- Aisin Gioro is the name of the imperial clan of Manchu emperors of the Qing dynasty. The House of Aisin Gioro ruled China from 1644 until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911-12, which established a republican government in its place. The word aisin means gold in the Manchu language, and "gioro" is the name of the Aisin Gioro's ancestral home in present-day Yilan, Heilongjiang Province. In Manchu custom, families are identified first by their hala (哈拉), i.e. their family or clan name, and then by mukūn (穆昆), the more detailed classification, typically referring to individual families. In the case of Aisin Gioro, Aisin is the mukūn, and Gioro is the hala. Other members of the Gioro clan include Irgen Gioro (伊爾根覺羅), Susu Gioro (舒舒覺羅) and Sirin Gioro (西林覺羅). The Jin dynasty (jin means gold in Chinese) of the Jurchens, ancestors of the Manchus, was known as aisin gurun, and the Qing dynasty was initially named (
) amaga aisin gurun, or Later Jin dynasty. Since the fall of the Qing Empire, a number of members of the family have changed their surnames to Jin (Chinese: 金) since it has the same meaning as "Aisin". For example, Puyi's younger brother changed his name from Aisin Gioro Puren (愛新覺羅溥任) to Jin Youzhi (金友之) and his children in turn adopt Jin as their family name.- 王府
- 清代的鐵帽子王府中，最「淒慘」的當屬莊王府、怡王府，幾乎已是「屍骨無存」。莊王府位於現今北京平安里大街附近，原分為大府和小府兩部分。一九○○年，八國聯軍攻進北京時，由於莊親王載勳是支持義和團「扶清滅洋」的骨幹，被列作元兇禍首。莊王府先是被當成刑場，在此處決了一千多名義和團教徒，而後大府被一把大火焚毀，剩下遍地瓦礫，斷壁殘垣。小府位於大府南側毛家灣一代，解放後林彪曾在此居住二十年，現為中央黨史和文獻研究院。進入民國後，末代莊親王溥緒將其賣給北洋政府上將、江西督軍李純。當時許多達官顯貴，都常住在洋商洋行麇集的天津。李純將莊王府老宅的建材拆除，運到天津，在南開區白堤路，按照封建等級規制重建了王府，並且赫然掛上了「莊王府」牌匾。影壁、石牌坊、華表、石拱橋、玉帶河、府門、花房、化妝房、戲樓、月台、銀安殿、神殿、東西配殿等等，一應俱全。明代將皇子分封到各地為藩王，故而各省都有王府。而清代王爺都居住在京城。故而天津這座莊王府，就成為北京城外唯一朱紅大門的清代王府，有「天津小故宮」之稱。李純此舉，極大地滿足了自己的奇葩虛榮心。細論起來，李純開了異地搬遷王府的先河。順承郡王府原位於太平橋大街。始封順承郡王勒克德渾是禮親王代善之孫。清亡後，一九二一年，順承郡王府也加入了「大甩賣」行列，賣給奉系軍閥張作霖，張大帥入據北京時曾闢為大元帥府。少帥張學良與趙四小姐也曾在其中居住數年。一九四九年後，這裏成為全國政協機關大院。郡王府被整體拆除，在朝陽公園以東按照同比例重建。筆者曾專程前往，發現這裏已經成為一所酒店，除了高牆大殿的外殼外，已沒有一絲一毫的王府味道，與那些仿古的商業設施別無二致。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190911/PDF/b9_screen.pdf
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170111/PDF/b14_screen.pdf note the bilingual use of chinese and another language
- 耆英 Keying (21 March 1787 – 29 June 1858), also known by his Chinese name Qiying and his Manchu name Kiyeng, was a Manchu statesman during the Qing dynasty of China. An imperial clansman of the house of Aisin Gioro, he began his career in the Imperial Clan Court. He conducted several peace treaties with Western powers, beginning with the Treaty of Nanking, which ended the First Opium War with Britain in 1842. Keying was sent to negotiate again in 1858 to settle the Arrow War with Britain and France, but the settlement was repudiated by the Daoguang Emperor and he was forced to commit suicide.
- Keying and Marine House, became part of the Hong Kong Hotel in 1866.
- 溥儀（满语：ᡦᡠ ᡳ，穆麟德：Pu I，太清：Pu I，1906年2月7日－1967年10月17日），愛新覺羅氏，乳名午格[2]，字耀之，號浩然[3]，英語名稱「亨利」（Henry）；汗號「哈瓦圖猷斯汗」（蒙古语：Хэвт ёс хаан），西藏方面尊為「文殊皇帝」[b]，年號「宣統」，後世通稱「宣統皇帝」。溥儀正式登基宣統皇帝時年僅3歲，其實權由父親攝政王載灃掌握。 辛亥革命以後，溥儀被袁世凱強逼退位，故亦有「清遜帝」或「清廢帝」之稱。 1917年，溥儀被張勳，陳寶琛，王士珍，陳光遠，康有為，劉廷琛，沈曾植和勞乃宣各人的支持和幫助下，以謀求短暫復辟但最終失敗。 1934年，溥儀在日本支持和幫助下登基成為滿洲國皇帝，年號「康德」，故又得名「康德皇帝 」。1919年，英國蘇格蘭人莊士敦（Reginald Fleming Johnston）此時前往北京市紫禁城，擔任溥儀帝師，教授指導溥儀學習英語，數學，世界歷史和地理。溥儀和莊士敦二人關係感情深厚良好，傳為佳話，為人津津樂道。溥儀因此而對現代世界眼界大開，擴闊國際視野和增加西方基本知識。並剪掉自己的髮辮和穿著西服，但是遭受陳寶琛，鄭孝胥等傳統保守派人士的不滿和批評。1950年8月1日，溥儀與其他滿洲國263名“戰犯”，在綏芬河由蘇聯移交給中華人民共和國，送往撫順戰犯管理所接受為期10年的勞動改造和思想教育。此時，溥儀的囚犯編號是981。1959年12月4日，溥儀經中華人民共和國最高人民法院根據國家主席劉少奇的特赦令予以釋放。特赦令說：「溥儀關押已經滿十年。在關押期間，經過勞動改造和思想教育，已經有確實改惡從善的表現，符合特赦令第一條的規定，予以釋放。」從此，溥儀便成為中華人民共和國公民。1960年3月，溥儀被分配往北京植物园任職植物護理員和售票員。1964年1月1日，溥儀加入政協全國委員會，任職文化歷史資料研究委員會專員。1966年文化大革命，因周恩來將溥儀列為重要保護對象，以免溥儀遭受紅衛兵的批鬥攻擊。1967年10月17日，溥儀因患上腎癌，在北京大學人民醫院病逝，終年61歲。
- according to mingpao monthly sep2011, 廖承志 handed over puyi's autobiography to 新晚报连载
- 皇后郭布羅．婉容
- 一九三一年，不願再忍受這一帝、一后、 一妃的 「三角關係」 的文繡，向法院起訴，與 溥儀離婚。她也成為中國幾千年帝制歷史中， 第一位與皇帝離婚的妃子。翌年，文繡在為北 平的府右街私立四存中小學的國文和圖畫老師 ，恢復了原名：傅玉芳。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200616/PDF/b3_screen.pdf
- 嵯峨 浩（さが ひろ、1914年（大正3年）3月16日 - 1987年（昭和62年）6月20日）は、愛新覚羅溥傑（満州国皇帝愛新覚羅溥儀の弟）の妻。後に記した自伝のタイトルから「流転の王妃」として知られる。浩が女子学習院を卒業した1936年（昭和11年）当時、日本の陸軍士官学校を卒業して千葉県に住んでいた満州国皇帝溥儀の弟・溥傑と日本人女性との縁談が、関東軍の主導で進められていた。当初溥儀は、溥傑を日本の皇族女子と結婚させたいという意向を持っていた。翌1937年（昭和12年）2月6日、二人の婚約内定が満州国大使館から発表され、同年4月3日には東京の軍人会館（現九段会館）で結婚式が挙げられた。note the family tree in japanese version wikipedia and link with the japanese emperor
- 爱新觉罗恆錦 grandfather was great grandson of 道光http://hk.hkcd.com/pdf/201704/0418/HZ25418CTE2.pdf
- [from auction booklet] maternal grandfather was 溥佺（溥松窗）(painter), mother was 愛新覺羅·文嘉 (court painter and calligrapher)
- 愛新覺羅·毓婷 , painter
- https://hk.news.appledaily.com/local/daily/article/20180910/20496162 在對岸的台灣，據說有不少富察家族的後人
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-Chinese-royal-family-after-the-end-of-the-Qing-dynasty Nowadays, many from the former imperial family, the House of Aisin Gioro, are doing well in the entertainment industry. Here are their photos.
