- 香港大學理學會生態學及生物多樣性學會八名成員，埋首搜集資料，整理出名為《毒木不木獨：有毒植物遊》的考察指南http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20180905/00176_082.html
- Commonly known as hellebores /ˈhɛlɪbɔːrz/, the Eurasian genus Helleborus consists of approximately 20 species of herbaceous or evergreenperennial flowering plants in the family Ranunculaceae, within which it gave its name to the tribe of Helleboreae. The scientific name Helleborusderives from the Greek name for H. orientalis, ἑλλέβορος helléboros, from elein "to injure" and βορά borá "food". Many species are poisonous. Despite names such as "winter rose", "Christmas rose" and "Lenten rose", hellebores are not closely related to the rose family (Rosaceae). 寒芍薬(カンシャクヤク)の和名も持つ。 Various species of this genus originated in Europe and Asia. The greatest concentration of species occurs in the Balkans. One atypical species (H. thibetanus) comes from western China; another atypical species (H. vesicarius) inhabits a small area on the border between Turkey and Syria.
- Several legends surround the hellebore; in witchcraft it is believed to have ties to summoning demons.[citation needed] Helleborus niger is commonly called the Christmas rose, due to an old legend that it sprouted in the snow from the tears of a young girl who had no gift to give the Christ child in Bethlehem. In Greek mythology, Melampus of Pylos used hellebore to save the daughters of the king of Argos from a madness, induced by Dionysus, that caused them to run naked through the city, crying, weeping, and screaming.[citation needed] During the Siege of Kirrha in 585 BC, hellebore was reportedly used by the Greek besiegers to poison the city's water supply. The defenders were subsequently so weakened by diarrhea that they were unable to defend the city from assault.
- 種により成分は異なるが、ジギタリスに似て強心配糖体ヘレブリンなどの毒を葉・根茎に含む。むかしは民間で強心剤・下剤・堕胎薬などとして使われた。摂取すると、嘔吐、腹痛、下痢、けいれん、呼吸麻痺、めまい、精神錯乱、心拍数の低下、心停止などをひき起こす。また、目や口・のどなどの粘膜がただれたり腫れあがったりする。
- 聖誕玫瑰它是美 稱，起源於歐洲國家，在西方被稱為嚏根草（ Helleborus），在我國則又被稱為鐵筷子花。 其實歐洲嚏根草有許多種，能被稱為 Christmas Rose的是黑花嚏根草。其實，熟悉 哈利．波特系列故事的讀者，應該對這種植物 並不陌生才是。在《哈利．波特與鳳凰社》中 就曾提到五年級的魔藥課上要配製一份緩和劑 ，緩和劑的原料不多，只需月長石粉和兩滴嚏 根草糖漿，操作時如果嚏根草糖漿放多了，藥 效太過強烈，紓緩過頭，會讓人昏睡不醒。聖誕玫瑰的 花語是 「追憶的愛情」，而這，恰是斯內普教 授一生感情生活的痛苦寫照，他對哈利．波特 的母親莉莉的愛情纏繞了他的一生，莉莉死後 ，他依舊沉浸在對莉莉的懷念裏，至死方休。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20171228/PDF/b12_screen.pdf
- note the use of herb to heal in Jonah chapter 4 v6-10
- http://www.dw.com/en/cologne-ricin-plot-bigger-than-initially-suspected/a-44319328 Federal prosecutors have found more than 3,000 castor bean seeds in the suspect's Cologne apartment — many more than initially suspected. They say the Tunisian was planning to make a biological weapon using ricin.
