Saturday, July 6, 2019

prussia

royalty
- Frederick II (German: Friedrich II.; 24 January 1712 – 17 August 1786) ruled the Kingdom of Prussia from 1740 until 1786, the longest reign of any Hohenzollern king, at 46 years. His most significant accomplishments during his reign included his military victories, his reorganization of Prussian armies, his patronage of the arts and the Enlightenment and his final success against great odds in the Seven Years' War. Frederick was the last Hohenzollern monarch titled King in Prussia and declared himself King of Prussia after achieving sovereignty over most historically Prussian lands in 1772. Prussia had greatly increased its territories and became a leading military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great (Friedrich der Große) and was nicknamed Der Alte Fritz ("The Old Fritz") by the Prussian people and eventually the rest of Germany.In his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than the art of war. Nonetheless, upon ascending to the Prussian throne he attacked Austria and claimed Silesia during the Silesian Wars, winning military acclaim for himself and Prussia. Toward the end of his reign, Frederick physically connected most of his realm by acquiring Polish territories in the First Partition of Poland. He was an influential military theorist whose analysis emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics.Considering himself "the first servant of the state",[2] Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism. He modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and pursued religious policies throughout his realm that ranged from tolerance to segregation.[3] He reformed the judicial system and made it possible for men not of noble status to become judges and senior bureaucrats. Frederick also encouraged immigrants of various nationalities and faiths to come to Prussia, although he enacted oppressive measures against Polish Catholic subjects in West Prussia. 

  • https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Frederick-the-Great-never-have-children
- Wilhelm II (German: Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 1859 – 4 June 1941) was the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, reigning from 15 June 1888 until his abdication on 9 November 1918 shortly before Germany's defeat in World War I. Son of Prussian prince Frederick Wilhelm and Victoria, Princess Royal (Queen Victoria's eldest child), his first cousins included King George V of the United Kingdom and many princesses who, along with Wilhelm's sister Sophia, became European queens consort. Frederick was German Emperor for three months in 1888, and was succeeded by his son. Wilhelm dismissed the country's longtime chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, in 1890 before launching Germany on a bellicose "New Course" to cement its status as a respected world power. However, due to his impetuous personality, he frequently undermined this aim by making tactless, alarming public statements without consulting his ministers beforehand. He also did much to alienate other Great Powers from Germany by initiating a massive build-up of the German Navy, challenging French control over Morocco, and backing the Austrian annexation of Bosnia in 1908. Wilhelm II's turbulent reign culminated in his guarantee of military support to Austria-Hungary during the crisis of July 1914, which resulted in the outbreak of World War I. A lax wartime leader, he left virtually all decision-making regarding military strategy and organisation of the war effort in the hands of the German General Staff. This broad delegation of authority gave rise to a de facto military dictatorship whose authorisation of unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmerman Telegram led to the United States' entry into the conflict in April 1917. Losing the support of the German army, Wilhelm abdicated and fled to exile in the Netherlands, where he died in 1941.