- according to the imperial palace exhibition in hk in 2017, calabash, cat, butterfly are frequently seen in arts, crafts, etc
Territory
- map in 1751 Qianlong time http://www.hkcd.com.hk/pdf/201701/0107/HZ17107CTE6.pdf, https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/archivedetail/0993/LEmpire_De_La_Chine%E2%80%A61751/De%20Vaugondy.html
government
- 鐵路和電信督辦盛宣懷(温州基督教編年史)
army
- navy
- 水操學堂http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/02/18/a26-0218.pdf
Governance
- 直隸州，中國明代、清代時的行政區劃。在明朝時，與府同級，受省(承宣布政使司)管轄，兩者之下管轄縣，但明代的府也會管「散州」，而明代散州底下仍可轄縣。所以明代的地方行政制度層級很複雜，說不清楚該是「三級制」還是「四級制」。在清朝行政區劃，直隸州編制在省之下，與府和直隸廳同級。就編制上，直隸州與府的等級很接近，轄下知州、州同、州判等官員都與府的官吏之品等編制也很接近，且府與直隸州底下會管轄縣(但清代福建台灣省所管轄的臺東直隸州為例外，並未轄縣)，但直隸廳則多數都不管轄縣。又清朝的制度規定，直隸州州衙所在地本身，為州直轄地，不設縣份，但可管鄰縣。譬如，清代雍正十一年（1733年），昇廣東省的程鄉縣為嘉應直隸州，此時，原有的程鄉縣就必須裁撤，成為州衙的直轄地，但直隸州州衙可管鄰縣，因為按清朝制度，直隸州通常必須管轄鄰縣，所以嘉應直隸州成立後，就管轄了長樂縣（今五華縣）、興寧縣、平遠縣、鎮平縣（今蕉嶺縣）等四個縣份。以此類推清朝全國內地各省的其他直隸州，也是如此。1912年清朝滅亡進入民國時期後，直隸州制度廢除，則原有州直轄地，須改設新的縣份。如前述嘉應州州直轄地，民國時期，就改設置了梅縣。
- 嘉應直隸州，清朝時設置的直隸州。雍正十一年（1733年）升程鄉縣置，治所在今廣東省梅州市梅縣區。隸廣東省。嘉慶十一年（1806年）升為嘉應府，十七年仍改為直隸州。下轄四縣：長樂縣（今五華縣）、興寧縣、平遠縣、鎮平縣（今蕉嶺縣）。轄境有今廣東省梅州市的梅江區、梅縣區、平遠、蕉嶺、興寧、五華等市縣地。1912年改為梅州，旋降為梅縣。
- 直隸總督（满语：ᡷᡳᠯᡳ
ᡠᡥᡝᡵᡳ
ᡴᠠᡩᠠᠯᠠᡵᠠ
ᠠᠮᠪᠠᠨ，穆麟德：jyli uheri kadalara amban），正式官銜為總督直隸等處地方提督軍務、糧饟、管理河道兼巡撫事，是清朝9位最高級的封疆大臣之一，總管直隸的軍民政務，总督署驻直隶省保定府城（今保定市莲池区）。而由於直隸省地處京畿要地，因此直隸總督被稱為疆臣之首。直隸總督例兼兵部右尚書右都御史，可直接上奏皇帝。直隸總督的前身是设于順治五年的直隸山東河南三省總督，當時預定的總督府設在直隸大名府（今邯鄲市大名縣）。顺治十五年，降為直隸巡撫。顺治十八年，復置直隸總督一職，駐地依舊位于大名。康熙八年裁撤總督一職。雍正元年，重設直隸總督一職。駐地為保定。建立保定直隶总督轅門。乾隆十四年，直隸總督兼管黃河的防汛和治理工作。乾隆二十八年，直隸總督兼任直隸省巡撫。咸豐三年，长芦盐场的鹽政劃歸直隸總督直轄。同治九年，清廷將天津、營口和煙台三個口岸的通商事宜，劃歸直隸總督管理，並將北洋通商大臣一銜授與直隸總督。自此直隸總督多駐在天津，在冬天外貿淡季，才回到保定。天津直隶总督衙门旧址辛亥革命后改为直隶省（河北省）政府驻地。1937年遭日军轰炸，成为废墟。中華人民共和國成立后，天津市政府在废墟上新建金钢公园，改建第二医院。保定直隶总督衙门旧址现保存基本完好。
- 方觀承http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190914/PDF/a20_screen.pdf
- the last person to hold the position was 张镇芳（1863—1933），字馨庵，河南项城阎楼人，乃袁世凯兄嫂之弟。清光绪进士。历任天津道、长芦盐运使、湖南提法使、署理直隶总督等职。民国成立后，任河南都督兼民政长。1914年调回北京。次年支持袁世凯复辟帝制，与朱启钤等同被列为“七凶”。袁死后参与张勋复辟，任内阁议政大臣、度支部尚书，复辟失败后被捕。1918年获释，在天津任盐业银行董事、董事长。
- 總督署門前一左一右雄踞兩頭怒獅，說不清是大青石的還是漢白玉的，但衙府門前的這兩座石獅子，高大雄偉頗有幾分霸氣，頭上有十三團卷毛，稱為「十三太保」，象徵此衙門非彼衙門，坐鎮總督署非一品大員不可。石獅最有神的是炯炯發威的兩眼，兩眼圓瞪，怒目而視，張威含霸，令人未進總督署，先有三分卑。據清史料所載，現存的這座直隸總督署於清王朝雍正七年即公元一七二九年建成，之前四年，也就是雍正三年，一七二五年清王朝決定在保定府設立直隸總督署，第一位任總督的是趙維鈞。清王朝曾在全國建八大總督制，立八大總督署，像兩江、陝甘、兩廣、雲貴、四川、閩浙、湖廣等都建立了氣勢不凡、規模宏大的總督署，但二百多年的曲曲折折、風風雨雨，那七大總督衙門只能留在清史之中或地方志內，不是早已蕩然無存，就是殘破傾圮。只有眼前這座直隸總督衙門還老當益壯，依然健在。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190909/PDF/b6_screen.pdf
- 咸丰十年十二月（1861年1月），清政府设总理各国事务衙门，下设三口通商大臣及南洋通商大臣。三口通商大臣驻天津，管理牛庄、天津、登州三口通商事务。同治九年（1870年）11月12日，清政府裁撤三口通商大臣一缺。裁撤后，所有洋务，海防各事宜，均归直隶总督经管，颁发钦差大臣关防，称“北洋通商大臣”或“北洋大臣”。管理直隶（今河北）、山东、奉天（今辽宁）三省通商、洋务，办理有关外交、海防、关税及官办军事工业等事宜。1870年8月，李鸿章调任直隶总督，11月4日接办了天津军火机器总局，改称天津机器制造局。此后，李鸿章担任直隶总督兼北洋大臣达28年之久，专办清政府外交，兴办北洋海陆军，并在北方兼长江流域筹办轮船、电报、煤铁、纺织等企业，致使北洋大臣地位不断提高，职权不断扩大，势力远远超过本来地位与之对等的南洋大臣。担任过北洋大臣的主要有崇厚（三口通商大臣）、李鸿章、王文韶、荣禄、袁世凯等。五口通商大臣，列于总理各国事务衙门之下，驻上海，管理广州、福州、厦门、宁波、上海及潮州、琼州、淡水各通商事务及各项“洋务”，由江苏巡抚兼任。后改称南洋通商大臣。南洋通商大臣初为专职，后由两江总督兼任。其后两江总督例兼遂成定制。历任南洋通商大臣的有薛焕（五口通商大臣），李鸿章，沈葆桢，左宗棠，刘坤一，端方，张之洞，周馥等人。
- 道员（又称道台），清代官名。根据清代的官阶制度：道员（道台）是省（巡抚、总督）与府（知府）之间的地方长官。清初的道员官阶不定，乾隆十八年（1753年），道员一律定为正四品。清代各省设道员，或有专责，或作为布、按副使。专责者有督粮道或粮储道，简称粮道 ；又有管河道和河工道，简称河道。官则有的单设，多数为兼任。其他如驿传道，海关道，屯田道，茶马道等，一般由当地同品级官兼道员。作为布、按副使，有分守道和分巡道。守道由布政使下的参政、参议发展而来，巡道是按察使下副使、佥事演变的结果。初设只辖一府，或数道同辖一府，后来有的统辖全省，有的分辖三四府之地。为此，守、巡二道由原来临时性差使变为固定的地方长官。而且前此守道主管钱谷，巡道侧重刑名，久之两者各加兵备衔，所掌渐趋一致。
