monarchy
- mercantilists held a pronatalist view that there was a need to increase the power of the monarch by increasing the labor force and/or number of soldiers. They did not think the increase in population would lead to obstacles in economic growth and space of polity.
******https://www.quora.com/How-do-you-say-king-in-Proto-Indo-European-and-does-modern-English-have-any-words-that-are-related-to-it
democracy
- In political science, a wave of democracy refers to a major surge of democracy in history. Although the term appears at least as early as 1887, it was popularized by Samuel P. Huntington, a political scientist at Harvard University in his article published in the Journal of Democracy and further expounded in his 1991 book The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Scholars generally disagree about the precise number of democratic waves. Huntington describes three waves: the first "slow" wave of the 19th century, a second wave after World War II, and a third wave beginning in the mid-1970s in South Europe, followed by Latin America and Asia. Though his book does not discuss the collapse of the Soviet bloc, a number of scholars have taken the "Third Wave" to include the democratic transitions of 1989-1991. [2] Other scholars, such as Seva Gunitsky of University of Toronto, have referred to 13 waves from the 18th century to the Arab Spring (2011-2012).
- mercantilists held a pronatalist view that there was a need to increase the power of the monarch by increasing the labor force and/or number of soldiers. They did not think the increase in population would lead to obstacles in economic growth and space of polity.
******https://www.quora.com/How-do-you-say-king-in-Proto-Indo-European-and-does-modern-English-have-any-words-that-are-related-to-it
語義上、「首相」が「内閣を構成する閣僚（大臣）のうち首席の者」を意味するのに対し、「宰相」は「特に君主に任ぜられて宮廷で国政を補佐する者」を意味する。従って日本語では、近代以後の各国の行政府の長をすべて一律に「首相」と呼ぶのに対し、近世以前において宮廷で国政を担当した者を一般に「宰相」と呼んで区別している。しかし現在でも、内閣総理大臣の通称として使われることがある。 Chancellor (Latin: cancellarius) is a title of various official positions in the governments of many nations. The original chancellors were the cancellarii of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the cancelli or lattice work screens of a basilica or law court, which separated the judge and counsel from the audience. A chancellor's office is called a chancellery or chancery. The word is now used in the titles of many various officers in all kinds of settings (government, education, religion). Nowadays the term is most often used to describe:
- The head of the government
- A person in charge of foreign affairs
- A person with duties related to justice
- A person in charge of financial and economic issues
- The head of a university
總督（副王，西班牙語：virrey，葡萄牙語：vice-rei，法语：Vice-roi，英语：viceroy）是西方國家君主在殖民地或行省代理人的官職或稱號。在構詞法中，由拉丁文前綴詞「vice-」（副）與法語詞「roi」（王）構成，意思為「副王」。在中文和越南文中一般意譯為「總督」，但亦直譯為「副王」，在日文和韓文中則直接翻譯為「副王」。A viceroy (/ˈvaɪsrɔɪ/) is an official who runs a country, colony, city, province, or sub-national state, in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix vice-, meaning "in the place of" and the French word roy, meaning "king".[1]A viceroy's territory may be called a viceroyalty, though this term is not always applied. The adjective form is viceregal, less often viceroyal. The term vicereine is sometimes used to indicate a female viceroy suo jure, although viceroy can serve as a gender-neutral term.[4]Vicereine is more commonly used to indicate a viceroy's wife. Viceroy is a form of royal appointment rather than noble rank. An individual viceroy often also held a noble title, however, such as Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma who was also Viceroy of India.
- The title was originally used by the Crown of Aragon; where beginning in the 14th century, it referred to the Spanish governors of Sardinia and Corsica. After the unification, at the end of the 15th century, later kings of Spain came to appoint numerous viceroys to rule over various parts of the increasingly vast Spanish Empire in Europe, the Americas, and overseas elsewhere.
- *******清朝では強力な地方行政権を持つ総督（英訳でgeneral supervisor-protector）が副王と翻訳されることがある。彼らは2つ、3つほどの「州」（現在の中華人民共和国の行政区分の「省」に相当する）を統治し、その領域は直隷、湖広、両江、両広、陝甘、閩浙、雲貴、四川に分けられた。李鴻章は1867年から1870年まで両広総督を務め、袁世凱は直隷総督であった時期がある。democracy
- In political science, a wave of democracy refers to a major surge of democracy in history. Although the term appears at least as early as 1887, it was popularized by Samuel P. Huntington, a political scientist at Harvard University in his article published in the Journal of Democracy and further expounded in his 1991 book The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. Scholars generally disagree about the precise number of democratic waves. Huntington describes three waves: the first "slow" wave of the 19th century, a second wave after World War II, and a third wave beginning in the mid-1970s in South Europe, followed by Latin America and Asia. Though his book does not discuss the collapse of the Soviet bloc, a number of scholars have taken the "Third Wave" to include the democratic transitions of 1989-1991. [2] Other scholars, such as Seva Gunitsky of University of Toronto, have referred to 13 waves from the 18th century to the Arab Spring (2011-2012).