  • Kaiser Wilhelm’s mother was British, and his grandmother was Queen Victoria. He got along with Victoria fine, and he was there by her side when she passed away, but the rest of the British Royal Family were not so accepting. He especially disliked (and was disliked by) the Prince of Wales, his Uncle and the future King Edward VII. This may have had something to do with the fact that Edward’s wife was Danish and had neither forgiven nor forgotten the loss of Schleswig-Holstein (though since this wasn’t Wilhelm’s fault such a grudge was entirely irrational).https://www.quora.com/How-did-Kaiser-Wilhelm-II-feel-about-the-British-Empire-prior-to-WWI
  • https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-title-of-Kaiser-Wilhelm-II-after-his-abdication
  • Georg Friedrich Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia (German: Georg Friedrich Ferdinand Prinz von Preußen; born 10 June 1976) is the current head of the Prussian branch of the House of Hohenzollern, the former ruling dynasty of the German Empire and of the Kingdom of Prussia.[7][8] He is the great-great-grandson and historic heir of Wilhelm II.Georg Friedrich is the only son of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia (1944–1977) and Countess Donata of Castell-Rüdenhausen(1950–2015). Born into a mediatised princely family, his mother later became Duchess Donata of Oldenburg when she married secondly Duke Friedrich August of Oldenburg, who had previously been married to her sister-in-law Princess Marie Cécile of Prussia. His only sister is Princess Cornelie-Cécile of Prussia (b. 1978).On 21 January 2011, Georg Friedrich announced his engagement to Princess Sophie Johanna Maria of Isenburg (born 7 March 1978), who studied business administration in Freiburg and Berlin and works at a firm that offers consulting services for nonprofit business.[18]The civil wedding took place in Potsdam on 25 August 2011,[9] and the religious wedding took place at the Church of Peace in Potsdam on 27 August 2011, in commemoration of the 950th anniversary of the founding of the House of Hohenzollern.[19][20] The religious wedding was also broadcast live by local public television.[9] The dinner, which many members of German and European royal families attended, was held in the Orangery Palace at Sanssouci Park. As a Protestant descendant of Queen Victoria, Georg Friedrich was in the line of succession to the British throne from his birth until his marriage in 2011. As he married a Roman Catholic, according to the Act of Settlement 1701, he was thus debarred from the British line of succession until the implementation in 2015 of the Succession to the Crown Act 2013, which restored any succession rights to British dynasts forfeited because of marriage to Roman Catholics. Georg Friedrich is currently 170th in line to the British throne.
- economist 3aug19 "jacobin fury" backlash against the kaiser's family' claims for property restitution PRINCE GEORG FRIEDRICH of Prussia is getting a lesson on how not to get the public on his side. The great-great-grandson of the last Kaiser has been in talks for years with the federal government, as well as the state governments of Berlin and Brandenburg, about the return of possessions expropriated by the Russians at the end of the second world war. A letter from his lawyer to the authorities has now been leaked to the press, provoking a vehement backlash against Wilhelm II’s Hohenzollern dynasty and its alleged support for the Nazis.
The document reveals that the prince wants compensation of at least €1.2m ($1.3m), the right to live rent-free at Cecilienhof (the palace where American, British and Russian leaders held the 1945 Potsdam conference that settled the post-war order), as well as paintings, sculptures, books, letters, photographs and medals from various Hohenzollern houses. The requested inventory includes Cranach paintings and the armchair in which Frederick the Great died.

The Zollverein ([ˈtsɔlfɛɐ̯ˌʔaɪn]) or German Customs Union was a coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories. Organised by the 1833 Zollverein treaties, the Zollverein formally came into existence on 1 January 1834. However, its foundations had been in development from 1818 with the creation of a variety of custom unions among the German states. By 1866, the Zollverein included most of the German states. The foundation of the Zollverein was the first instance in history in which independent states had consummated a full economic union without the simultaneous creation of a political federation or union.  Prussia was the prime motivating force behind the creation of the customs union. Austriawas excluded from the Zollverein because of its highly protected industry and also becausePrince von Metternich was against the idea. With the founding of the North German Confederation in 1867, the Zollverein included approximately 425,000 square kilometres, and had produced economic agreements with several non-German states, including Sweden-Norway. After the founding of the German Empire in 1871, the Empire assumed the control of the customs union. However, not all states within the Empire were part of the Zollverein until 1888. Conversely, although it was not a state in the German Reich, until 1919 Luxembourgremained in the Zollverein.
"east prussia"
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-ethnic-Germans-living-in-East-Prussia-feel-about-becoming-part-of-Poland-after-WWII