association
- 强学会，清朝末期一个政治团体，现代政党的雏形。1895年中国惨败甲午战争之后，朝廷内外一部分知识分子开始痛思中国失败之教训，寻求中国转弱为强的途径。1895年8月17日康有为在北京安徽会馆创办《萬國公報》，成为强学会组织的发端。该报因与上海基督教广学会的一个刊物同名，后改为《中外紀聞》，刊登海外新闻，时评政论和有关公文，以“渐知新法”为宗旨，“遍送士夫党人”。同时请翰林院侍读学士文廷式出面，在达智桥胡同河南会馆或后孙公园胡同安徽会馆定期召集集会，演讲与讨论。11月中旬正式成立强学会，又称强学书局，或译书局。康有为作《强学会叙》，陈炽为提调，梁啟超为书记员，入会者众多。袁世凯曾捐银入会。李鸿藻、翁同和等也予支持。李鸿章也愿捐银2千两入会，因签订《马关条约》名声不好，遭到拒绝。英国传教士李提摩太等也加入强学会。北京强学会成立之后，康有为立即南下南京，游说署理两江总督的张之洞。11月上海强学会成立，列名会籍的有康有为、张謇、陈三立、黄遵宪、吳德潚等，和张之洞幕僚黄体芳、黄绍箕、黄绍第、梁鼎芬、汪康年等。1896年1月12日刊《强学报》，提出开议院的政治主张，倡导维新变法。强学会之后，各地也纷纷组织会社，有湖北质学会、广州圣学会、湖南南学会、广东粤学会、苏州苏学会，陕西味经学会、上海有不缠足会、农学会、译书会、蒙学会等。1896年1月20日，御史杨崇伊以“私人堂会，将开处士横议之风”上奏慈禧太后。慈禧太后以光绪皇帝名义严禁北京强学会议论时政，[1]将之改为直隶官书局，专欲“译刻各国书籍”。强学会等于被解散。张之洞也随之停发上海强学会经费，令其自动解散。1897年，康有为又在京成立“保国会”。杨崇伊跟李鸿章的长子李经方是儿女亲家。
Important events
- The Ten Great Campaigns (十全武功; pinyin: shí quán wǔ gōng) were a series of military campaigns launched by the Qing Empire of China in the mid–late 18th century during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–96). They included three to enlarge the area of Qing control in Central Asia: two against the Dzungars (1755–57) and the pacification of Xinjiang (1758–59). The other seven campaigns were more in the nature of police actions on frontiers already established: two wars to suppress Jinchuan rebels in Sichuan, another to suppress rebels in Taiwan (1787–88), and four expeditions abroad against the Burmese (1765–69), the Vietnamese (1788–89), and the Gurkhas in Nepal on the border between Tibet and India (1790–92), with the last counting as two.
- The Panthay rebellion (1856–1873), known to Chinese as the Du Wenxiu Rebellion (Tu Wen-hsiu Rebellion; Chinese: 杜文秀起義; pinyin: Dù Wénxiù Qǐyì), was a rebellion of the Muslim Hui people and other (Muslim) ethnic minorities against the Manchu rulers of the Qing Dynasty in southwestern Yunnan Province, as part of a wave of Hui-led multi-ethnic unrest.
The name "Panthay" is a Burmese word, which is said to be identical with the Shan word Pang hse. It was the name by which the Burmese called the Chinese Muslims who came with caravans to Burma from the Chinese province of Yunnan. The name was not used or known in Yunnan itself.
- The rebels captured the city of Dali, which became the base for their operations, and they declared themselves a separate political entity from China. The rebels identified their nation as Pingnan Guo (Ping-nan Kuo; Chinese: 平南国; literally: "Pacified Southern State"); their leader Sulayman ibn `Abd ar-Rahman, known as Du Wenxiu [originally Yang Xiu (杨秀)[39]] (died 1873) was styled Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin ('Leader of the Community of Muslims', but usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan) and ruled 1856 – 26 December 1872.Governorships of the sultanate were also created in a few important cities, such as Momein (Tengyue), which were not far from the Burmese border town of Bhamo. The sultanate reached the high-water mark of its power and glory in 1860. The eight years from 1860-68 were the heyday of the Sultanate. The Yunnanese Muslim rebels had either taken or destroyed 40 towns and 100 villages.