- 早在二十世紀九十年代，美國哈佛大學著名的政治學者亨廷頓曾經將民主制度的到來和消退用「波浪」進行描述，這其實可以給我們以啟示。他認為，民主制度在歷史上出現了三次民主化進程。「民主第一波」發生在十九世紀中期到二十世紀初期，美國、英國和法國等國的民主制度相繼建立，並且經受住了時代的考驗。「民主第二波」發生在第二次世界大戰結束後到二十世紀六十年代，大部分西歐國家實現了民主制度。「民主第三波」則從二十世紀七十年代開始，西歐的葡萄牙、西班牙推翻了獨裁政權，「民主第三波」在冷戰時期結束後更達到了頂峰，世界上施行民主制度的國家曾經一度達到全球國家總數的三分之二之多。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20170408/00184_012.html
- In a 2018 study in Perspectives on Politics, Seva Gunitsky of University of Toronto identifies thirteen waves of democracy [3]. His main criteria is rejection of absolute rule. By contrast, Huntington used the much narrower criteria of voting rights for the majority of men.
- The Atlantic Wave (1776-1798)
- The Latin American Wars of Independence (1809-1824)
- The First Constitutional Wave (1820-1821)
- The Romantic-Nationalist Wave (1830-1831)
- The Spring of Nations (1848)
- The Second Constitutional Wave (1905-1912)
- The post-WWI Wave (1919-1922)
- The post-WWII Wave (1945-1950)
- The African Decolonization Wave (1956-1968)
- The Modernization Wave, also known as the "Third" Wave (1974-1988)
- The Post-Soviet Wave (1989-1994)
- The Color Revolutions (2000-2007)
- The Arab Spring (2011-2012)
- 改良漢狄法The D'Hondt method or the Jefferson method is a highest averages method for allocating seats, and is thus a type of party-list proportional representation. The method described is named in United States after Thomas Jefferson, who introduced the method for proportional allocation of seats in the United States House of Representatives in 1791, and in Europe after Belgian mathematician Victor D'Hondt, who described it in 1878 for proportional allocation of parliamentary seats to the parties. There are two forms: closed list (a party selects the order of election of their candidates) and an open list (voters' choices determine the order).
- http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/news/art/20170912/20150112澳門立法會共33席，直選僅14席，泛民佔4席；直選只有單一大選區，不像香港分5區。澳門選舉沿用比例代表制的「改良漢狄法」。澳門大學政府與行政學系助理教授鄺錦鈞解釋，此制度對大黨和知名度高的候選人較有利，因名單得票基數越大，餘額越多，能取得更多議席；相反民主派或新興團體會更難取得議席。
- Jason F. Brennan (born 1979) is an American philosopher and political scientist. He is currently the Robert J. and Elizabeth Flanagan Family Professor of Strategy, Economics, Ethics, and Public Policy at the McDonough School of Business and Professor of Philosophy at Georgetown University. Brennan writes about democratic theory, the ethics of voting, competence and power, freedom, and the moral foundations of commercial society.
- hkej 27aug18 shum article
- new jersey case
- In New Jersey, a board of chosen freeholders is the county legislature in each of the state's 21 counties.New Jersey's system of naming county legislators "freeholders" is unique in the United States. The origin of the term was in the provisions of the New Jersey State Constitution of 1776.
- consultative democracy
- economist 7mar2020 "aux powerpoints, citoyens!" an experiment in consultative democracy
- talent show format
- case of braddock, a steel town near pittsburgh economist 2feb19
- overseas nationals voting rights
- 加拿大最高法院前日裁定，不論離開該國多少年，所有海外居住的公民有權在聯邦選舉中投票。自一九九三年，在海外居住逾五年的加拿大公民，不能在聯邦選舉中投票。二○一一年大選時，兩名長居美國的加拿大公民被禁投票而入稟法院。現屆政府上月通過法案，規定公民不論離國多少年亦有投票權，今次裁決防止政府日後修改法例。日後海外的加拿大公民只要能證明自己的身份，以及昔日在加拿大的住址，就可以在舊居的選區中投票。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190113/00180_016.html
- singtao 3jun19 article by bauhinia foundation research centre
- In legislatures, a hemicycle is a semicircular, or horseshoe-shaped, debating chamber (plenary chamber), where deputies (members) sit to discuss and pass legislation. Although originally of Ancient Greek roots, the term and modern design derive from French politics and practice. The circular shape is designed to encourage consensus among political parties rather than confrontation, such as in the Palace of Westminster, where the government and opposition parties face each other on opposing sets of benches. The design is used in most European countries (and hence was adopted by the European Parliament) and the United States. The United Kingdom, which is the originator of the Westminster system, does not use a hemicycle [note by me - according to a handout by uk parliament, mps' seats in the grand committee room are arranged in a hemicycle of the kind found in many european parliaments]. However, two of the three devolved legislatures, the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly, do use hemicycles; the Northern Ireland Assembly does not use a hemicycle format.