People
- Carl Philipp Gottfried (or Gottlieb) von Clausewitz (/ˈklaʊzəvɪts/; June 1, 1780 – November 16, 1831) was a Prussian general andmilitary theorist who stressed the "moral" (in modern terms,psychological) and political aspects of war. His most notable work, Vom Kriege (On War), was unfinished at his death. Clausewitz was a realistand, while in some respects a romantic, also drew heavily on the rationalist ideas of the EuropeanEnlightenment. His thinking is often described as Hegelian because of his references to dialecticalthinking but, although he was probably personally acquainted with Hegel, there remains debate as to whether or not Clausewitz was in fact influenced by him. He stressed the dialectical interaction of diverse factors, noting how unexpected developments unfolding under the "fog of war" (i.e., in the face of incomplete, dubious, and often completely erroneous information and high levels of fear, doubt, and excitement) call for rapid decisions by alert commanders. He saw history as a vital check onerudite abstractions that did not accord with experience. In contrast to the early work ofAntoine-Henri Jomini, he argued that war could not be quantified or reduced to mapwork, geometry, and graphs. Clausewitz had many aphorisms, of which the most famous is "War is the continuation of politics by other means."
- Friedrich Heinrich Geffcken (December 9, 1830 – May 1, 1896) was a German diplomatist and jurist, born in Hamburg, of which city his father was senator. After studying law at Bonn, Göttingen and Berlin, he was attached In 1854 to the Prussian legation at Paris. For ten years (1856-1866) he served as Hanseatic diplomat to the Prussian court Berlin, first as chargé d'affaires, and afterwards as minister-resident, being afterwards transferred in a like capacity to London. Appointed in 1872 professor of constitutional history and public law in the reorganized University of Strassburg, Geffcken became in 1880 a member of the council of state of Alsace-Lorraine. Of too nervous a temperament to withstand the strain of the responsibilities of his position, he retired from public service in 1882, and lived henceforth mostly at Munich, where he died, suffocated by an accidental escape of gas into his bedchamber, in 1896. Geffcken was a man of great erudition and wide knowledge and of remarkable legal acumen, and from these qualities proceeded the personal influence he possessed. He was moreover a dear writer and made his mark as an essayist. He was one of the most trusted advisers of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick William (afterwards the emperor Frederick), and it was he (it is said, at Bismarck's suggestion) who drew up the draft of the New German federal constitution, which was submitted to the, crown prince's headquarters at Versailles during the Franco-Prussian War. It was also Geffcken who assisted in framing the famous document which the emperor Frederick, on his accession to the throne in 1888, addressed to the chancellor. This memorandum gave umbrage, and on the publication by Geffcken in the Deutsche Rundschau (Oct. 1888) of extracts from the emperor Frederick's private diary during the Franco-Prussian war, he was, at Bismarck's insistence, prosecuted for high treason. The Reichsgericht (supreme court), however, quashed the indictment, and Geffcken was liberated after being under arrest for three months. Publications of various kinds proceeded from his pen. Among these are Zur Geschichte des orientalischen Krieges 1853-1856 (Berlin, i88i); Frankreich, Russland und der Dreibund (Berlin, 1894); and Staat und Kirche (1875), English translation by E. F. Fairfax (1877). His writings on English history have been translated by S. J. Macmullan and published as The British Empire, with essays on Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Palmerston, Beaconsfield, Gladstone, and reform of the House of Lords (1889).
- **********Arthur Zimmermann (5 October 1864 – 6 June 1940) was State Secretary for Foreign Affairs of the German Empire from 22 November 1916 until his resignation on 6 August 1917. His name is associated with the Zimmermann Telegram during World War I. However, he was also closely involved in plans to support rebellions in Irelandand in India, and to assist the Bolsheviks to undermine Tsarist Russia. He was born in Marggrabowa, East Prussia, then in the Kingdom of Prussia (present-day Olecko, Mazury, Poland). He studied law from 1884-87 in Königsberg, East Prussia, and Leipzig. A period as a junior lawyer followed and later he received his doctorate of law. In 1893, he took up a career in diplomacy and entered the consular service in Berlin. He arrived in China in 1896 (Canton in 1898), and rose to the rank of consul in 1900. While stationed in the Far East, he witnessed the Boxer Rebellion in China. As part of his transfer to the Foreign Office, he returned to Germany in 1902. A portion of this trip was via railroad across the Continental United States, a fact he would later use to inflate his supposed expertise on the nation. Later he was called to the Foreign Office, became Under Secretary of State in 1911, and on 24 November 1916, he accepted his confirmation as Secretary of State, succeeding Gottlieb von Jagow in this position. Actually, he had assumed a large share of his superior's negotiations with foreign envoys for several years prior to his appointment because of von Jagow's reservedness in office. He was the first non-aristocrat to serve as foreign secretary. As acting secretary Zimmermann took part in the so-called Kronrat, the deliberations in 1914, with Kaiser Wilhelm II and Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, in which the decision was taken to support Austria-Hungary after the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria at Sarajevo, which ultimately was to lead to the outbreak of war. He later disavowed the name Kronrat since it was the Kaiser's opinion that was decisive in the discussion, but with which Bethmann-Hollweg and Zimmermann concurred. In late 1914, Zimmermann was visited by Roger Casement, the Irish revolutionary. A plan was laid to land 25,000 soldiers in the west of Ireland with 75,000 rifles. However, the German general staff did not agree. In April 1916, Casement returned to Ireland in a U-boat and was captured and executed. A German ship (the Libau) renamed the Aud, flying Norwegian colours, shipped 20,000 rifles to the south Irish coast, but it failed to link up with the rebels and was scuttled. Planning on this support, the Irish Volunteers launched the Easter Rising in Dublin. Though the Rising failed, its political effect led on to the Irish War of Independence in 1919–22 and the formation of the Irish Free State.On 6 August 1917, Zimmermann resigned as foreign secretary and was succeeded by Richard von Kühlmann. One of the causes of his resignation was the famous Zimmermann Telegram he sent on 16 January 1917. He died in Berlin in 1940 of pneumonia.