- The rebellion had a significant negative impact on the Burmese Konbaung Dynasty. After losing lower Burma to the British, Burma lost access to vast tracts of rice-growing land. Not wishing to upset China, the Burmese kingdom agreed to refuse trade with the Pingnan Guo rebels in accordance with China's demands. Without the ability to import rice from China, Burma was forced to import rice from the British. In addition, the Burmese economy had relied heavily on cotton exports to China, and suddenly lost access to the vast Chinese market. Many surviving Hui refugees escaped over the border to neighboring countries, Burma, Thailand and Laos, forming the basis of a minority Chinese Hui population in those nations.
- The Dungan Revolt (1895–96) was a rebellion of various Chinese Muslim ethnic groups in Qinghai and Gansu against the Qing dynasty, that originated because of a violent dispute between two Sufi orders of the same sect. The Wahhabi inspired Yihewani organization then joined in and encouraged the revolt, which was crushed by loyalist Muslims. After rival Sufi Naqshbandi spiritual orders had fought and accused each other of various misdeeds, instead of continuing the violence they decided to use the Qing legal system to solve the dispute. They filed opposing lawsuits through the office of the Xining Prefect and the judge in the case decided not to issue a ruling on which group was superior to the other in matters of all Islamic affairs, and urged them to behave. As a result, both groups resorted to violence. A taotai (道台) was sent by the Qing to crush the perpetrators of the violence, which ended in several deaths. This led the involved parties in the dispute to rebel against the Qing.
In Xunhua, Qinghai, masses of Hui, Dongxiang, Bao'an, and Salars were incited to revolt against the Qing by the Multicoloured Mosque leader Ma Yonglin. Soldiers were ordered to destroy the rebels by Brigadier General Tang Yanhe. Ma Dahan arranged a deal with the fellow Dongxiang Ma Wanfu when rebelling against the Qing dynasty. In Hezhou, Didao, and Xunhua they directed their adherents to join the rebellion. Tiaoheyan, Sanjiaji, and Guanghe were agreed upon as points in a defensive position and they pledged that they would not capitulate. Ma Wanfu's Wahhabi inspired Yihewani sect was considered the "new teaching" sect. The Yihewani encouraged the rebellion. Governor General Yang Changjun sent troops to crush the rebellion. Dong Fuxiang, the Commander in Chief of Kashgaria (Kashgar), received a telegram ordering that he and General Ma Xinsheng relieve the districts in revolt by conducting forced marches. His loyalist Chinese Muslim troops led by Muslim officers like Ma Anliang, Ma Guoliang, Ma Fuxiang, and Ma Fulu crushed the revolt, reportedly cutting off the heads and ears of rebels. Dong received the rank of generalissimo. Dong Fuxiang's troops from Hezhou were armed with Mausers and Remingtons, which were modern European guns, just brought back from Beijing. Their new weapons severely outclassed the bladed weapons and muzzle loading guns of the Muslim rebels and quashed them in battle. Ma Yonglin (Ma Yung-lin), his son, and over a hundred other Muslim rebel leaders were captured and beheaded by Dong Fuxiang. On August 2, 1896, it was reported that the Qing Generals carried out large scale massacres of the rebels, in one Area 8,000 were killed and the females sold into slavery. Around 400 Muslims in Topa 多巴 did not join the revolt and proclaimed their loyalty to China. An argument between a Han Chinese and his Muslim wife led to these Muslims getting massacred, when she threatened that the Muslims from Topa would attack Tankar and give a signal to their co-religionists to rise up and open the gates by burning the temples atop the hills. The husband reported this to an official and the next day the Muslims were massacred. Generals Dong Fuxiang, Ma Anliang and Ma Haiyan were originally called to Beijing during the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894, but the Dungan Revolt (1895) broke out and they were subsequently sent to crush the rebels. Due to the rebellion the western Inner Mongolian Han Chinese Catholic village Xiaoqiaopan had defensive procedures institted by the Belgian Priests in charge. Around 100,000 died in the revolt.
trade policy
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170226/PDF/a20_screen.pdf乾隆时期确定“粤海”“一口通商”的政策，出发点在规管外贸，而非实行“闭关锁国”政策。实际上洋货是当时富贵人家和皇家高档消费品。清宫钟表、药材、香料等进口商品多得很。那时不但进口商品，更引进科学技术。最典型如现存南京紫金山天文台的镇馆之宝──北京古观象台“八大天文仪器”：玑衡抚辰仪、纪限仪、黄道经纬仪、地平经纬仪、地平经仪、赤道经纬仪、天体仪、象限仪，据北京天文馆专家研究，採用的基本上属于西方天文学原理，由康熙时期供职清廷的比利时人南怀仁等设计製造。到了清朝康熙二十三年（一六八四年），确立粤、闽、浙、江“四口通商”，实行接近近代海关制度的管理。上世纪五十年代起，内地史学界主流观点认为，清代实行的是“闭关锁国”政策，其最有力证据就是乾隆二十二年（一七五七年），确立的广州口岸“一口通商”政策。
- beginning in 1760, the chinese govt imposed strict conditions on foreign purchases of tea and all other goods. eg tea could only be loaded onto ships at the whampoa (huangpu) anchorage, ten miles from canton, and trade was limited to certain months of the year. The east india company and other foreigners could only buy from a special guild called the cohong (gonghong). There were no more than 13 cohong and, in theory, they set the price for the tea, although the price was usually set after a process of negotiation with the company.