- Malawians are voting in a re-run election a year on from President Peter Mutharika's disputed victory that was annulled nearly five months ago.Mr Mutharika, who wants a second term, is up against Lazarus Chakwera, who heads an opposition coalition.Evidence of vote tampering including correction fluid on tally sheets led to judges scrapping his May 2019 victory and ordering a fresh election. The country's judiciary has been widely praised for its robust response. Malawi became the second African nation to annul a presidential election over irregularities, after Kenya in 2017. A re-run of the May 2019 election was ordered by Malawi's Constitutional Court in February after judges found widespread irregularities with the original ballot. That election saw President Mutharika narrowly re-elected by less than 159,000 votes with a 38.6% share of the vote. Mr Chakwera came second with 35.4%.Mr Chakwera and the candidate who came third argued that the election had not been fair. Their complaints included allegations that vote tallying forms had been added up incorrectly and tampered with using correction fluid - known in Malawi by its brand name Tipp-Ex.https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53136963
- legislation
- https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-imposing-certain-sanctions-event-foreign-interference-united-states-election/
- 俄羅斯二○一二年推出法例，授予政府把非政府組織（NGO）列為外國代理人的權力，前年再把受國際資助的傳媒列入法例範圍。總統普京周一簽署法案，把上述法例的應用範圍擴大至網誌作家、註冊獨立記者和社交媒體用戶，即時生效。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191204/00180_014.html
- 新西蘭明年下旬舉行大選，情報部門警告有外國干預的風險。政府周二宣布，將禁止海外向當地政客捐款，並收緊政治廣告的訊息公開規定。新西蘭政府在國會提案，擬禁止外國人向政黨和候選人捐出逾五十新西蘭元（約二百五十五港元）的獻金，比現在一千五百新西蘭元（約七千六百五十港元）的門檻大大降低。禁令將涵蓋住在新西蘭以外、沒資格投票的人及非新西蘭公民。法案同時要求在任何媒體的選舉廣告，公開資助者的姓名及地址，以防「假新聞廣告」氾濫。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191204/00180_015.html, see also scmp 4dec19 law limits foreign political donation amid china fears
- 全球多個 國 家 均 有 立 法，禁止海外 非政府組織(NGO) 干涉本國內政，限制相 關組織活動或資金轉移。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/12/04/a07-1204.pdf
- 據中通社報道，針對蔡 英文日前下令台灣立法機構民進黨黨團， 必須在 12 月 31 日完成「反滲透法」立 法，引發台灣政界人士強烈不滿，多位不 分藍綠白的知名政界人士 20 日齊齊發 聲。中國國民黨籍前台灣地區領導人馬英 九 20 日受訪時指，「若此法通過，台 商、台眷，或到大陸旅遊的台灣人都可能 受牽連。」 「反滲透法」草案是台灣立法機構民進 黨黨團於 11月 26日時強行逕付二讀，力 拚在本會期完成立法。目前由於因應 2020選舉，立法機構進入「停會」，預 計 12月 31日將是立法機構復會後本會期 召開的最後一次程序委員會。蔡英文則在 14日為同黨籍的新北市民代候選人江永 昌站台時公開喊話，「反滲透法」一定會 在12月31日通過。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/12/21/a19-1221.pdf
- prosecution
- 台軍退役中將羅文山從香港學者、全國政協委員許智明收受逾一百六十萬（人民幣‧下同，約一百七十八萬港元）捐款，部分用作幫助前總統馬英九競選連任，其餘一百萬（約一百一十三萬港元）私吞。台北地方法院昨判處羅違反《政治獻金法》等罪成立，入獄兩年半及褫奪公權兩年。案情指，八十三歲的羅文山於二○○八年至一二年間以「中華黃埔四海同心會」名義，分三次收受上述款項，且未於兩個月內辦理繳庫及向監察院申報，違反《政治獻金法》中不得收受港澳居民政治獻金的規定。羅文山將錢轉入個人銀行帳戶也觸犯業務侵佔罪，他辯稱款項是幫馬英九刊登廣告，故不應受獻金法的規範，法院拒接受解釋。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191204/00178_005.html
- 澳洲執法及情報部門，昨日突擊搜查新南威爾士省工黨議員莫斯馬尼（Shaoquett Moselmane）的住所及辦公室，有指中國特工滲透其辦公室。若他被落案起訴，將是澳洲第一宗面臨反外國干預法訴訟。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200627/00178_005.html
- cases
- 美國《華爾街日報》前天披露，多名相信與中國軍方及國安機構有關的中國人，在總統特朗普上任後不久，透過共和黨全國委員會接觸該黨高層，並提供數十萬美元政治獻金。報道指中方試圖以金錢接近特朗普，鋪平打入美國政壇的道路，並收集美方領導層資訊。大部分政治獻金在特朗普任期頭兩年流入名為「特朗普勝利」的籌款委員會，二○一七年的捐款是當年最大筆之一，其時華府正制訂對華政策，但只佔委員會自特朗普上台後籌得一億九千萬美元（約十四億八千萬港元）的小部分。報道指，關鍵人物包括加州的親特朗普組織始創人王湉。據報中國駐洛杉磯總領事館在特朗普勝選後接觸王湉，要求他協助在中國議題作游說。王湉是共和黨圈子的常客，曾向特朗普競選團隊稱派遣美軍到南海是浪費金錢。二○一七年五月，王湉受共和黨全國委員會委員斯蒂爾（Shawn Steel）邀請出席該委員會高層會議，他帶同被指與中國政府有關的人士出席，分別是中國科學技術發展戰略研究院研究員趙剛、本身是美國公民的中國戰略文化促進會常務理事湯本，以及商人李書（Li Su，音譯）。不過，美國聯邦法律規定外國人不得參與美國政治委員會的決策過程，趙剛及李書現身該會議並不尋常。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200625/00180_014.html
- new forms
cabinet manual
- The Cabinet Manual (previously the Cabinet Office Manual until 2001[1]) is a government document in New Zealand which outlines the main laws, rules and constitutional conventionsaffecting the operation of the New Zealand Government. New Zealand does not have a single codified constitutional document. The Cabinet Manualforms one part of the constitution of New Zealand, and serves to consolidate many of the previously unwritten conventions through which the New Zealand Government operates.The first edition was published on 23 January 1979.[5] The idea of a such a document was proposed by Prime Minister Sidney Holland about 30 years prior.