  • Germany had been pursuing various interests in Mexico since the beginning of the 20th century. Although a latecomer in the area, with Spain, Britain, and France having established themselves there centuries earlier, the Kaiser's Germany attempted to secure a continuing presence. This entailed many different approaches to the Mexican Republic and its changing, often revolutionary, governments as well as assuring the United States (most of the time) of Germany's peaceful intentions. German diplomacy in the area depended on sympathetic relations with the Mexican government of the day. Among the options discussed during Arthur Zimmermann's period in office was a German offer to improve communications between the two nations and a suggestion that Mexico purchase German submarines for its navy. After Francisco Villa's cross-border raids into New Mexico President Wilson sent a punitive expedition into Mexico to pursue the raiders. This encouraged the Germans to believe (mistakenly) that this and other US concerns in the area would tie up US resources and military operations for some time to come, sufficiently to justify the overtures made by Arthur Zimmermann in his telegram to the Venustiano Carranza government. His proposals included an agreement for a German alliance with Mexico, while Germany would still try to maintain a state of neutrality with the United States. If this policy were to fail, the note suggested, the Mexican government should make common cause with Germany, try to persuade the Japanese government to join the new alliance, and attack the US. Germany for its part would promise financial assistance and the restoration of its former territories of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona to Mexico.On 24 February, the telegram was finally delivered to the US ambassador in Britain, Walter Hines Page, who two days later retransmitted it to President Wilson. On 1 March, the United States Government passed the text of the telegram to the press. At first, some sectors of the US papers, especially those of the Hearst press empire, questioned whether the telegram was a forgery made by British intelligence in an attempt to persuade the US government to enter the war on Britain's side. This opinion was reinforced by German and Mexican diplomats, as well as pro-German and pacifist opinion-formers in the United States. However, on 29 March 1917, Zimmermann gave a speech to the Reichstag confirming the text of the telegram and so put an end to all speculation as to its authenticity. By that time a number of US ships had been torpedoed with heavy loss of life. On 2 April, President Wilson asked Congress to agree to declare war on Germany, citing, among other grievances, that Germany "means to stir up enemies against us at our very doors".[7] On 6 April, Congress approved the resolution for war by a wide margin, with the Senate voting 82 to 6 in favor.[8] The United States had entered World War I on the side of the Allies.On 29 March 1917, Zimmerman delivered a speech intended to explain his side of the situation. He began that he had not written a letter to Carranza but had given instructions to the German ambassador via a "route that had appeared to him to be a safe one". He also said that despite the submarine offensive, he had hoped that the USA would remain neutral. His instructions (to the Mexican government) were only to be carried out after the US declared war, and he believed his instructions to be "absolutely loyal as regards the US". In fact, he blamed President Wilson for breaking off relations with Germany "with extraordinary roughness" after the telegram was received, and that therefore the German ambassador "no longer had the opportunity to explain the German attitude, and that the US government had declined to negotiate".  Later, a general assigned by Carranza to assess the realities of a Mexican takeover of their former provinces came to the conclusion that it would not work. Taking over the three states would almost certainly cause future problems and possibly war with the US; Mexico would also be unable to accommodate a large Anglo population within its borders; and Germany would not be able to supply the arms needed in the hostilities that would surely arise. Carranza declined Zimmermann's proposals on 14 April.
- huguenot
- jews
  • Fritz Haber (German: [ˈhaːbɐ]; 9 December 1868 – 29 January 1934) was a German[4]chemist who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1918 for his invention of the Haber–Bosch process, a method used in industry to synthesize ammonia from nitrogengas and hydrogen gas. This invention is of importance for the large-scale synthesis of fertilizers and explosives. The food production for half the world's current population involves this method for producing nitrogen fertilizers.[5] Haber, along with Max Born, proposed the Born–Haber cycle as a method for evaluating the lattice energy of an ionic solid. Haber is also considered the "father of chemical warfare" for his years of pioneering work developing and weaponizing chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I, especially his actions during the Second Battle of Ypres.Fritz Haber was born in Breslau (now Wrocław, Poland), Prussia, into a well-off Jewishfamily.[6]:38 The family name Haber was a common one in the area, but Fritz Haber's family has been traced back to a great-grandfather, Pinkus Selig Haber, a wool dealer from Kempen (now Kępno, Poland). An important Prussian edict of 13 March 1812 determined that Jews and their families, including Pinkus Haber, were "to be treated as local citizens and citizens of Prussia". Under such regulations, members of the Haber family were able to establish themselves in respected positions in business, politics, and law.[7]:3–5 Fritz Haber was the son of Siegfried and Paula Haber, first cousins who married in spite of considerable opposition from their families.[8] Fritz's father Siegfried was a well-known merchant in the town, who had founded his own business in dye pigments, paints and pharmaceuticals.[7]:6 Paula experienced a difficult pregnancy and died three weeks after Fritz's birth, leaving Siegfried devastated and Fritz in the care of various aunts.[7]:11When Fritz was about six years old, Siegfried remarried, to Hedwig Hamburger. Siegfried and his second wife had three daughters, Else, Helene and Frieda. Although his relationship with his father was distant and often difficult, Fritz developed close relationships with his step-mother and his half-sisters.[7]:7 By the time Fritz was born, the Habers had to some extent assimilated into German society. Fritz attended primary school at the Johanneum School, a "simultaneous school" open equally to Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish students.[7]:12 At age 11, he went to school at the St. Elizabeth classical school, in a class evenly divided between Protestant and Jewish students.
  • *********From 1919 to 1925, in response to a request made by German ambassador to Japan Wilhelm Solf for Japanese support for German scholars in times of financial hardship, a Japanese businessman named Hoshi Hajime, the president of Hoshi Pharmaceutical Company donated two million Reichsmark to the Kaiser Wilhelm Society as the ‘Japan Fund’ (Hoshi-Ausschuss). Haber was asked to manage the fund, and was invited by Hoshi to Japan in 1924, and Haber offered to a number of chemical licenses to Hoshi's company, but the offers were refused. The money from the Fund were used to support the work of Richard Willstätter, Max Planck, Otto Hahn, Leo Szilard, and others.   その他、ドイツに留学した日本人化学者田丸節郎、小寺房次郎もハーバー研究所でアンモニア合成の研究に携わった。帰国後、田丸は理化学研究所、東京工業大学、学術振興会の創立に関わるなど、日本の学術研究体制の礎を築いた。小寺は1918年に創立された臨時窒素研究所の所長に就任し、日本で初めてアンモニア合成を指導した。
  •  https://www.quora.com/What-human-in-history-did-more-for-society-than-Elon-Musk