- [horrible histories] nurses (jamaican origin) served british soldiers in crimea against russia (19thc) used castor oil as treatment fir constipation
有毒植物不能忽略，讓我一一介紹， 以免誤觸或誤吃而引起皮膚敏感或中毒，如羊 角拗、曼陀羅、斷腸草、馬錢子、山菅蘭、癲 茄、馬櫻丹、漆樹、山橙、海芒果、白花丹、 馬利筋、夾竹桃、海芋、酢漿草、牽牛花等http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/11/19/a14-1119.pdf
http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/12/10/b04-1210.pdf山菅蘭, 癲茄（茄科）, 馬纓丹, 漆
董棕 Caryota urens is a species of flowering plant in the palm family from the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia where they grow in fields and rainforest clearings. The epithet urens is Latin for "stinging" alluding to the chemicals in the fruit. They are commonly called solitary fishtail palm, toddy palm, wine palm, jaggery palm. කිතුල් - Kithul in Sinhala, கூந்தற்பனை - Koonthal Panai in Tamil, ಬೈನೆ ಮರ in Kannada, ചൂണ്ടപ്പന - Choondappana in Malayalam চাউর in Bengali,. Its leaf is used as fishing rod after trimming the branches of the leaf and drying. According to Monier-Williams, it is called moha-karin ("delusion maker") in Sanskrit. It is one of the sugar palms.This species is called kithul (කිතුල්) in Sri Lanka. It is the source of kithul treacle, a liquid jaggery.[1] Toddy is extracted from the inflorescence, and is considered some what powerful compared to toddy extracted from few other palm trees. Pulp of the fully grown up plant is cut, sun dried, powdered and is edible. It is sweet in taste.[2][3] This powder is considered cool and nutritious in Coastal districts of Karnataka. In Sri Lanka, the powder is mixed with coconut milk and cooked to make Kithul Thalapa (කිතුල් තලප).
The Papaveraceae
- poppy
-シベリアヒナゲシ（西比利亜雛罌粟）Papaver nudicaule (syn. Papaver croceum, P. miyabeanum, P. amurense, and P. macounii), the Iceland poppy, is a boreal flowering plant. Native to subpolar regions of Europe, Asia and North America, and the mountains of Central Asia[5] (but not in Iceland), Iceland poppiesare hardy but short-lived perennials, often grown as biennials, that yield large, papery, bowl-shaped, lightly fragrant flowers supported by hairy, one foot, curved stems among feathery blue-green foliage 1-6 inches long. All parts of this plant are likely to be poisonous, containing (like all poppies) toxic alkaloids. In particular, P. nudicaule has been shown to contain the benzophenanthidine alkaloid, chelidonine.[14] It also contains (+)-amurine, (-)-amurensinine, (-)-O-methylthalisopavine, (-)-flavinantine and (-)-amurensine.
冰島罌粟是罌粟類花卉中最適合做切花的種類，在適當的時候採收及處理，可以使切花的瓶插壽命持續數天。
Hashish is not as popular as weed, but as its THC-infused cousin, it’s definitely worth the try. Milder and more refined as a high, hash is well-suited for your daily activities.For starters, hash is made from the cannabis plant, it’s just obtained through a different process than weed. For weed, you dry out the plant, and take the savoury buds, gleaming with pollen full of THC.To get hash however, there’s several methods used to get the brown block. The Morrocan method uses a sieve to sift out the pollen from the dry bulb. This process is then repeated over and over with more and more pressure and finer sieves until the product that emerges at the end is the famous block hashish. That is, however, just one method of making hash.There’s many different methods, some traditional and some of the DIY, at-home variety. Hashish first arrived in Europe back in the 18th Century, but back then it was more of a curiosity than a daily habit of people. By the 19th Century, however, hashish was widespread in certain literary circles throughout Europe. Some famous French writers of the time, such as Victor Hugo, Baudelaire and Alexandre Dumas loved the sticky hash, and they all consumed it in a literary club called theClub des Hashischins. Using drugs to enhance creativity, anyone?The international trade of hashish started later in the 20th Century. Pakistan and Afghanistan used to be one of the major exporters of hashish, but after conflicts in the region, Morroco took over the international market. They managed to maintain quasi-monopoly until around the ’90s, but Afghanistan is now considered the biggest producer of higher quality hashish.
https://dutchreview.com/culture/best-hash-amsterdam/
夾竹桃 Nerium oleander /ˈnɪəriəm ˈoʊliːændər/, most commonly known as nerium or oleanderSeveral compounds in nerium exhibit toxicity, and it has historically been considered a poisonous plant. However, its bitterness renders it unpalatable to humans and most animals, so poisoning cases are rare and the general risk for human mortality is low. Ingestion of larger amounts may cause nausea, vomiting, excess salivation, abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea and irregular heart rhythm. Prolonged contact with sap may cause skin irritation, eye inflamation and dermatitis.The genus name Nerium is the Latinized form of the Ancient Greek name for the plant Nerion (νήριον), which is in turn derived from the Greek for water, 'neros' (νηρός), because of the natural habitat of the oleander along rivers and streams. The word oleander appears as far back as the first century AD, when the Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides cited it as one of the terms used by the Romans for the plant.[3] Merriam-Webster believes the word is a Medieval Latin corruption of Late Latin names for the plant: arodandrum or lorandrum, or more plausibly rhododendron (another Ancient Greek name for the plant), with the addition of olea because of the superficial resemblance to the olive tree (Olea europea)[Note 1][4][5] Another theory posited is that oleanderis the Latinized form of a Greek compound noun: οllyo (ὀλλύω) 'I kill', and the Greek noun for man, aner, genitive andros (ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός).[6] ascribed to the Oleander's toxicity to humans.The etymological association of oleander with the bay laurel has continued into the modern day: in France the plant is known as "laurier rose", while the Spanish term, "Adelfa", is the descendant of the original Ancient Greek name for both the bay laurel and the oleander, daphne, which subsequently passed into Arabic usage and thence to Spain.The ancient city of Volubilis in Morocco may have taken its name from the Berber name alilior oualilt for the flower.