- The Cabinet Manual is a government document in the United Kingdom which sets out the main laws, rules and conventions affecting the conduct and operation of the Government of the United Kingdom. It was written by Her Majesty's Civil Service, led by Cabinet Secretary Sir Gus O'Donnell, and was published by the Cabinet Office on 14 December 2010. The Manual gives an overview of the UK's system of government, reflecting the importance of Parliament, Cabinet government and the democratic nature of the UK’s constitutional arrangements by explaining the powers of the Executive, Sovereign, Parliament, international institutions (most notably the European Union), the Crown Dependencies, British Overseas Territories and the devolved administrations in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The Manual was written as a guide for members of Cabinet, other ministers and civil servants in the execution of government business, but also serves to consolidate many of the previously unwritten constructional conventions through which the British government operates. The writing of the Manual was originally initiated by Gordon Brown as part of his broader plan to establish a written constitution for the UK.[1] However, in 2011 the House of Lords Constitution Committee stated that the document was "not the first step to a written constitution" as it only describes the existing rules and does not "set existing practice in stone".[2] The Manual does not need to be formally approved by Parliament and can be modified at any time by the Cabinet Secretary.
Sanctuary city (French: ville sanctuaire; Spanish: ciudad santuario) refers to municipal jurisdictions, typically in North America and Western Europe, that limit their cooperation with the national government's effort to enforce immigration law. Leaders of sanctuary cities say they want to reduce fear of deportation and possible family break-up among people who are in the country illegally, so that such people will be more willing to report crimes, use health and social services, and enroll their children in school. In the United States, municipal policies include prohibiting police or city employees from questioning people about their immigration status and refusing requests by national immigration authorities to detain people beyond their release date, if they were jailed for breaking local law.European cities have been inspired by the same political currents of the sanctuary movement as American cities, but the term "sanctuary city" now has different meanings in Europe and North America.[9] In the United Kingdom and Ireland, and in continental Europe, sanctuary city refers to cities that are committed to welcoming refugees, asylum seekers and others who are seeking safety. Such cities are now found in 80 towns, cities and local areas in England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.[10] The emphasis is on building bridges of connection and understanding, which is done through raising awareness, befriending schemes and forming cultural connections in the arts, sport, health, education, faith groups and other sectors of society.[11] Glasgow and Swansea have become known as noted sanctuary cities.- economist 5cot19 "tiny democracy" a belgian experiment that aristotle would have approved of
- economist 23feb19 "pillar of strength" raghuram rajan argues that weakened communities threaten liberal democracy
constitution
- agreements can't be reached
- The Cabinet Manual (previously the Cabinet Office Manual until 2001[1]) is a government document in New Zealand which outlines the main laws, rules and constitutional conventionsaffecting the operation of the New Zealand Government. New Zealand does not have a single codified constitutional document. The Cabinet Manualforms one part of the constitution of New Zealand, and serves to consolidate many of the previously unwritten conventions through which the New Zealand Government operates.The first edition was published on 23 January 1979.[5] The idea of a such a document was proposed by Prime Minister Sidney Holland about 30 years prior.