Decoration
- The Iron Cross (German:  Eisernes Kreuz , abbreviated EK) was a military decoration in the Kingdom of Prussia, and later in the German Empire (1871–1918) and Nazi Germany (1933–1945). It was established by KingFriedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia and first awarded on 10 March 1813 during the Napoleonic Wars (EK 1813). The recommissioned Iron Cross was also awarded during theFranco-Prussian War (EK 1870), World War I (EK 1914), and World War II (EK 1939, re-introduced with a swastikaadded in the center). The Iron Cross was normally a military decoration only, though there were instances of it being awarded to civilians for performing military functions. Two examples of this were civilian test pilotsHanna Reitsch who was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class and 1st Class and Melitta Schenk Gräfin von Stauffenberg, who was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class, for their actions as pilots during World War II. The design of the cross symbol was black with a white or silver outline. It was ultimately derived from the cross pattée occasionally used by the Teutonic Order from the 13th century.[1] The black cross patty was also used as the symbol of the German Army from 1871 to March/April 1918, when it was replaced by the bar cross. In 1956, it was re-introduced as the symbol of the Bundeswehr, the modern German armed forces.

serfdom
-  The freeing of the peasants marked the start of the Prussian reforms. The kingdom's modernisation began by modernising its base, that is, its peasants and its agriculture. At the start of the 19th century, 80% of the German population lived in the countryside. The edict of 9 October 1807, one of the central reforms, liberated the peasants and was signed only five days after Stein's appointment on von Schön's suggestion. The October edict began the process of abolishing serfdom and its hereditary character. The first peasants to be freed were those working on the domains in the Reichsritter and on 11 November 1810 at the latest, all the Prussian serfs were declared free.However, though serfdom was abolished, corvées were not – the October edict said nothing on the latter subject. The October edict authorised all Prussian citizens to acquire property and choose their profession, including the nobles, who until then could not take on jobs reserved for the bourgeoisie. The principle of "dérogeance" disappeared.
The peasants were allowed to travel freely and set up home in the towns and no longer had to buy their freedom or pay for its with domestic service. The peasants no longer had to ask their lord's permission to marry – this freedom in marriage led to a rising birth rate and population in the countryside. The freeing of the peasants, however, was also to their disadvantage – lordly domains were liberalised and major landowners were allowed to buy peasants' farms (the latter practice having been illegal previously). The lords no longer had an obligation to provide housing for any of their former serfs who became invalids or too old to work. This all led to the formation of an economic class made up of bourgeois and noble entrepreneurs who opposed the bourgeoisie. After the reformers freed the peasants, they were faced with other problems, such as the abolition of corvées and the establishment of properties. According to the Allgemeines Landrecht, these problems could only be solved by compensating the financiers. The need to legally put in place a "revolution from above" slowed down the reforms. The edict of regulation of 1811 solved the problem by making all peasants the owners of the farms they farmed. In place of buying back these lands (which was financially impossible), the peasants were obliged to compensate their former lords by handing over between a third and a half of the farmed lands. To avoid splitting up the lands and leaving areas that were too small to viably farm, in 1816 the buy-back of these lands was limited to major landowners. The smaller ones remained excluded from allodial title. Other duties linked to serfdom, such as that to provide domestic service and the payment of authorisation taxes on getting married, were abolished without compensation. As for corvées and services in kind, the peasants had to buy back from their lords for 25% of their value.
 