檳榔（Areca catechu）別名儐郎、賓門、螺果、仁頻、仁榔、洗瘴丹、仙瘴丹 The areca nut (/ˈærɪkə/ or /əˈriːkə/) is the fruit of the areca palm (Areca catechu), which grows in much of the tropical Pacific (Melanesiaand Micronesia), Southeast and South Asia, and parts of east Africa. This fruit is commonly referred to as betel nut so it is easily confused with betel (Piper betle) leaves that are often used to wrap it (paan). The term areca originated from the Malayalam word adakka (അടക്ക) and dates from the 16th century, when Dutch and Portuguese sailors took the nut from Kerala to Europe. Consumption has many harmful effects on health and is carcinogenic to humans. Various compounds present in the nut, including arecoline (the primary psychoactive ingredient which is similar to nicotine), contribute to histologic changes in the oral mucosa. It is known to be a major risk factor for cancers (squamous cell carcinoma) of the mouth and esophagus (food pipe).
- economist 3oct2020 "hard to crack" a risky stimulant thrives in china's captial of chewing (xiangtan)
- economist 3oct2020 "hard to crack" a risky stimulant thrives in china's captial of chewing (xiangtan)
董棕 Caryota urens is a species of flowering plant in the palm family from the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia where they grow in fields and rainforest clearings. The epithet urens is Latin for "stinging" alluding to the chemicals in the fruit. They are commonly called solitary fishtail palm, toddy palm, wine palm, jaggery palm. කිතුල් - Kithul in Sinhala, கூந்தற்பனை - Koonthal Panai in Tamil, ಬೈನೆ ಮರ in Kannada, ചൂണ്ടപ്പന - Choondappana in Malayalam চাউর in Bengali,. Its leaf is used as fishing rod after trimming the branches of the leaf and drying. According to Monier-Williams, it is called moha-karin ("delusion maker") in Sanskrit. It is one of the sugar palms.This species is called kithul (කිතුල්) in Sri Lanka. It is the source of kithul treacle, a liquid jaggery.[1] Toddy is extracted from the inflorescence, and is considered some what powerful compared to toddy extracted from few other palm trees. Pulp of the fully grown up plant is cut, sun dried, powdered and is edible. It is sweet in taste.[2][3] This powder is considered cool and nutritious in Coastal districts of Karnataka. In Sri Lanka, the powder is mixed with coconut milk and cooked to make Kithul Thalapa (කිතුල් තලප).
- 孔雀椰子 in cantonese
大麻Cannabis, also known as marijuana among other names, is a psychoactive drug from the Cannabis plant used for medical or recreational purposes. The main psychoactive part of cannabis is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), one of 483 known compounds in the plant,[ including at least 65 other cannabinoids.[20] Cannabis can be used by smoking, vaporizing, within food, or as an extract. Cannabis has mental and physical effects, such as creating a "high" or "stoned" feeling, a general change in perception, heightened mood, and an increase in appetite. The earliest recorded uses date from the 3rd millennium BC.
- Cannabis is indigenous to Central Asia[188] and the Indian subcontinent, and its use for fabric and rope dates back to the Neolithic age in China and Japan.Cannabis was known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Iranians.[193] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word "cannabis". The Iranians also introduced cannabis to the Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai—"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce trance.[195] The plant was used in China before 2800 BC, and found therapeutic use in India by 1000 BC.
