chinese play.[24] Prémare's translation would soon be translated into English for two distinct English editions of Du Halde's book, which appeared in 1736 and 1741 respectively.[24] The first one was translated was by Richard Brookes in 1736, and the second one was translated by Green and Guthrie in 1738–41.[26] In 1762, a third English translation of Prémare's work was done by Thomas Percy,[27] which was a revision of Green and Guthrie.[26] However, many of Prémare's mistranslations remained, as did the omission of the songs.[28] In his book, Du Halde (1739) remarked: "There are Plays the Songs of which are difficult to be understood, because they are full of Allusions to things unknown to us, and Figures of Speech very difficult for us to observe."[29] Nevertheless, The Orphan of Zhao was well-received throughout Europe with the vogue of chinoiserie at its height.[28] Between 1741 and 1759, the play was adapted into French, English, and Italian.- 据说，马街书会始于元代。为什么会有这么多说书人在这一天自发地聚集，向来有多种说法，比较被认可的是“师恩说”。大意是有一位老说书艺人在正月十三这天 去世，各路艺人相约在这一天相聚马街，以曲会友，以寄哀思。全盛时，赶会的艺人多达二千七百多人。当然，就像大多数民间的人与事都是歷史的沉默者一样，关 于马街书会的一切，载于正史者少，口口相传者多。不过，宝丰昔日的繁华，为马街书会的兴起与发展提供了条件，倒是容易想见的。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170328/PDF/b14_screen.pdf
Event- The Ispah rebellion (亦思巴奚兵乱; pinyin: Yìsībāxī Bīngluàn) was a series of civil wars occurring in the middle of 14th century in Fujian under the Yuan dynasty. The term Ispahmight derive from the Persian word "سپاه" (sepâh), meaning "army" or "Sepoy". Thus, the rebellion is also known as thePersian Sepoy rebellion (波斯戍兵之乱; Bōsī Shùbīng zhī Luàn) in Chinese documents. UnderMongolrule, the number of ArabandPersianMuslimsresiding in the Chinese port city of Quanzhouwas greatly boosted. In 1357, a predominantly Muslim army led by two Quanzhou Muslims, Sayf ad-Din (赛甫丁) and Amir ad-Din (阿迷里丁), revolted against the Yuan dynasty. In defiance of imperial forces, the army seized control of Quanzhou (present day Putian), and even reached the provincial capital, Fuzhou. In 1362, the Ispah army collapsed into internal conflict and was eventually crushed in 1366 by the Han Chinese commander Chen Youding (陈友定), who was loyal to the Yuan dynasty.- The Red Turban Rebellion (Chinese: 紅巾起義; pinyin: Hóngjīn Qǐyì) was an uprising influenced by the White Lotus Society members that, between 1351 and 1368, targeted the ruling Yuan dynasty of China, eventually leading to its overthrow.The Red Turban Army (紅巾軍) was originally started by the followers of White Lotus and Manichaeism and was founded by Guo Zixing (郭子興) to resist the Mongols. The name "Red Turban" was used because of their tradition of using red banners and wearing red turbans to distinguish themselves. 紅巾の乱（こうきんのらん、繁体字: 紅巾起義、拼音: Hóngjīn Qǐyì、1351年 - 1366年）は、中国元末期の1351年（至正11年）に起こった宗教的農民反乱。白蓮教を紐帯とし、目印として紅い布を付けた事からこの名がある。反乱軍は紅巾賊または白蓮教徒が弥勒に焼香をするため香軍と呼ばれる。この大乱の中から明の太祖朱元璋が登場することとなる。1351年、白蓮教の教祖韓山童は北宋徽宗の末裔を名乗り、河南で黄河の土木工事に従事していた人夫達を扇動して反乱を企てたが、挙兵直前に発覚し韓山童は処刑された。劉福通らは韓山童の息子韓林児を擁立して蜂起し、1355年には小明王とし、国号を宋、年号を龍鳳とした。さらに杜遵道を丞相、劉福通は平章となった。安徽の郭子興などが呼応したが、紅巾軍の本体である宋とは行動を別にしそれぞれが自らの勢力拡大を狙って割拠して、首領たちが白蓮教を信仰していたかも怪しまれる。またこれとは別に、湖北で僧侶彭榮玉に祭り上げられた徐寿輝がいち早く1351年には皇帝を名乗っており、国号を天完、年号を治平とした。両者を区別するために前者を東系紅巾、後者を西系紅巾と呼ぶことがある。一般に東系紅巾は騎兵、もしくは歩兵による戦いを得意とし、西系紅巾は水軍を中心とした戦いを得意とする傾向があった。Les principaux généraux impériaux luttant contre les rebelles furent Hesi (赫廝), Tuchi (禿赤), Esen Temür (zh) (也先帖木儿/也先帖木兒), Kuanchege (寬徹哥), Jialu (zh) (賈魯), Boluo Temür (zh) (Бээр Төмөр/Beer Tömör ou Бээру Төмөр/Beeru Tömör, 孛罗帖木儿/孛羅帖木兒) ; ils reçurent l'aide de potentats locaux comme Dashibadulu (答失八都魯), le OuïgourChahan Temur (zh) (Цагаантөмөр, 察罕帖木儿/察罕帖木兒) et les Hans Li Siqi (zh) (李思齐/李思齊) et Zhang Liangbi (張良弼). Unter den Rebellenorganisationen hatten die Roten Turbane (hóngjīn 红巾) das größte Ansehen, sie waren der stärkste militärische Arm der Rebellen. Der erste Anführer der Roten Turbane war Han Shantong, der Enkel eines Weißer Lotus-Führers, der den Aufstand im Huai-Gebiet leitete, als die Inkarnation des zukünftigen Buddha Maitreya angesehen und als Nachkomme der Song ausgegeben wurde. Ihm schloss sich dann 1352 Guo Zixing an, der Sohn eines Wahrsagers, der schon 1355 starb. Han Shantong selbst wurde von mongolischen Truppen gestellt und getötet, seine Frau und sein junger Sohn Han Lin’er entkamen.