History
- origin

  • https://www.quora.com/What-exactly-are-the-origins-of-Prussia-How-did-that-kingdom-come-about-before-the-reign-of-Frederick-the-Great-How-is-Prussia-related-to-its-neighbors-like-Poland-and-the-Baltic-states note the "-ia" and "-land" names
  • *********https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-Prussian-people Prussia’s name was strongly tied to German militarism, so that its heritage is seldom claimed today, actually almost forgotten. Berliners are sometimes called pejoratively “Saupreussen” (damned Prussians) by other Germans. The football club of the city of Dortmund is called Borussia, an archaic name for Prussia. But it is doubtful supporters of the club are even aware.

- The Carlsbad Decrees were a set of reactionary restrictions introduced in the states of the German Confederation by resolution of theBundesversammlung on 20 September 1819 after a conference held in the spa town of Carlsbad,Bohemia. They banned nationalist fraternities ("Burschenschaften"), removed liberal university professors, and expanded the censorship of the press. The meeting of the state's representatives was called by the Austrian Minister of State Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich after the liberal Burschenschaft student Karl Ludwig Sandhad murdered the conservative writer August von Kotzebue on 23 March 1819, and an attempt had been made by apothecary Karl Löning on the life of Nassau president Karl von Ibell on 1 July 1819.[1][2] In the course of the European Restoration Metternich feared liberaland national tendencies at German universities which might conduct revolutionary activities threatening the monarchistic order. At this time, the two outrages cited were a welcome pretext to take action.


Jews
- By the edict of emancipation of 11 March 1812, Jews gained the same rights and duties as other citizens
-  "On the Jewish Question" is a work by Karl Marx, written in 1843, and first published in Paris in 1844 under the German title "Zur Judenfrage" in the Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher. It was one of Marx's first attempts to develop what would later be called the materialist conception of history.
The essay criticizes two studies by Marx's fellow Young Hegelian Bruno Bauer on the attempt by Jews to achieve political emancipation in Prussia. Bauer argued that Jews could achieve political emancipation only by relinquishing their particular religious consciousness, since political emancipation requires a secular state, which he assumes does not leave any "space" for social identities such as religion. According to Bauer, such religious demands are incompatible with the idea of the "Rights of Man". True political emancipation, for Bauer, requires the abolition of religion.
- people
  • Israel Jacobson (October 17, 1768, Halberstadt – September 14, 1828, Berlin) was a German-Jewishphilanthropist and communal organiser. While he lacked a systematic religious approach, he is considered one of the heralds of Reform Judaism.
  • Samuel Holdheim (1806 – 22 August 1860) was a German rabbi and author, and one of the more extreme leaders of the early Reform Movement in Judaism. A pioneer in modern Jewish homiletics, he was often at odds with the Orthodox community.
france
- franco-prussian war
  • artefacts
    • [talking maps] Prussia pausing, edward stanford's fanco-prussian war serio-comic map 1871- a map using art as anti-prussian propaganda. Note by me - apart from places in france, map is in english language
  • https://www.quora.com/How-did-France-get-crushed-in-the-Franco-Prussian-War-if-they-were-the-premier-European-power-for-centuries during the American Civil War, all European military powers had sent observers, who all came back with the same conclusion: a modern war will be fought with modern weapons and modern transport. They needed to equip with machine guns and develop the railways. The German states did just that. Their railway grid soon crisscrossed the whole of Germany.  Not so in France. The railway grid was essentially the Freyssinet Star, in which all lines converged upon Paris (the same being repeated today: if you want to go from Marseilles to Strasbourg, they’ll have you go through Paris.) Thus all troops from all over France had to get out of the train in one of the stations, and go through Paris on foot to the Gare de l’Est which was the only line which led to Alsace. Because there was never (and there still isn’t) any convenient way to go from one station to the other. As for machine guns, they couldn’t decide whether they should be artillery or infantry, so they remained in the stores, unused. As for treason, there were the Republicans who had had enough of the Bonapartist regime, and longed to take the place and arranged with General Bazaine so that he wouldn’t move from Metz, a capital city for the defense of France, despite orders, which led to the quick defeat of the French armies. One must remember that in any country, oligarchs are NEVER patriots. Patriotism is for the small people, the plebs.
netherlands
- ********** https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Wilhelm-II-of-Germany-go-to-the-Netherlands-to-live-in-exile-Many-European-countries-were-neutral-in-WWI-so-what-drew-him-to-the-Netherlands The bogus German Empire and the Kingdom of the Netherlands had been good friends. Let me explain: The Dutch had been closest to the Boers who had distant Dutch ancestors and were very anti-British. The Germans -and many others- also disliked the fact the British had annexed the Republics of the Boers. That was not even the only reason why the Northern Netherlands and the German Empire were on excellent terms. Despite the one million of Belgian refugees but the Dutch were anti-Belgian as well because Belgium at the time was more affluent and claimed Border regios...Hopefully that explains the friendly relations between the Dutch and their German neighbours.The Dutch Queen, Wilhelmina had been on excellent terms with both of her relatives: Czar Nicholas II and Emperor Wilhelm II. But the Czar was lost and the Queen had no reason -yet- to hate the Germans. And the Queen just like the Emperor believed in the Divine Rights of Kings. She must have thought Wilhelm a coward but admitted him all the same. There are even photographs of Crownprincess Juliana visiting Wilhelm at his Dutch exile very much later.Like Queen Victoria Wilhelmina was a democrat only by abstaining to meddle with the democracy. But she had the full consent of her government to admit Wilhelm. [from comments section] The “love” between the Netherlands and “Prussia-Germany” started already in 1866, when the Netherlands did not intervene in the German-Prussian war, and Bismarck therefore did not touch dutch rights in Luxembourg and Limburg.The so called “Kruger Telegramm” by Kaiser Wilhelm II to the President of the Transvall Republic became a huge scandal in the british press and probably a reason for the good Relations with the dutch.The House of Orange and the Prussian royal house had intermarried heavily since the 1600s.Queen Wilhelmina's husband, Heinrich or Henry of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, was the younger brother of Grand Duchess Vladimir (mother of the Russian pretender post 1919) and half-uncle to the Crown Princess of Prussia (Wilhelm II’s daughter-in-law Cecile of Mecklenburg-Schwerin).The Netherlands had at one time been part of the Holy Roman Empire. Its language is a German dialect. It is also close to the UK, where Wilhelm II had close relatives. Remember that his mother was British. The other easy choice would have been Switzerland, another neutral with German-speaking areas. The western allies were probably quite happy that the Netherlands agreed to take the ex-Kaiser in and keep him out of everyone’s hair!