- The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912 during the First International Opium Conference, was the first international drug control treaty. It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on January 23, 1922.[1] The United States convened a 13-nation conference of the International Opium Commission in 1909 in Shanghai, China in response to increasing criticism of the opium trade. The treaty was signed by Germany, the United States, China, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Persia, Portugal, Russia, and Siam. The Convention provided, "The contracting Powers shall use their best endeavours to control, or to cause to be controlled, all persons manufacturing, importing, selling, distributing, and exporting morphine, cocaine, and their respective salts, as well as the buildings in which these persons carry such an industry or trade."The Convention was implemented in 1915 by the United States, Netherlands, China, Honduras, and Norway. It went into force globally in 1919, when it was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles. The primary objective of the convention was to introduce restrictions on exports as opposed to imposing prohibition or criminalising the use and cultivation of opium, coca, and cannabis. That explains the withdrawal of the United States and China, which were gravitating towards prohibitionist approaches, as well as the beginning of negotiations leading to the 1925 International Opium Convention in Geneva. A revised International Opium Convention International Convention relating to Dangerous Drugs was signed at Geneva on February 19, 1925, which went into effect on September 25, 1938, and was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on the same day.[3][4] It introduced a statistical control system to be supervised by a Permanent Central Opium Board, a body of the League of Nations. Egypt, with support from China and United States, recommended that a prohibition on hashish be added to the Convention.
- 大麻最主要的生物活性成分是四氫大麻酚（THC），這是一種致幻且可以會令人上癮的物質，其次是大麻二酚（CBD），它缺乏明顯的精神作用，但可能具有止痛抗痙攣等功效，因此被用於醫療用途。大麻在植物學上包括三大類。從用途上分，可分為工業大麻、醫用大麻和休閒性大麻（毒品），其中有些種類是多用途的。從地域上分，原產於中國的大麻（漢麻）、印度大麻、西方大麻也不是完全同樣的種類。中國人幾千年來都在合法種植漢麻，即工業大麻，包括將其纖維用以織布或紡線，製繩索，編織漁網和造紙。漢麻還可以提取食用油，用於化工、醫藥、建築、飼料等用途。由於耕種培育方式和目的的不同，漢麻和毒品大麻演變成了兩種外觀和內質都不同的植物。是否是毒品大麻，關鍵在於這種大麻中所含的毒品成分THC的含量有多少。中國漢麻中THC的含量低於0.3%。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20181227/PDF/a23_screen.pdf
- Cannabis is indigenous to Central Asia[188] and the Indian subcontinent, and its use for fabric and rope dates back to the Neolithic age in China and Japan.Cannabis was known to the ancient Assyrians, who discovered its psychoactive properties through the Iranians.[193] Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu (meaning "way to produce smoke"), a probable origin of the modern word "cannabis". The Iranians also introduced cannabis to the Scythians, Thracians and Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai—"those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned cannabis flowers to induce trance.[195] The plant was used in China before 2800 BC, and found therapeutic use in India by 1000 BC.
- The International Opium Convention, signed at The Hague on January 23, 1912 during the First International Opium Conference, was the first international drug control treaty. It was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on January 23, 1922.[1] The United States convened a 13-nation conference of the International Opium Commission in 1909 in Shanghai, China in response to increasing criticism of the opium trade. The treaty was signed by Germany, the United States, China, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Persia, Portugal, Russia, and Siam. The Convention provided, "The contracting Powers shall use their best endeavours to control, or to cause to be controlled, all persons manufacturing, importing, selling, distributing, and exporting morphine, cocaine, and their respective salts, as well as the buildings in which these persons carry such an industry or trade."The Convention was implemented in 1915 by the United States, Netherlands, China, Honduras, and Norway. It went into force globally in 1919, when it was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles. The primary objective of the convention was to introduce restrictions on exports as opposed to imposing prohibition or criminalising the use and cultivation of opium, coca, and cannabis. That explains the withdrawal of the United States and China, which were gravitating towards prohibitionist approaches, as well as the beginning of negotiations leading to the 1925 International Opium Convention in Geneva. A revised International Opium Convention International Convention relating to Dangerous Drugs was signed at Geneva on February 19, 1925, which went into effect on September 25, 1938, and was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on the same day.[3][4] It introduced a statistical control system to be supervised by a Permanent Central Opium Board, a body of the League of Nations. Egypt, with support from China and United States, recommended that a prohibition on hashish be added to the Convention.