- The Cabinet Manual is a government document in the United Kingdom which sets out the main laws, rules and conventions affecting the conduct and operation of the Government of the United Kingdom. It was written by Her Majesty's Civil Service, led by Cabinet Secretary Sir Gus O'Donnell, and was published by the Cabinet Office on 14 December 2010. The Manual gives an overview of the UK's system of government, reflecting the importance of Parliament, Cabinet government and the democratic nature of the UK’s constitutional arrangements by explaining the powers of the Executive, Sovereign, Parliament, international institutions (most notably the European Union), the Crown Dependencies, British Overseas Territories and the devolved administrations in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. The Manual was written as a guide for members of Cabinet, other ministers and civil servants in the execution of government business, but also serves to consolidate many of the previously unwritten constructional conventions through which the British government operates. The writing of the Manual was originally initiated by Gordon Brown as part of his broader plan to establish a written constitution for the UK.[1] However, in 2011 the House of Lords Constitution Committee stated that the document was "not the first step to a written constitution" as it only describes the existing rules and does not "set existing practice in stone".[2] The Manual does not need to be formally approved by Parliament and can be modified at any time by the Cabinet Secretary.
- President Donald Trump's threats to relocate undocumented immigrants and asylum seekers to "sanctuary cities" capture his determination to constantly press the boundaries of law and morality with hardline immigration policies. But it may reveal even more about his political posture toward the nation's biggest population centers. In 2016, Trump lost the largest metropolitan counties by a bigger margin than any Republican presidential candidate in modern times. In 2018, House Republicans were routed in suburban districts not only in metropolitan areas already trending toward Democrat -- such as the suburbs of Denver, Philadelphia, Seattle and northern Virginia -- but also in places that had still leaned toward the GOP, including Atlanta, Dallas, Houston, Richmond and even Oklahoma City. But rather than looking to rebuild bridges with these growing population centers, Trump appears determined to use them as a foil to energize his predominantly non-urban base.
行政鎮區 A civil township is a widely used unit of local government in the United States that is subordinate to a county. The term town is used in New England, New York, and Wisconsin to refer to the equivalent of the civil township in these states. Specific responsibilities and the degree of autonomy vary based on each state. Civil townships are distinct from survey townships, but in states that have both, the boundaries often coincide and may completely geographically subdivide a county. The U.S. Census Bureau classifies civil townships as minor civil divisions. Currently, there are 20 states with civil townships.
Township functions are generally overseen by a governing board (the name varies from state to state) and a clerk, trustee, or mayor (in NJ townships and Utah metro townships). Township officers frequently include justice of the peace, road commissioner, assessor, constable, and surveyor. In the 20th century, many townships also added a township administrator or supervisor to the officers as an executive for the board. In some cases, townships run local libraries, senior citizen services, youth services, disabled citizen services, emergency assistance, and even cemetery services. In some states, a township and a municipality that is coterminous with that township may wholly or partially consolidate their operations., so that such people will be more willing to report crimes, use health and social services, and enroll their children in school.
- legislation
- township act
- Charter townships and general law townships are similar in organizational structure and powers except for specific differences provided for in the Charter Township Act. In particular, the act grants charter townships additional flexibility in their organizational structure, boundary protection against annexation and enhances the unit's general tax authority.http://www.alpenatownship.com/Documents/Departments/Miscellaneous%20Forms%20&%20Documents/general_law_vs_charter_township_mta_nov_2016.pdf
- A township, in the context of New Jersey local government, refers to one of five types and one of eleven forms of municipal government. As a political entity, a township in New Jersey is a full-fledged municipality, on par with any town, city, borough, or village. They collect property taxes and provide services such as maintaining roads, garbage collection, water, sewer, schools, police and fire protection. The Township form of local government is used by 27% of New Jersey municipalities; however, slightly over 50% of the state's population resides within them. Townships in New Jersey differ from townships elsewhere in the United States. In many states townships can be an intermediate form of government, between county government and municipalities that are subordinate parts of the township, with different government responsibilities allocated at each level. In New Jersey, there are no subordinate municipalities located within a township, as townships are equivalent to all other forms of local municipalities.
- eg. parsippany-troy hills new jersey
The commune (French pronunciation: [kɔmyn]) is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are analogous to civil townships and incorporated municipalities in the United States and Canada, Gemeinden in Germany, comuni in Italy or municipio in Spain. The United Kingdom has no exact equivalent, as communes resemble districts in urban areas, but are closer to parishes in rural areas where UK districts are much larger. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and are vested with significant powers to manage the populations and land of the geographic area covered. The communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France.Today, French communes are still very much the same in their general principles as those that were established at the beginning of the Revolution. The biggest changes occurred in 1831, when the French Parliament re-established the principle of the election of municipal councils, and in 1837 when French communes were given legal "personality," being now considered legal entities with legal capacity. The Jacobin revolutionaries were afraid of independent local powers, which they saw as conservative and opposed to the revolution, and so they favored a powerful central state. Therefore, when they created the communes, they deprived them of any legal "personality" (as they did with the départements), with only the central state having legal "personality." By 1837 that situation was judged impractical, as mayors and municipal councils could not be parties in courts. The consequence of the change, however, was that tens of thousands of villages which had never had legal "personality" (contrary to the chartered cities) suddenly became legal entities for the first time in their history. This is still the case today. During the revolution, approximately 41,000 communes were created,[12] on territory corresponding to the limits of modern-day France (the 41,000 figure includes the communes of the departments of Savoie, Haute-Savoie and Alpes-Maritimes which were annexed in 1795, but does not include the departments of modern-day Belgium and Germany west of the Rhine, which were part of France between 1795 and 1815). スイスの基礎自治体もフランス語圏（Suisse romande 又は Romandie）ではコミューン（コミュヌ）と呼ぶ。La palabra francesa communesurgió en el siglo XII, del vocablo perteneciente al latín medieval communia, cuyo significado es pequeño conjunto de gente compartiendo una vida común, del latín communis, cosas en común.