austria
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Bismarck-not-include-Austria-in-the-unification-of-Germany 

poland
- *********Malbork ([ˈmalbɔrk]; German: Marienburg; Latin: Civitas Beatae Virginis) is a town in northern Poland in the Żuławy region (Vistula delta), with 38,478 inhabitants (2006). Situated in the Pomeranian Voivodeship since 1999, it was previously assigned to Elbląg Voivodeship (1975–1998). It is the capital of Malbork County. Founded in the 13th century by the Knights of the Teutonic Order, the town is noted for its medieval Malbork Castle, built in the 13th Century as the Order's headquarters and of what later became known as Royal Prussia.条顿骑士团的马尔堡是世界上最大的在陆地上的城堡。马尔堡城堡是被条顿骑士团（一个德裔的罗马十字军的天主教宗教骑士团）建在普鲁士的玛丽娅堡的一个ordensburg堡垒样式的城堡。条顿骑士团命名为一个叫做玛丽娅堡（玛丽的城堡）。在玛丽娅堡边上繁衍的小镇也依次命名。这个城堡是一个经典中世纪的样子的堡垒。在1460年他建完的时候，他是世界上最大的用砖制城堡。
-  https://www.quora.com/Frederick-the-Great-utterly-loathed-the-Poles-calling-them-dirty-and-vile-apes-Given-how-this-was-the-King-of-Prussia-saying-this-was-this-level-of-anti-Polish-sentiment-common-in-Prussia with the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, where Frederick the Great annexed 141,400 km2 (54,600 sq mi) of Poland’s western territory.After taking over the land Frederick quickly implanted nearly 60 thousand German families there. Over the following years he sent in another 300 thousand settlers.These were huge numbers, considering that Poles constituted 4.5 million on the former territory of Poland.The population of Prussia was around 10 million in 1816, when the Kingdom already included the Polish lands.Ethnic segregation became the norm, with bans on the Polish language and with religious discrimination against Catholics in the areas under Prussian rule where the Polish population lived alongside Germans.Extensive Germanization policies were introduced, making hatred and antagonisms unavoidable between the sizeable ethnic factions. An obvious conflict of interests.The Germanisation policy had an opposite effect to that which the Prussian authorities had intended: instead of becoming Germanised, the Poles were becaming more conscious and appreciative of their Polish identity, more organised and more defiant. It must have been infuriating for the occupiers.The sentiment was not necessarily the same among the Prussians who did not make claims to the Polish territory, and among those who didn’t support the expansionist aspirations of their state.