- 大麻最主要的生物活性成分是四氫大麻酚（THC），這是一種致幻且可以會令人上癮的物質，其次是大麻二酚（CBD），它缺乏明顯的精神作用，但可能具有止痛抗痙攣等功效，因此被用於醫療用途。大麻在植物學上包括三大類。從用途上分，可分為工業大麻、醫用大麻和休閒性大麻（毒品），其中有些種類是多用途的。從地域上分，原產於中國的大麻（漢麻）、印度大麻、西方大麻也不是完全同樣的種類。中國人幾千年來都在合法種植漢麻，即工業大麻，包括將其纖維用以織布或紡線，製繩索，編織漁網和造紙。漢麻還可以提取食用油，用於化工、醫藥、建築、飼料等用途。由於耕種培育方式和目的的不同，漢麻和毒品大麻演變成了兩種外觀和內質都不同的植物。是否是毒品大麻，關鍵在於這種大麻中所含的毒品成分THC的含量有多少。中國漢麻中THC的含量低於0.3%。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20181227/PDF/a23_screen.pdf
- 以色列考古團隊在五十多年前，於南部古城阿拉德出土一座有逾二千七百年歷史的神殿，但殿內祭壇上殘存的不明黑色物質的成分一直未被驗明。當地科學團隊上周發表最新研究報告，利用現今技術終發現，該物質含有大麻殘餘物。考古學界視為革命性發現，認為是首次為古代猶太人在宗教儀式使用迷幻藥提供證據。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200603/00180_033.html
- ******* economist 24oct2020 "weed killers" god shiva is supposed to have discovered marijuana; victorian india exported ganja to jamaica with indentured labourers in 1st half of 19thc; oldest references to cannabis use are from hindu vedas - hemp's high 3000 years ago; kiosks around india sell bhang, a mildly psychoactive paste made from its leaves; respectable hindu families share tumblers of a bhang-based drink to celebrate spring festivals of holi, as do teetotal sufi muslims
- 瑞士傳媒報道，當地警方近月頻截獲大量來自中國的「合成大麻」。該種大麻是人工合成的假大麻，吸食者容易心悸氣短、心肌梗塞，喪失意識，吸食過量會死亡，該種合成大麻素的製作過程簡單，只需在園藝店購買噴霧器，將多種非大麻植物製作的粉末溶於水中，噴灑在大麻花朵表面，溶劑蒸發後，會在花朵上形成薄膜。專家指這種混合物，堪稱由各種合成物調製而成的「致命雞尾酒」，對人體傷害極大。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200823/00178_007.html
- 瑞士傳媒報道，當地警方近月頻截獲大量來自中國的「合成大麻」。該種大麻是人工合成的假大麻，吸食者容易心悸氣短、心肌梗塞，喪失意識，吸食過量會死亡，該種合成大麻素的製作過程簡單，只需在園藝店購買噴霧器，將多種非大麻植物製作的粉末溶於水中，噴灑在大麻花朵表面，溶劑蒸發後，會在花朵上形成薄膜。專家指這種混合物，堪稱由各種合成物調製而成的「致命雞尾酒」，對人體傷害極大。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200823/00178_007.html
Cannabis sativa is indigenous to eastern Asia. It has been cultivated throughout recorded history, used as a source of industrial fiber, seed oil, food, recreation, religious and spiritual moods and medicine. Each part of the plant is harvested differently, depending on the purpose of its use. The species was first classified by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The word "sativa" means things that are cultivated.大麻是大麻屬植物的物種之一，中國古稱麻、枲、苴、漢麻、火麻或黃麻，又稱為大麻草，尋常大麻[6]、苜蓿大麻[7]。大麻使用者慣稱Sativa（與indica（印度大麻）相對比）。在亞述文中，大麻稱為qunnabu，在西元前一千年的亞述文獻中，記載大麻子可食用與榨油，大麻可作為藥用。拉丁文中cannabis的字根來自古希臘語：kánnabis，在希羅多德著《歷史》一書中，曾提到斯基泰人有種植大麻的習慣。大麻在印度與阿拉伯地區也有長久的種植歷史，梵文稱為ganja，特別是使用於宗教用途之上，作成煙卷來吸食。在大航海時代，西班牙人由印度與阿拉伯學到吸食大麻煙的傳統，並傳播至美洲地區。英語，丹麥語與挪威語稱為hemp，這個單字在日耳曼語系中皆有類似拼法，可用來泛指任何可以作為纖維作物的植物，也被當成用來專指大麻。在英語世界中，於19世紀前，主要用cannabis或hemp來稱呼大麻。在20世紀初，美國興起對抗毒品的風潮，並將大麻列為毒品之中，開始以英語：marijuana來稱呼它，這個名稱可能來自墨西哥。
印度大麻（Cannabis indica），俗稱秈稻大麻，是大麻屬下的一個品種，學者對於它是否是一種獨立物種，尚有爭議，目前多被視為是尋常大麻（Cannabis sativa）的亞種[1]。莖、葉與花含有豐富的四氫大麻酚（THC），可用於醫學與娛樂性藥物使用。Indica源自於興都庫什山脈hindu kush。使用indica普遍會有睏倦、眼紅、食慾增強的感受。由於此類感受並無興奮感。所以經常有人誤認為此類感覺是大麻二酚（CBD）的作用，從而誤認為indica的CBD含量高於THC含量。但實際上此類感受是四氫大麻酚（THC）的麻醉作用。相比同樣含有高THC的娛樂用sativa的思維活躍、健談等體驗，實是因為萜烯當中的月桂烯含量差異，indica的月桂烯含量相比較sativa而言高出很多，所以會造成兩類大麻植株的巨大差異。
- poppy
- 雖然罌粟被稱之為「惡之花」，但其在醫學上卻是緩解人類病痛的良藥。記者2日從西安交通大學獲悉，該校葉凱青年科學家工作室團隊聯合英國研究人員，日前在國際上首次公布鴉片罌粟的高質量全基因組序列，從而破譯罌粟封存億萬年的基因密碼，這也為進一步開發罌粟藥用價值奠定了重要基礎。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20180903/PDF/a17_screen.pdf
- The Poppy was adopted s the symbol of WW1 because it was one of the first plants to recolonise the battlefields and its red colour was symbolic of the bloodshed. But the Poppy has evolved from simply representing WW1 to its modern connotation of representing the fallen from all conflicts since WW1 https://www.quora.com/In-the-UK-does-the-poppy-symbolize-WW1-and-WW2-or-just-the-former-Wasn-t-WW2-an-even-bigger-war
冰島罌粟是罌粟類花卉中最適合做切花的種類，在適當的時候採收及處理，可以使切花的瓶插壽命持續數天。
- very detailed japanese wikipedia version
- roman times