In the United States, a metropolitan statistical area (MSA) is a geographical region with a relatively high population density at its core and close economic ties throughout the area. Such regions are neither legally incorporated as a city or town would be, nor are they legal administrative divisions like counties or separate entities such as states; because of this, the precise definition of any given metropolitan area can vary with the source. The statistical criteria for a standard metropolitan area were defined in 1949 and redefined as metropolitan statistical area in 1983.[1] A typical metropolitan area is centered on a single large city that wields substantial influence over the region (e.g., New York City or Philadelphia). However, some metropolitan areas contain more than one large city with no single municipality holding a substantially dominant position (e.g., Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex, Norfolk-Virginia Beach (Hampton Roads), Riverside–San Bernardino (Inland Empire) or Minneapolis–Saint Paul(Twin Cities)). MSAs are defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and used by the Census Bureau and other federal government agencies for statistical purposes.
A census-designated place (CDP) is a concentration of population defined by the United States Census Bureau for statistical purposes only. CDPs have been used in each decennial census since 1980 as the counterparts of incorporated places,[4] such as self-governing cities, towns, and villages, for the purposes of gathering and correlating statistical data. CDPs are populated areas that generally include one officially designated but currently unincorporated community, for which the CDP is named, plus surrounding inhabited countryside of varying dimensions and, occasionally, other, smaller unincorporated communities as well. CDPs include small rural communities, colonias located along the U.S. border with Mexico, and unincorporated resort and retirement communities and their environs.The boundaries of a CDP have no legal status.[1] Thus, they may not always correspond with the local understanding of the area or community with the same name. However, criteria established for the 2010 Census require that a CDP name "be one that is recognized and used in daily communication by the residents of the community" (not "a name developed solely for planning or other purposes") and recommend that a CDP's boundaries be mapped based on the geographic extent associated with inhabitants' regular use of the named place.
- examples
- Zuni Pueblo (Zuni: Shiwinna, also Zuñi Pueblo and Pueblo de Zuñi) is a census-designated place (CDP) in McKinley County, New Mexico, United States. The first contact with Europeans occurred in 1539 in the ancient village of Hawikku when Esteban, an Arab/Berber of Moroccan origin, entered Zuni territory seeking the fabled "Seven Cities of Cibola."
- cherry valley, california
In law, an unincorporated area is a region of land that is not governed by a local municipal corporation; similarly an unincorporated community is a settlement that is not governed by its own local municipal corporation, but rather is administered as part of larger administrative divisions, such as a township, parish, borough, county, city, canton, state, province or country. Occasionally, municipalities dissolve or disincorporate, which may happen if they become fiscally insolvent, and services become the responsibility of a higher administration. Widespread unincorporated communities and areas are a distinguishing feature of the United States and Canada. In most other countries of the world, there are either no unincorporated areas at all, or these are very rare; typically remote, outlying, sparsely populated or uninhabited areas.
- examples
- Lenore is an unincorporated community in Nez Perce County, Idaho, United States.
- Lenore is an unincorporated community in Mingo County, West Virginia, United States.
- South Whittier, California (an unincorporated area south of the city limits)
- West Whittier-Los Nietos, California (an unincorporated area west of the city limits)
- East Whittier, California (an unincorporated area east of the city limits)
- Rose Hills, California (an unincorporated area north of the city limits)
- siam, ohio, usa
- mecca, riverside county, california, usa
A municipality is usually a single administrative divisionhaving corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. It is to be distinguished (usually) from the county, which may encompass rural territory or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality.[1] A municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latinmunicipalis.[2] The English word municipality derives from the Latin social contract municipium (derived from a word meaning "duty holders"), referring to the Latin communities that supplied Rome with troops in exchange for their own incorporation into the Roman state (granting Roman citizenship to the inhabitants) while permitting the communities to retain their own local governments (a limited autonomy). A municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, to a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York.