十三行
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160729/PDF/b15_screen.pdf 康熙二十四年（一六八五年）清廷實行開海貿易，設立四個海關（粵海關、閩海關、浙海關和江海關）管理外貿及收取關税，中外商人貿易只許通過代理商。其後有外商違禁，進入內地買賣，清廷於是在乾隆二十二年（一七五七年）宣布只保留粵海關一口通商，令廣州成為全國唯一合法的外貿港。廣州的代理商統稱為“十三行”，行商數目並不固定。中國行商在珠江北岸（今西關十三行路一帶）建立商館，第一間商館為英國東印度公司設立，之後有荷蘭、法國、丹麥和瑞典。一口通商後，商館數目大增，最初由中國行商興建，其後外商租地自建，令珠江沿岸出現西式建築羣，為廣州抹上一層歐洲色彩。要看“十三行”的景貌，現在只能靠當年的外銷畫。這些畫作針對歐洲市場，採用西方寫實手法繪製，並結合中國傳統手卷形式。香港海事博物館最近展出一張“十三行”外銷畫，由英國東印度公司的主管在一七七四年購買，為存世最早的同類畫作之一。畫中可見商館並立，其中有五間插上國旗，由右至左分別是荷蘭、英國、瑞典、法國和丹麥。法國國旗為白色，在一七八九年法國大革命前所用，英國國旗亦有別於今天的聯合王國旗幟。商館前方繪了各式人物，江上貨船舢舨穿梭往來，呈現十八世紀廣州的繁華景象。
- 据广州十三行博物馆的资料显示，康熙二十三年（1684年），清朝在东南沿海设立粤闽江浙四大海关，乾隆二十二年（1757），只保留了粤海关。此 后，广州十三行行商便独家代表清政府与英、法、美、荷兰等国家商船进行进出口贸易，广州逐渐成为中西贸易的中心，而十三行亦因而繁华盛极一时。1842年，中英《南京条约》签订开放五口通商，废除了广州十三行垄断外贸的特权。随着时间的流逝，上世纪90年代末，十三行旧址周边逐渐兴起了服装批 发类生意，“中国80%服装来自广东、广东服装80%来自广州、广州服装80%来自十三行”的说法印证了十三行服装鞋帽批发市场的兴旺。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170220/PDF/a19_screen.pdf
- 怡和行 - 十三行之首
- 伍氏世家
Naval power
- 伍德彝 's work auctioned at sotheby 2018 spring sale
- history
- 中國近代海軍是晚清洋務運動的產物。早在 同治元年（公元一八六二年），清政府就曾決定 從英國購買兵船，駛入長江進剿太平天國。不料 英國人另有圖謀，趁機提出建立英中聯合艦隊， 並擅自任命本國海軍上校阿思本為司令。軍權旁落於洋人，朝野嘩然，糾紛不斷，最 後不得不解散艦隊，退回已購船隻。結果，不僅 白白損失九十萬兩白銀，而且籌建水師的計劃也 全部落空。 到了同治十三年（公元一八七四年），日本 入侵台灣，清政府開始覺察其 「為中國永久大患 」， 「着派李鴻章辦北洋海防，沈葆楨督辦南洋 海防」。沈葆楨疏請以十年為期，建成北洋、南 洋和粵洋三大水師，分轄直隸山東、蘇浙、閩粵 海防，此為三洋海軍定名和統轄範圍的由來。 光緒五年（公元一八七九年），北洋在英國 訂購的 「鎮東」、 「鎮西」、 「鎮南」、 「鎮北 」四艘炮艦交付使用，李鴻章奏請記名提督丁汝 昌暫任北洋海軍督操。光緒七年， 「鎮中」、 「 鎮邊」兩艘炮艦和 「超勇」、 「揚威」兩艘快船 ，也由英國駛回。這時，北洋已擁有各種艦船十 三艘，水師初具規模。此後，北洋水師的規模不 斷擴大http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190707/PDF/a17_screen.pdf
- according to yan si ming, the uk govt helped the set up of navy from 1862
- 船政學堂，源自1866年（清同治五年）清朝船政大臣沈葆禎於福建福州馬尾港所設的海軍學院，又稱「福建船政學堂」、「福州船政學堂」或「馬尾水師學堂」。船政學堂最初稱“求是堂藝局”，是專門為福建船政培訓人材而設。學堂成立之初即聘用外國教習教授造船、航海等專業知識，畢業生中優異者更會被派往西歐各國深造。船政學堂被稱為中國海軍搖籃，除了是近代中國首家海軍及航海學院外，它亦是首家現代軍事學院，和首家現代專業院校。船政學堂的畢業生不少成為北洋海軍的高級將領外，部份亦成為中國近代的著名知識份子。自1842年(清道光二十二年)鴉片戰爭起，中國在科技上落後於西方的現實逐漸明顯。必須學習西方技術以達“師夷之長技以制夷”的想法亦漸為朝野所認同。以學習西方技術的洋務運動於同治初年（1860年代初期）開始興起。1866年，時任閩浙總督的左宗棠，奏准於福建福州成立船政局，製造船艦及相關火炮等軍械。同年左宗棠調往陝甘，船政大臣由沈葆禎繼任。福建船政選擇在馬尾為基地，興建船塢及相關海軍設施，從歐洲聘請工匠及教習教授造船。在建造造船基地的同時，沈葆禎亦非常著重培養船政及海軍人材。故此在1866年同時成立“求是堂藝局”，招募年青人教育成造船或航海人材。首次考試由沈葆禎親自在1866年主持，考生多為清貧子弟，獲首名取錄之考生為嚴復。首屆60多名學生於1867年(清同治六年)2月於福州城內定光寺開始上課。1867年夏“求是堂藝局”搬至馬尾，並改稱船政學堂。船政學堂分為“前學堂”及“後學堂”兩部。前學堂教授造船、輪機及設計，後學堂教授航海及駕駛。學堂由外國聘用之導師教授，使用外語授課及用原文書本。造船方面學習法國，故此前學堂由法國導師教授，科目包括法文、幾何、數學、微積分、物理、機械等。航海則學習英國，故學堂由英國導師教授，科目包括英文、數學、幾何、天文、地理、航海理論等。而射擊、兵操、中文經史則為必修。由于学堂主办者以及管理人员并不懂得海军运作，也不知道怎样培养海军素质，聘请外教能力有限，该校并无足够的海军课程。学堂學制為期5年，畢業後，前學堂學生派往船廠實習監工，後學堂學生則要上訓練艦實習駕駛。成績最優異者之後再被[1]送往歐洲學習，造船學生派往法德各大船廠，駕駛學生派往英國皇家海校深造後再入英國海軍任見習官。中法戰爭後南洋艦隊損傷大半，正好北洋艦隊需要人才，李鴻章便把南洋艦隊的人力北調。而南洋艦隊的人員又都是從「馬尾」畢業的，在這種情況下，北洋艦隊清一色都是從「馬尾」訓練出來的人物。若說甲午戰爭是李鴻章「以一人敵一國」，則黃海海戰便是「馬尾」「以一校、一級敵一國」了。船政学堂は1866年に開学した後は1907年に福建船政が廃止されるまで存続し卒業生は628名である。辛亥革命後、船政前学堂は1913年に海軍製造学校として復興し後に海軍学校へと発展して行く。船政学堂は授業内容をはじめとして、当時の中国で最も近代的西洋的な学校であったと言える。その後各地で海軍関連学校が設立されたが、それらは船政学堂の教育内容を基礎に設立されたものである。清朝は1875年に北洋艦隊を設立したが、その際に登用された人材は殆どが船政学堂出身者が登用された。それ以降船政学堂出身者は中国海軍の中で大きな勢力を占め、中華民国成立後も福建派と称される派閥が存在した。
- 左宗棠與福州船政http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2018/04/10/a24-0410.pdf
company
- 輪船招商局（簡稱招商局）是中國晚清的洋務運動時期以官督商辦模式創辦的航運企業，也是中國最早以現代公司概念經營的企業之一，由李鴻章等人在1873年1月17日於上海成立[1]。1949年兩岸分治後拆分為招商局集團與陽明海運集團，前者為中華人民共和國在香港的中央企業之一，後者則由兩岸分治後跟隨中華民國政府遷往臺灣的「招商局輪船」改組擴展而來。
- 1873年1月17日在上海洋泾滨永安街正式设立“轮船招商公局”，这是洋务运动中由军工企业转向兼办民用企业、由官办转向官督商办的第一个企业。其中官股10万两，朱其昂、朱其诏兄弟各10万两，李鸿章5万两，轮船4艘，从事江浙漕粮运输及各种客货运输业务。公司开办半年，亏损严重，朱其昂被迫辞职。1873年6月著名買辦唐廷樞、徐潤等加入。上海商人、英国怡和洋行买办唐廷樞擔任輪船招商局的第一任總辦。徐润、朱其昂、盛宣怀为会办。其中，唐为外资洋行背景；朱为漕粮北运代表；盛为李鸿章代表；徐为具有买办背景的国内工商业主代表。後唐前往天津兼办开平煤矿，由盛宣懷繼任。輪船招商局核定股本白银100万两，每股100两，对社会招商入股，徐润附股24万两。1873年8月7日，公司迁上海三马路新址，改名为轮船招商总局，同年设天津、汉口、长崎、香港等19个分局。李鴻章對輪船招商局有委任董事的權力。輪船招商局在李鴻章的保護下，除了有漕糧專利生意外，還得得到政府的貸款，興建碼頭貨棧所需的土地，而且所承運的貨品還免徵厘金。輪船招商局的受任者與作為主要股東的商人一起管理公司。然而政策性的決定都掌握在由政府委任的官董手中。公眾持股並未象西方一樣帶來經營權和擁有權分離，反而股份制適應到中國生意傳統中。輪船招商局為了吸引商人入股有主要持股人直接管理公司分號的安排。1873年章程規定（第一條）：將股份較大之人公舉入局作為商董，在主要港口協助商總經營業務。最初上海設商董二名，天津、漢口、香港、汕頭各設一名，以後如另有別口貿易，或遇附入股份較大者，再行酌量選充。成立之初，輪船招商局就加入與美商旗昌洋行和英資太古洋行的航运业激烈競爭。1875年成立“保险招商局”，承办水险与船壳险；1876年招商局大股东徐润与唐廷枢合办“仁和水险公司”。上述两公司均参与航运业保险市场。1877年輪船招商局收購了“美商旗昌輪船公司”的所有產業，包括7艘海輪、9艘江輪及各種躉船、駁船、碼頭、棧房、位於上海外灘9號的辦公大樓，总计作价222万两，成為規模最大的輪船公司。1877年12月26日輪船招商局與2家英資輪船公司怡和洋行和太古洋行達成協定，共同壟斷中國水運；由於在制度上落後於對手，英資輪船公司不久重新佔據了主導地位。1881年唐廷枢起草、李鸿章核定的《轮船招商章程》正式颁布执行，同年招足股本100万两白银。1882年輪船招商局股本增至二百萬兩，徐润又认股24万两，保持股本比例不变。而由徐润从亲朋好友处经手招集大量股本，使得徐润控制了輪船招商局的股本过半。1882年李鸿章任命原太古洋行买办郑观应为轮船招商局帮办，1883年正式任总办，负责公司业务。