- opium was widely prescribed by doctors (above all as a sleep aid), and could be readily purchased (Galen mentions a good opium seller just off the Via Sacra in the Roman Forum). The first-century physician Dioscorides describes various preparations of opium:"[Poppy] leaves and heads (boiled in water and applied with hot cloths) cause sleep. A decoction is taken as a drink against lack of sleep. The heads (pounded into small pieces and mixed into poultices with polenta) are good for inflammation and erysipela [streptococcal skin infection]. It is necessary for those who beat them when they are green to make them into tablets, dry them for storage, and then use them. The heads are boiled alone in water until half, and then boiled again with honey until the dullness is thickened, make a licking medicine soothing for coughs, dripping fluids in the throat, and abdominal afflictions." (4.64)Despite its many uses, Dioscorides notes, opium use has its dangers:"A little of it...is a pain-easer, a sleep-causer, and a digester, helping coughs and abdominal cavity afflictions. Taken as a drink too often it hurts (making men lethargic) and it kills." (4.64)The soporific and hallucinogenic effects of opium seem, in fact, to have been widely recognized. Magical papyri discovered in Egypt, for example, describe how to create an opium-based potion that will cast one's enemies into an "evil sleep."The Romans do not seem to have realized, however, that opium was addictive. Although it is clear that some Romans (like Marcus Aurelius) became dependent, we hear nothing about opium addicts or anything resembling a drug subculture. Opium use, accordingly was neither regulated nor stigmatized. When it was available, it was used without reservation to beckon sleep or dampen pain.https://www.quora.com/Marcus-Aurelius-one-of-the-five-good-emperors-and-author-of-Meditations-is-known-to-have-been-addicted-to-opium-was-opium-use-common-among-the-elites-at-the-time-Would-the-general-public-have-had-access-to-it
- called 楊貴妃花(양귀비꽃) in korea
Hashish is not as popular as weed, but as its THC-infused cousin, it’s definitely worth the try. Milder and more refined as a high, hash is well-suited for your daily activities.For starters, hash is made from the cannabis plant, it’s just obtained through a different process than weed. For weed, you dry out the plant, and take the savoury buds, gleaming with pollen full of THC.To get hash however, there’s several methods used to get the brown block. The Morrocan method uses a sieve to sift out the pollen from the dry bulb. This process is then repeated over and over with more and more pressure and finer sieves until the product that emerges at the end is the famous block hashish. That is, however, just one method of making hash.There’s many different methods, some traditional and some of the DIY, at-home variety. Hashish first arrived in Europe back in the 18th Century, but back then it was more of a curiosity than a daily habit of people. By the 19th Century, however, hashish was widespread in certain literary circles throughout Europe. Some famous French writers of the time, such as Victor Hugo, Baudelaire and Alexandre Dumas loved the sticky hash, and they all consumed it in a literary club called theClub des Hashischins. Using drugs to enhance creativity, anyone?The international trade of hashish started later in the 20th Century. Pakistan and Afghanistan used to be one of the major exporters of hashish, but after conflicts in the region, Morroco took over the international market. They managed to maintain quasi-monopoly until around the ’90s, but Afghanistan is now considered the biggest producer of higher quality hashish.