- examples
- aulla, italy
In United States local government, a consolidated city-county 市县合一 is formed when one or more cities and their surrounding county (parish in Louisiana, borough in Alaska) merge into one unified jurisdiction. As such it has the governmental powers of both a municipal corporation and an administrative division of a state.A consolidated city-county is different from an independent city, although the latter may result from consolidation of a city and a county and may also have the same powers as a consolidated city-county. An independent city is a city not deemed by its state to be located within the boundary of any county and recognized by its state as a legal territorial entity separate from surrounding or adjoining counties. A consolidated city-county differs from an independent city in that the city and county both nominally exist, although they have a consolidated government, whereas in an independent city, the county does not even nominally exist.[1]Not considering Hawaii, which has no independent municipalities, the Midwest and Upper South have the highest concentration of large consolidated city-county governments in the United States, including Indianapolis, Indiana; Nashville, Tennessee; Louisville, Kentucky; Kansas City, Kansas; and Lexington, Kentucky. Currently, the largest consolidated city-county in the United States by population is Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, while the largest by land area is Sitka, Alaska.它既是一个拥有市法团的城市，同时也是一个州下属的行政区划，由此它也同时继承了这两种不同实体的义务和权利。市郡合併の成功率はあまり高くはない。元アルバカーキ市長デイビッド・ラスクによると、1902年から2010年までに出された市郡合併案105件のうち、可決されたのは約1/4の27件にとどまる。2010年に出されたテネシー州メンフィス市と同州シェルビー郡の合併案の例では、同案が住民投票で否決された後、2011年3月に同市と同郡の公立学校システムの統合が、郊外部の強い反対を押し切って住民投票で可決されたが、同郡教育委員会が合併の撤回を求めて訴訟を起こす事態になった[1]。
- other examples
- athens, georgia
- In South Africa, a metropolitan municipality or Category A municipality is a municipality which executes all the functions of local government for a city or conurbation. This is by contrast to areas which are primarily rural, where the local government is divided into district municipalities and local municipalities. The metropolitan municipality is similar to the consolidated city-county in the US, although a South African metropolitan municipality is created by notice of the provincial government, not by agreement between district and local municipalities.Metropolitan municipalities were brought about during reforms of the 1990s so that cities could be governed as single entities.[3] This was a response to apartheid policy which had broken up municipal governance. For example, Soweto had, until 1973 been administered by the Johannesburg City Council, but after 1973 was run by an Administration Board separate from the city council. This arrangement deprived Soweto of vital subsidies that it had been receiving from Johannesburg.[4] A key demand of anti-apartheid civics in the 1980s was for 'one city, one tax base' in order to facilitate the equitable distribution of funds within what was a functionally integrated urban space.[5] Local government reform after apartheid produced six Transitional Metropolitan Councils following the 1995/6 local government elections. These were characterized by a two-tier structure. From 2000, these six Metropolitan Councils were restructured into their final single-tier form. In 2011, Buffalo City (East London) and Mangaung (Bloemfontein) were added to the category of metropolitan municipality.都市圏は自治体カテゴリーAに指定され、基礎自治体である地方自治体としての機能のほか、郡単位の広域自治体である地区自治体の権限も有している。
A city charter or town charter (generically, municipal charter) is a legal document (charter) establishing a municipality such as a city or town. The concept developed in Europe during the Middle Ages.Traditionally the granting of a charter gave a settlement and its inhabitants the right to town privileges under the feudal system. Townspeople who lived in chartered towns were burghers, as opposed to serfs who lived in villages. Towns were often "free", in the sense that they were directly protected by the king or emperor, and were not part of a feudal fief. Today the process for granting is determined by the type of government of the state in question. In monarchies, charters are still often a royal charter given by the Crown or the authorities acting on behalf of the Crown. In federations, the granting of charters may be within the jurisdiction of the lower level of government such as province.
- usa
- In the United States, a charter city is a city in which the governing system is defined by the city's own charter document rather than by general law. In states where city charters are allowed by law, a city can adopt or modify its organizing charter by decision of its administration by the way established in the charter. These cities may be administered predominantly by residents or through a third-party management structure, because a charter gives a city the flexibility to choose novel types of government structure.
- eg
- During the Mexican period of San Diego's history, La Jolla was mapped as pueblo land and contained about 60 lots. When California became a state in 1850, the La Jolla area was incorporated as part of the chartered City of San Diego. In 1870, Charles Dean acquired several of the pueblo lots and subdivided them into an area that became known as La Jolla Park. Dean was unable to develop the land and left San Diego in 1881. A real estate boom in the 1880s led speculators Frank T. Botsford and George W. Heald to further develop the sparsely settled area.
- Waitsburg is a city in Walla Walla County, Washington, United States. It has a unique city classification in the State of Washington: it is the only city which still operates under its territorial charter.
In the United States, an independent city is a city that is not in the territory of any county or counties, with certain exceptions. Independent cities are classified by the United States Census Bureau as "county equivalents", and may also have similar governmental powers as a consolidated city-county. However in the case of a consolidated city-county, a city and a county were merged into a unified jurisdiction in which the county at least nominally exists to this day, whereas an independent city was legally separated from any county or merged with a county that simultaneously ceased to exist even in name. Of the 41 independent U.S. cities,[1] 38 are in Virginia, whose state constitution makes them a special case. The three independent cities outside Virginia are Baltimore, Maryland; St. Louis, Missouri; and Carson City, Nevada. The most populous of them is Baltimore, Maryland.