Historical records- 元大德《昌国州图志》- 元延祐《四明志》- 元至正《四明续志》- 《蒙古黄金史》，亦译称《蒙古黄金史纲》、《阿勒坦·托卜赤》。为别于无名氏的《黄金史纲》，俗称《大黄金史》，是蒙古族的编年史，蒙古族学者罗卜藏丹津著，成书于明末清初，是一部承上启下较为完整的古代蒙古史，书中记述了蒙古族从古代至明末清初的历史，书的前半部转录了《蒙古秘史》全书282节中的233节，补充了蒙古族兴起前后的一些历史和其他内容。后半部主要利用了无名氏的《黄金史纲》等书，对窝阔台之后至明末清初的蒙古史作了较为完备的记述和补充。由于作者笃信佛教，书中充满了浓厚的佛教色彩。但仍不失为研究蒙古史，特别是明代蒙古史的重要著作。- 《蒙古源流》是蒙古编年体通史，共八卷，作者薩冈，成書於清康熙元年（1662年）。蒙古源流分为前言、正编、后记三部分，以“喇嘛佛教為綱，以各汗徒之世係為緯”，根據《古昔蒙古汗等源流大黃冊》等7種蒙、藏文資料寫成，是研究蒙古史和鄂尔多斯历史的重要史料。乾隆三十一年（1766年）蒙古喀爾喀部親王成袞扎布將《蒙古源流》的抄本進獻乾隆，乾隆下旨譯成滿文，后又译成汉文，定名为《钦定蒙古源流》，收入《四库全书》。in popular culture
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《迎春阁之风波》由胡金铨执导，洪金宝动作导演，李丽华、田丰、徐枫、乔宏、茅瑛、胡锦、白鹰、上官灵凤、马海伦、韩英杰、吴明才等人主演的动作武侠电影[1]，该片于1973年出品。[2]胡金铨被后世称为《客栈四部曲》的最终曲，描写元末汉人反蒙在迎春阁客栈展开的一场斗智斗力的血腥厮杀。元朝未年，朱元漳率众反抗元朝统治，其部下沈天松企图将朱的布兵图献给蒙古王爷李察罕。李察罕率高手前往陕西接头，反元志士与陕西迎春阁客栈主人万人迷商量对策，并乔装打扮，严阵以待，准备捉拿内奸并夺回布兵图。李察罕也带人住进迎春阁客栈，沈天松献图后即被活捉。女侠黑牡丹前往李察罕处盗取布兵图，却误取了另一文件；她的同党小辣椒在将文件放回原处时遭到杀害。李察罕查觉后亲自查看，双方斗智斗力，短兵相接，展开一场鏖战。after being "overthrown" by ming dynasty- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Chinese-exact-revenge-on-the-Mongols-when-the-Mongol-rule-of-China-ended in 1479, a Mongol prince from Genghis’ own bloodline, Batumongke, came to power as a young man, and spent the next 31 years repeating the work of his illustrions ancestor, reuniting the Mongol peoples. He proclaimed the restoration of the Yuan, and is known to history today as Dayan Khan, the former name making reference to his claim to the Yuan heritage (Da-Yuan means “Great Yuan.”). He didn’t try to reclaim China at first, but when he sent envoys to the Emperor trying to negotiate trade agreements and one of them was killed, Dayan Khan took that as a declaration of war, and was at war with the Ming from about 1500 onward, even before he had finished off the last opposition at home.Starting in about 1510, he regained many of the territories that had been under Chinese rule since 1388. In 1517, he tried to reclaim what he saw as his birthright, advancing on Beijing itself, and was repulsed only with difficulty. This was the high-water mark of Mongol power after 1368. Dayan Khan was able to hold pretty much everything north of the line that the Great Wall of China was built upon, but he couldn’t retake China. The Ming tacitly accepted the return of Mongol military power and started building the Wall as we see it today during Dayan Khan’s reign as Great Khan.Dayan Khan’s successors maintained Mongol independence until 1635, when they were conquered by the Qing, who then turned south against the Ming and conquered them as well in 1644, finally reuniting the Chinese Empire as it had existed in the days of Kubilai Khan.
india- 中国宋元时期称malabar coast为马八儿国。元忽必烈时期，马八儿国曾进献一毛色黑白相间的动物，名为阿塔必即。