https://dutchreview.com/culture/best-hash-amsterdam/
The manchineel tree (Hippomane mancinella) is a species of flowering plant in the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae). Its native range stretches from tropical southern North America to northern South America.The name "manchineel" (sometimes written "manchioneel") as well as the specific epithet mancinella is from Spanish manzanilla ("little apple"), from the superficial resemblance of its fruit and leaves to those of an apple tree. A present-day Spanish name is manzanilla de la muerte, "little apple of death." This refers to the fact that manchineel is one of the most dangerous trees in the world. Manchineel is also known as the beach apple.Manchineel is native to the Caribbean, the U.S. state of Florida, The Bahamas, Mexico, Central America, and northern South America.The manchineel tree can be found on coastal beaches and in brackish swamps where it grows among mangroves. It provides excellent natural windbreaks and its roots stabilize the sand, thus retarding beach erosion.毒番石榴，学名Hippomane mancinella，又名马疯大戟木，是一種属於大戟科烏桕族的喬木植物，原生於美國佛羅里達州、巴哈馬群島、加勒比海、中美洲及南美洲北部等[1]新热带界地區[2]，有劇毒。其纹理细密的黄褐色木材常被用来做家具。
- マンチニールには危険な毒性があるにもかかわらず、カリブ海地域の大工の間では何世紀にも渡って建材として使用されている。建材として利用するためには、切り倒した後、樹液が完全に乾ききるまで太陽光によって乾燥させる必要がある。また、樹皮からゴムを作ることが可能であり、伝えられるところによれば浮腫の治療を行うことが出来るという。また乾燥させた果実は、利尿薬として利用されている[5]。
- In Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera L'Africaine (1865), the heroine Sélika dies by inhaling the perfume of the manchineel tree's blossoms.
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-most-terrifying-organic-species
Erythroxylum coca is one of two species of cultivated coca. 古柯樹（Coca），一種灌木，原生於南美洲的西北部秘魯一帶，葉中含有古柯鹼[1]，可用於提取可卡因，作為麻醉藥，也可作為毒品，在當地原住民的傳統文化中曾起過很重要的作用。可以用來提煉可卡因，做為藥用麻醉劑的用途。可以用來提煉可卡因，作為毒品用途，是世界上已知的違禁品。曾經用來提煉可口可樂（Coca-Cola）的部分成份，在可口可樂問世時可卡因（Cocaine）和咖啡因（Caffeine）是可口可樂眾多成分的其中兩個，可卡因來自古柯葉（Coca leaf），咖啡因來自可樂果（Kola nut），這也是可口可樂名字的由來，不過後來可卡因不再被採用。古柯葉可以補充營養、解除疲勞與飢餓、對抗高山症，也可以當成藥物使用，但允許種植、使用古柯葉，並不讓其成為毒品提煉原料是很困難的。
- Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant most frequently used as a recreational drug.[10] It is commonly snorted, inhaled as smoke, or dissolved and injected into a vein.[9]Mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation.[9] Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, and large pupils.[9]High doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature.[11] Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes.[9] Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery. Coca leaves are typically mixed with an alkaline substance (such as lime) and chewed into a wad that is retained in the mouth between gum and cheek (much the same as chewing tobacco is chewed) and sucked of its juices. The juices are absorbed slowly by the mucous membrane of the inner cheek and by the gastrointestinal tract when swallowed. Alternatively, coca leaves can be infused in liquid and consumed like tea. Ingesting coca leaves generally is an inefficient means of administering cocaine. Because cocaine is hydrolyzed and rendered inactive in the acidic stomach, it is not readily absorbed when ingested alone. Only when mixed with a highly alkaline substance (such as lime) can it be absorbed into the bloodstream through the stomach. The efficiency of absorption of orally administered cocaine is limited by two additional factors. First, the drug is partly catabolized by the liver. Second, capillaries in the mouth and esophagus constrict after contact with the drug, reducing the surface area over which the drug can be absorbed. Nevertheless, cocaine metabolites can be detected in the urine of subjects that have sipped even one cup of coca leaf infusion.Orally administered cocaine takes approximately 30 minutes to enter the bloodstream. Typically, only a third of an oral dose is absorbed, although absorption has been shown to reach 60% in controlled settings. Given the slow rate of absorption, maximum physiologicaland psychotropic effects are attained approximately 60 minutes after cocaine is administered by ingestion. While the onset of these effects is slow, the effects are sustained for approximately 60 minutes after their peak is attained
Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the Nicotiana genus and the Solanaceae(nightshade) family, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of the tobacco plant. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used around the world.The English word tobacco originates from the Spanish and Portuguese word tabaco. The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived at least in part, from Taíno, the Arawakanlanguage of the Caribbean.