- 1885年夏改为督办为最高负责人，盛宣怀为督办。盛宣怀把官商合办体制改为转向官督商办体制，放弃了股东推选局董和“轮船归商理”的经营原则，商股的利益受到侵占，与官委督办之间的矛盾激化。在1909年由股東選舉董事會以前，股東只能極少量地參與公司事務的管理。局董在年度報告中對攻訐者的反駁，也有生意傳統的思維：蓋實未知局員皆有巨資倡為商股，即各董事亦係有股之人所充，孰不望局務蒸蒸日上……而有股商，大半局員之親友商人，耳目較近，豈肯受其欺蒙？是不待官查，早為眾商所不容矣。
- 1928年1月国民政府交通部監督處命招商局董事會全體董事停職，改設招商局總管理處，招商局改为民有国营。1932年11月11日，更名为国营招商局。1938年8月，國營招商局改組為招商局輪船股份有限公司。1947年招商局共擁有船舶246艘、25.7萬噸，約佔全國船舶總噸位的40%。1949年3月20日，国民政府对招商局全面军管。1949年4月30日，渡江战役发起10天后，招商局在台湾设立总管理处。
- 1949年5月27日中国人民解放军占领上海后，中国人民解放军上海市军事管制委员会航运处接管了招商局（总公司）。1951年2月1日，招商局（上海总公司）改称中国人民轮船总公司，香港招商局仍沿“招商局輪船股份有限公司”原名并隶属于中华人民共和国交通部直属的在港中资企业。1956年，在香港的招商局开始恢复业务。1980年1月8日，招商局船務部改組為香港明華船務有限公司。1999年，招商局由交通部直屬企業改為由中央直接管理的39家國有重要骨幹企業之一。2002年7月，招商局持有的平安保险股权全部售出。
industry
- aviation
- 1910年7月，清政府開始籌辦航空事業，在南苑五里甸毅軍練兵場內修建簡易跑道，開設飛機場，並從法國購進一架蘇姆式飛機進行測試，官稱「南苑」，南苑機場由此得名，成為中國歷史上第一座機場，開始見證中國近代百年歷史。隨着北京城市擴張和向南發展，當年的皇家後花園早已被包圍在民居鬧市之中，這讓南苑機場成為內地為數不多居於城市中心區的機場。建國後，南苑機場一直是軍用機場、重要空軍基地，到上世紀八十年代民航實行政企分開，軍方成立中國聯合航空公司並以南苑機場作為基地獨家運營，南苑機場轉為軍民兩用機場。與首都國際機場相比，南苑機場的航站樓只有兩層，候機大廳裏燈光昏暗，冷氣不足。2011年和2016年，南苑機場先後進行過兩次改擴建工程，候機樓面積增加了近一倍，但旅客們走進候機樓會發現，右轉取票然後安檢，一共不到20米的距離，然後就直接進到候機室了。不少誤機的乘客都曾在此享受過「快速通道」，「畢竟從值機到安檢再到登機，十分鐘就到了，在保證安全和航班運行正點的情況下，我們為旅客緊急申請，這在其他大型機場肯定是做不到的」，中國聯航地服部經理孫城剛形容這是小機場的人情味。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190911/PDF/a17_screen.pdf
- 隨北京大興國際機場周三正式通航，中國史上首個機場北京南苑機場，亦於同日關閉，結束其一百零九年的民航營運服務，所有航班將會轉至大興機場升降。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190927/00178_017.html
- shipping
- 清末，朝廷推行「新政」，實業救國，全國掀起了大辦輪船公司的熱潮。光緒三十一年（1905）7月，瑞安士紳項湘藻集資成立大新輪船公司，租用載重量為96噸的「湖廣」號客貨輪，行駛於瑞安、寧波之間。後因乘客少、貨不多，「頗虧資本」，半年後停航。項氏並未氣餒。次年（1906），項湘藻、項申甫兄弟創設永瑞汽船公司，購買10噸位「永瑞」號木質汽船一艘，改航永嘉（今溫州市區）至瑞安塘河東門碼頭。沿途設莘塍、塘下、穗豐、霞林、帆游、白象、梧田等7個停靠埠，一天一個來回，汽船後面拖有2艘駁船，以便乘客、搭貨。汽船比木船速度快、安全，大大方便了旅客貨主。1914年，為了扭轉業務清淡的局面，永瑞汽船公司和安平輪船公司宣告合併，組建瑞安通濟輪船公司，由項湘藻任經理（後由其女婿沈公哲接任）。到1937年，以通濟輪船公司為骨幹的溫州南翼內河航運界經營永嘉至瑞安、瑞安至平陽、平陽至鰲江、鰲江至靈溪、飛雲江幹線客貨運，先後投入營運的輪船10多艘，拖駁20多艘，實現永嘉、瑞安、平陽、鰲江客輪聯運，永嘉至瑞安航線每天客輪對開8次，平陽坑、岩頭航線每天隨潮往返2次，出現了溫州南翼近代內河航運繁忙的景象，促進了當地經濟社會的發展。原文網址：https://read01.com/mz0aDB.html
- silver
- scmp article 8feb18 "the odour of money"
- tea
- 敬昌號於清朝光緒年間成立，是江城最古老的百年普洱茶莊，選用曼灑茶山 大葉種茶菁為原料，遠銷東南亞. 「宋聘號」茶莊成立於光緒六年(1880年)中國雲南境內，專注於普洱茶的生 產及銷售。民國初年與「乾利貞號」聯姻並合併為「乾利貞宋聘號」，進一 步擴大其普洱茶版圖。茶莊精選易武正山百年古樹春茶製作. 六堡茶屬頗負盛名的黑茶，因產於廣西蒼梧縣六 堡鄉而得名，製茶歷史悠久，早在清朝嘉慶年間 (1796-1820)，六堡茶就以其特殊的檳榔香味而列 為中國名茶之一，暢銷於港、澳以及東南亞一帶 https://cdn.polyauction.com.hk/default/auction/sale/xiang-gang-bao-li-2020nian-chun-pai-cha-jiu-w_eb5d7045-fd33-4566-8567-db98447ef831.pdf
- opium
- according to rev frederick galpin (in a visit in 1875), poppies were grown in 奉化and 天臺 for manufacturing opium
- publishing
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20180813/PDF/b8_screen.pdf 直到十九世紀初，中國主流的印 刷技術還是雕版而不是活字。傳教士把西方 活字印刷術引介來華，才令此技術逐漸被廣 泛運用，並導致中國圖書文化各個方面都發 生了改變。
The Revolt of the Three Feudatories (三藩之亂) was a rebellion lasting from 1673 to 1681 in the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) during the early reign of the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722). The revolt was led by the three lords of the fiefdoms in Yunnan, Guangdong and Fujian provinces against the Qing central government.In the early years of the Qing Dynasty during the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor, central government authority was not strong and the rulers were unable to control the provinces in southern China directly. The government initiated a policy of "letting the Han Chinese govern the Han Chinese" (以漢制漢), which allowed some generals of the former Ming Dynasty who had surrendered them to help them govern the provinces in the south. In 1655, Wu Sangui was granted the title of "Pingxi Prince" (平西王; "West Pacifying Prince") and granted governorship of the provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou. Shang Kexi and Geng Zhongming were granted the titles of "Pingnan Prince" and "Jingnan Prince" (both mean "South Pacifying Prince") respectively and were put in charge of the provinces of Guangdong and Fujian. The three lords had great influence over their lands and wielded far greater power than any other regional or provincial governors. They had their own military forces and had the authority to alter tax rates in their fiefs.