- eg newport news
特別區（日語：特別区／とくべつく tokubetsu ku */?）是日本的行政區劃之一，置於都道府縣之下，與市町村同為第三級行政區劃，但屬於特別地方公共團體，自治權限較市町村為高、低於政令指定都市。目前該建制專指東京都區部。該建制依1947年施行的《地方自治法》成立以來，原僅允許都設置，因此只有東京都設置特別區，即東京都區部（東京23區），由原東京市拆分而來。自2012年起，特別區設置的適用範圍擴大，道府縣可依照專法，在人口達200萬的大都市區域設置特別區，但目前未有成功設置之案例。
A hamlet is a small or very small human settlement. In different jurisdictions and geographies, a hamlet may be the size of a town, village or parish, or may be considered to be a smaller settlement or subdivision or satellite entity to a larger settlement. The word and concept of a hamlet have roots in the Anglo-Norman settlement of England, where the old French hamlet came to apply to small human settlements. In British geography, a hamlet is considered smaller than a village and distinctly without a church or other place of worship (e.g. one road or a crossroads, with houses either side).中國大陸地區研究歐美農村城市化建設的專家多譯作「鄉村居民點」，自1990年代開始，中國大陸的農村居民區或曰鄉村居民點，其佈局漸漸開始走向政府規劃，進入2000年以後基本上全部開始由政府統一規劃和佈局，多分佈於公路主幹道的沿線。
Microdistrict, or microraion (Russian: микрорайо́н, mikrorajón; Belarusian: мікрараён, mikrarajon, Hungarian: lakótelep; Ukrainian: мікрорайон, Azerbaijani: mikrorayon, Armenian: միկրոշրջան, romanized: mikrošrǯan, Kyrgyz: кичирайон) is a residential complex—a primary structural element of the residential area construction in the Soviet Union and in some post-Soviet and former Socialist states. Residential districts in most of the cities and towns in Russia and the republics of the former Soviet Union were built in accordance with this concept.According to the Construction Rules and Regulations of the Soviet Union, a typical microdistrict covered the area of 10–60 hectares (30–160 acres), up to but not exceeding 80 hectares (200 acres) in some cases, and comprised residential dwellings (usually multi-story apartment buildings) and public service buildings. The history of microdistricts as an urban planning concept dates back to the 1920s, when the Soviet Union underwent rapid urbanization. Under the Soviet urban planning ideologies of the 1920s, residential complexes—compact territories with residential dwellings, schools, shops, entertainment facilities, and green spaces—started to prevail in urban planning practice, as they allowed for more careful and efficient planning of the rapid urban expansion. These complexes were seen as an opportunity to build a collective society,[1] an environment suitable and necessary for the new way of life.In China, this type of neighbourhood unit is known as Xiaoqu (Chinese: 小区; pinyin: xiǎoqū). First built in the 1980s in Wuxi, Jinan and Tianjin, preceding the Chinese economic reform, they were very similar to the concept as known in the Soviet Union, and are considered to be an evolution of the work unit (danwei). Xiaoqu similarly promoted a sense of community among the inhabitants. However, after the economy was opened up more for commercial real estate developers, Xiaoqu continued to be built in recent decades, but evolved in several ways such as differentiation in luxury, safety and available services.
- eg Staroye Arakchino Microdistrict, Kazan
- epistemic
- produce preferences, opinions, decisions
- promote mutual respect
- inclusion of multiple and plural voices, interests, concerns, and claims
experts in democratic system
- epistemically can promote citizen ignorance
- threatens ethical function when it produces expert disrespect for citizen contribution
- problem of excluding non-experts
- participatory innovations - new forms of trusted proxy such as relatively randomly selected citizen bodies, ngos
pressure and protest
- money
- demonstration
media
- political
- partisan
defects
- one part supposed to complement another but when parts are too tightly coupled to one another, the self corrective quality is lost
- parts of the system become decoupled from one another , one part fail to pentrate the others
- one of its parts, whether deliberative or not, dominates all of the others
- a particular social interest/class exerts undue influence over many parts of the system
- when different parts are so divided and not listen to posistions other than those emanating from their side
- problem of excluding non-experts
- participatory innovations - new forms of trusted proxy such as relatively randomly selected citizen bodies, ngos
pressure and protest
- money
- demonstration
media
- political
- partisan
defects
- one part supposed to complement another but when parts are too tightly coupled to one another, the self corrective quality is lost
- parts of the system become decoupled from one another , one part fail to pentrate the others
- one of its parts, whether deliberative or not, dominates all of the others
- a particular social interest/class exerts undue influence over many parts of the system
- when different parts are so divided and not listen to posistions other than those emanating from their side
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