- Flue-cured tobacco is a type of cigarette tobacco. Along with burley tobacco, it accounts for more than 90% of US tobacco production. Flue-cured farming is centered in North Carolina. 烤烟亦称火管烤烟，源于美国的弗吉尼亚州，具有特殊的形态特征，因而也被称为弗吉尼亚型。烤烟是我国也是世界上栽培面积最大的烟草类型，是卷烟工业的主要原料，也被供作斗烟。我国烤烟生产主要集中在云南、河南、贵州、山东等省。
- 位於雲南省東南部的硯山縣引進種植大戶示範高效節水栽培技術，引導農戶流轉土地，在原有種植作物的基礎上，增加種植冬馬鈴薯。去年冬天，黃澤蓉與丈夫合計，採收烤煙與玉米後，利用冬閒土地種下了10畝冬馬鈴薯，利用在種植基地學到的技術，並在技術人員指導下，用上了起壟雙行膜下滴灌技術，每畝產量達2噸左右、畝產值達到5,000元。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/08/29/a14-0829.pdf
- usa
好多植物明明有毒，人們為什麼還要種植呢？此一問題，無數個答案等在那裏。其一，它們有用。海芒果可做強心劑，謹慎用之，即為藥。它們好看，可為風景。夾竹桃種植在山坡，可防滑坡。隔離帶中種植，可吸汽車尾氣。其二，它們的毒，皆是有心人的手段。人心若無毒，不欺它，不以其害人，它們便無毒。正如超市裏的菜刀，刀刀可斃命，若只切菜，便讓日常生活更方便。另，之所以不大張旗鼓掛牌告知，或為避免成為一種犯罪提示。此為兩難，乾脆不為。其三，有毒的植物，或只是自生自滅的，並非全由人類栽種，正如眼前的海芋，種與不種，它們都在那裏。它們屬於土地和大水，本不屬於人類的，生生世世，憑什麼由人類做主。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/08/18/b09-0818.pdf- Because of its durability, oleander was planted prolifically on Galveston Island in Texas after the disastrous Hurricane of 1900. They are so prolific that Galveston is known as the 'Oleander City'; an annual oleander festival is hosted every spring.[18] Moody Gardens in Galveston hosts the propagation program for the International Oleander Society, which promotes the cultivation of oleanders. New varieties are hybridized and grown on the Moody Gardens grounds, encompassing every named variety.
- 支持美國總統特朗普的企業家林德爾，近日向美國有線新聞網絡(CNN)披露，他已向特朗普推薦有毒植物夾竹桃的提取物「夾竹桃苷」，作為治療新冠肺炎特效藥。他強調特朗普對研究結果感到「十分振奮」，甚至承諾會要求食品及藥物管理局(FDA)盡快批准將其投入使用。林德爾是明尼蘇達州特朗普競選團隊主席，他透露自己曾向美國住房與城市發展部部長卡爾森介紹夾竹桃苷的療效，並在上月將其當面介紹給特朗普。據悉一家名為Phoenix Biotechnology的藥企正研發夾竹桃苷療法，該藥企高層惠特尼揚言，夾竹桃苷可在兩天內治癒新冠肺炎患者，考慮將其以膳食補充劑形式推出。林德爾也稱夾竹桃苷含有與心臟病藥物成分地高辛相似的活性化學物質，並於上周購入該藥企股份。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/08/19/a15-0819.pdf
- japan
- 日本には同属は分布していない。琉球諸島には別属のミフクラギ（別名オキナワキョウチクトウ、Cerbera manghas）が分布する。花は白くて、ややキョウチクトウに似ているが、多肉質の葉や大きな実をつけるので、印象はかなり異なる。
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