The White Lotus Rebellion (川楚白蓮教起义; pinyin: Chuān chŭ bái lián jiào qǐ yì, 1796–1804) was a rebellion initiated by followers of the White Lotus movement during the Qing dynasty of China. The rebellion began in 1794, when large groups of rebels claiming White Lotus affiliations rose up within the mountainous region that separated Sichuan province from Hubei and Shaanxi provinces.[1] A smaller precursor to the main rebellion broke out in 1774, under the leadership of the martial-arts and herbal-healing expert Wang Lun in Shandong province of northern China. Although the rebellion was finally crushed by the Qing government in 1804, it marked a turning point in the history of the Qing dynasty. Qing control weakened and prosperity diminished by the 19th century. The rebellion is estimated to have caused the deaths of some 100,000 rebels. The White Lotus Rebellion was initiated as a tax protest led by the White Lotus Society, a secret religious society. The White Lotus Society is traditionally considered to have first appeared during the 14th century under the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Red Turban Rebellion which took place in 1352, was led by the White Lotus group. By 1387, after more than 30 years of war, their leader, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered the North China Plain and occupied the Yuan capital Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing). Having attained the Mandate of Heaven and the status of Emperor, Zhu Yuanzhang named his period of reign "Hongwu" (thus he was known as the Hongwu Emperor) and founded a new dynasty – the Ming dynasty. The group later reemerged in the late 18th century in the form of an inspired Chinese movement. Though many movements and rebellions were considered by imperial bureaucrats to have been led by White Lotus Society leaders, there is reason to doubt that the White Lotus Society had any organizational unity. BJ Ter Haar has argued that the term "White Lotus" was used primarily by Ming and Qing imperial bureaucrats to disparagingly explain a wide range of unconnected millenarian traditions, rebel movements, and popular religious practices. According to Ter Haar, it is clear that the "White Lotus" rebels of the uprisings that occurred between 1796 and 1804 did not voluntarily use the term "White Lotus" to refer to themselves or their movement. The term was only used by the millenarian rebels under intense pressure during government interrogations. It is only as historical sources look back upon these events do they began to summarize the various aspects of these uprisings as the "White Lotus rebellion." Members of the society were not ethnically different from Han Chinese, but subscribed to a belief based on a mixture of Taoism, Buddhism, and Manichaeism.[7] The group forecast the advent of Maitreya, advocated restoration of the Han Chinese-led Ming dynasty, and promised personal salvation to its followers while promising the return of the Buddha. "Return of the Buddha" is popularly used to describe the coming descent of Maitreya as Buddha on earth: "Buddha come-again". 乾隆年間には、それまで勢力を弱めていた白蓮教が次々と新教団を作るようになる。1774年、山東省で八卦の新教団が結成され、首領の王倫が反乱を起こした。また、四川省でも厳しい取り立てに抗議する反乱が起こり、鎮圧された後、信徒は白蓮教に吸収された。清朝は白蓮教の教主である劉松を捕らえて、流刑に処し、劉松の高弟である劉之協の逮捕令を出した。1794年に劉之協は捕らえられるが、護送中に脱走した。
太平天國
- 洪秀全