legacy
- palace
  • scmp 14sep19 "berlin's memory place" humboldt forum
  • The Amber Room was intended in 1701 for the Charlottenburg Palace, in Berlin, Prussia, but was eventually installed at the Berlin City Palace. It was designed by German baroque sculptor Andreas Schlüter and Danish amber craftsman Gottfried Wolfram. Schlüter and Wolfram worked on the room until 1707, when work was continued by amber masters Gottfried Turau and Ernst Schacht from Danzig (Gdańsk). It remained in Berlin until 1716, when it was given by the Prussian King Frederick William I to his then ally, Tsar Peter the Great of the Russian Empire. In Russia, the room was installed in the Catherine Palace. After expansion and several renovations, it covered more than 55 square metres (590 sq ft) and contained over 6 tonnes (13,000 lb) of amber. The Amber Room was looted during World War II by the Army Group North of Nazi Germany, and brought to Königsberg for reconstruction and display. Its current whereabouts remain a mystery. In 1979, efforts were undertaken to rebuild the Amber Room at Tsarskoye Selo. In 2003, after decades of work by Russian craftsmen and donations from Germany, the reconstructed Amber Room was inaugurated at the Catherine Palace.
- germany
  • Berlin Tegel "Otto Lilienthal" Airport (German: Flughafen Berlin-Tegel „Otto Lilienthal“) (IATA: TXL, ICAO: EDDT) was the primary international airport of Berlin, the federal capital of Germany. The airport has been named after Otto Lilienthal. The area of today's airport originally was part of the Jungfernheide forest, which served as a hunting ground for the Prussian nobility. During the 19th century, it was used as an artillery firing range. Aviation history dates back to the early 20th century, when the Royal Prussian Airship battalion was based there and the area became known as Luftschiffhafen Reinickendorf. In 1906, a hangar was built for testing of Groß-Basenach and Parseval type airships. Soon after the outbreak of World War I, on 20 August 1914, the area was dedicated to military training of aerial reconnaissance crews. Following the war, all aviation industry was removed as a consequence of the Treaty of Versailles, which prohibited Germany from having any armed aircraft. On 27 September 1930, Rudolf Nebel launched an experimental rocket testing and research facility on the site. It became known as Raketenschießplatz Tegel and attracted a small group of eminent aerospace engineers, which included German rocket pioneer Wernher von Braun. In 1937, the rocket pioneers left Tegel in favour of the secret Peenemünde army research centre.[13]During World War II, the area served once again as a military training area, mostly for Flak troops. It was destroyed in Allied air raids.Following Germany's reunification on 3 October 1990, all access restrictions to the former West Berlin airports were lifted.The events of the early post-reunification years (1990–1995) were followed by further, high-profile international route launches and growing consolidation among German airlines with a major presence at Tegel.Amongst the former were the December 2005 launch of Tegel Airport's first-ever scheduled service to the Qatari capital Doha by Qatar Airways, operated non-stop at an initial frequency of four flights a week, and Air Berlin's November 2010 launch of non-stop, thrice-weekly Tegel–Dubai flights (another first). This was followed by the latter's May 2011 launch of a non-stop, four-times-a-week Tegel–JFK service.The airport was scheduled to close in June 2012 after Berlin Brandenburg Airport (BER) opened. Due to the delays with BER, the future of Tegel had long remained uncertain.[148][149]A campaign was launched to keep Tegel Airport open, which gathered signatures for a referendum for voters to decide on the future of the airport.[150] In September 2017, a public quorum was held parallel to the German federal election to decide whether Tegel Airport should remain open once Berlin Brandenburg Airport starts its operations. The majority of voters voted in favour of Tegel remaining open;[151] however, the federal authorities and the state of Brandenburg, which together hold a majority against Berlin over the airport's ownership, declined that wish shortly afterwards, leading to the shutdown of Tegel.[152]Future plans also involve the redevelopment of Berlin Tegel Airport into the Urban Tech Republic, 221 hectares (550 acres) of building land will be available for up to 800 companies with some 17,500 employees in the Research and Industrial Park alone. In the central airport terminal, which is to be kept, the Beuth University of Applied Sciences Berlin will establish the scientific core of the new technology park, with up to 2,500 students. It is envisaged that the adjoining areas will be used both for research and development and for manufacturing companies. Berlin TXL will also make 80 hectares (200 acres) available for industrial use – the largest single inner-city development area in Berlin.
- Pop culture

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