- 與太平天國後期發展息息相關的“幹王”洪仁玕便曾三度前來香港，當中最後一次歷時最久，亦對其影響最大；他所撰寫的《資政新篇》更被譽為中國現代化的開山之作。 洪仁玕是廣東花縣人，不但與洪秀全同屬洪氏宗族的仁字輩同鄉（洪秀全族名“仁坤”），同時二人均讀了首位華人牧師梁發的著作《勸世良言》，於一八四三年七月在廣東花縣創立了“拜上帝會”。一八四七年二月下旬，洪秀全和洪仁玕前往美南浸信會（Southern Baptist Convention）的傳教士羅孝全（Issachar Jacox Roberts）位於廣州的教堂學道，請求受洗不成，及後二人分道揚鑣，洪秀全前往廣西，進一步發展“拜上帝會”；洪仁玕則返回家鄉讀書。一八五一年一月洪秀全在廣西金田起義時，洪仁玕仍在清遠；為了躲避官兵對洪秀全同鄉及追隨者的搜捕，洪仁玕於一八五二年四月二十六日輾轉來到香港，其間結識了德國巴色會傳教士韓山文（又名韓山明，Theodore Hamberg）。由於在港謀生困難，他只逗留了數週便返回東莞，以教書謀生。 一八五三年九月，洪仁玕在新安布吉再次與韓山文相遇，受洗後回到香港，以教授傳教士中文為業。洪仁玕研讀《聖經》之餘，對基督教以外的其他西學知識漸漸產生興趣。當時的太平軍已於同年三月攻取天京（今南京），勢如破竹。洪仁玕始終心繫太平天國，故此在韓山文的安排下，於一八五四年五月四日離開香港，乘坐輪船前往上海。然而清軍已在天京城外嚴密設防，上海與天京之間的水陸交通全被封鎖，洪仁玕進京與洪秀全會合的願望再次落空。同年冬天，洪仁玕被迫返港；與前兩次逗留香港有所不同，洪仁玕這趟在香港旅居近四年。當洪仁玕於一八五四年冬返回香港時，韓山文已因病魂歸天國，所以他投靠了另一位傳教士─英國倫敦傳道會（London Missionary Society）的理雅各（James Legge）。他獲倫敦傳道會香港分會聘任為湛約翰牧師（John Chalmers）的中文教師，不久再被教會委任為佈道者（Preacher）和助理傳教士（Assistant Missionary），廣泛參與教會的傳教活動，包括到監獄探望囚犯和到診所宣揚福音等。其後洪仁玕在理雅各主理的英華書院講授中國文史，並協助進行翻譯。洪仁玕在教會的工作表現得到一眾傳教士的稱許，而他在傳道之餘，亦在香港吸收了西學知識，孕育出現代化改革的政治綱領。
- uk
- 在太平匪亂期間，香港總督般含，與一批英法傳教士北上廣東。他們聽說「太平天國」信耶穌，覺得這伙中國人或親近西方文明，可以扶一把。英國牧師麥華陀寫了一份報告，論太平天國：「此叛亂團伙若可勝利，可以預見：中國將為傳教與商業開放，科學亦可輸入。若西方耶教諸國協助清廷鎮壓，實為不幸，因為這伙叛亂者擁有進步與改革的趨向，此一精神，為清國政府所無。」麥華陀牧師的觀點，就很幼稚，他以為太平天國宣讀聖經，就表示「開放」，準備接納西方思想，有改革的希望，而不知道其首領洪秀全，是一名農民叛亂頭目，基因與朱元璋相通。當然，後來英國公使看清楚了，讓戈登協助清廷鎮壓之。http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/supplement/columnist/%E9%99%B6%E5%82%91/art/20170815/20121308
- trivial
- During the 19th Century Chinese Tai Ping rebellion, many European soldiers reported seeing Chinese troops wearing medieval armor.https://www.quora.com/How-long-did-it-take-to-make-a-sword-in-the-medieval-times-And-how-much-did-they-cost
- 第一則：清廷查明滇案，懲處失職人員，並向英國道歉、賠償。
- 第二則：規定英國駐京公臣及領事官與清廷往來禮儀平等及兩國審辦案件各官交涉事宜
- 第三則：清廷增加通商口岸，訂立通商章程及鴉片稅則，另議專則。英國得由北京經四川入藏至印度，清廷需妥為照料保護。
包括清政府對馬嘉理事件及以前中英之間的案件各賠償20萬兩白銀；洋貨在中國內陸免收厘金；增加開放宜昌﹑蕪湖﹑溫州﹑北海等為通商口岸；以及正式遣使道歉。這成為中國外交史上派出駐外長期代表的開始。1885年清廷派遣曾紀澤前往倫敦簽訂中英煙台條約續增專條，中英文共14頁，規定鴉片進口至中國只能繳納進口稅30兩及釐金最多80兩，此後在中國各處行銷不必再繳納其他稅捐，是清廷喪失外國貨物在內地徵收稅捐的濫觴。約文仍存於臺北外雙溪國立故宮博物院。
八國聯軍
- 劉绍宽《厚莊日記》- 孫仲容said 神拳復熾,勾引台匪,里安則伍正熙主之,平陽則薛明德主之
- according to 温州基督教編年史, 里安仙篁竹人許阿擂got financial support from 張新楝(1841-1907, 字良東, 里安苹塍華表人。到福建賣麥芽糖,後投靠一南洋經商的福建人,經商成功。) to develop 神拳會
- since 1890s, 山東拳民在大刀會的名下大行其道,得到山東巡撫李秉衡的暗中鼓勵
- The Mutual Protection of Southeast China (東南互保) was an agreement made by the governors of the provinces in southern, eastern and central China during the Eight Power Expedition in 1900. The governors, including Li Hongzhang (governor-general of Guangdong, Guangxi), Xu Yingkui (governor-general of Fujian, Zhejiang), Liu Kunyi (governor-general of Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi), Zhang Zhidong(governor-general of Hubei, Hunan) and Yuan Shikai (provincial governor of Shandong), refused to carry out the imperial decree promulgated by the Qing government to declare war on 11 foreign nations, with the aim of preserving peace in their own provinces. Some other Han provincial authorities, such as the governor-general of Sichuan and the provincial governor of Shaanxi, did not formally join the mutual protection agreement, but similarly disobeyed the imperial edict.
- http://www.bastillepost.com/hongkong/70446-歷史長河/2256618-八國聯軍中國僱傭兵「華勇營」-戰績列強好評
- 「庚子賠款時，中國要賠八國聯軍幾多銀両？」好彩仲記得中學讀過嘅歷史，即刻答：「白銀四萬五千両！」博士C又問：「咁美國佔咗幾多？」吓？考起，問番博士C：「點解突然間講起八國聯軍，庚子賠款，你有乜原因？」博士C笑曰：「近日睇中興賠款十億美元畀美國嘅新聞，在微信上有內地網民突然將中興賠款與庚子賠款比較，話係喪權辱國之舉，2018年與1901年並無不同，言談相當大膽，香港人睇中興新聞唔會聯想到呢個角度嘅，故此問吓你。」原來如此，好彩手機上網好易，立即搜尋歷史資料，當年賠款總數四萬五千両白銀（未計分期償還之利息），據說等於3億3千萬美元。一両等於1.32275安士，四萬五千両即是595,237,500安士，以近日市場價格每安士18.86美元計，即等於今天一百一十二億二千六百餘萬美元，係1901年價值嘅33.9倍，伸算之下，當年呢筆賠款十分高昂。八國之中，今日之習近平好朋友嘅俄羅斯佔最大份，有28.97%，美帝呢，只有7.32%，計1901銀價，佔二千四百幾萬美元，乘番33.9倍，約等於2018年之八億二千萬美元左右。內地網民話中興賠款十億美元，係一個乜嘢概念，依家睇到嘞！與庚子賠款嗰份差不多，中興賠款從此可寫入史冊，與庚子賠款並論。同博士C笑完，博士C話：「不可不知，美帝當年還有良心，好快就退回庚子賠款，作大清帝國畀學生作公費留學美國之用，後來用賠款成立清華預備學校，民國時轉為清華大學，呢間中國一流大學，係美帝播下種子嘅，對中國都幾好。故此庚子賠款看似喪權辱國，到底還有正能量一面，今日之中興賠款，睇怕特朗普冇咁好死，會退還款項噃！」
https://hk.lifestyle.appledaily.com/lifestyle/columnist/左丁山/daily/article/20180615/20420614
- singtao 28nov18 f3 countries include british india and australia
- reference
- 英国蓝皮书有关义和团运动资料选译-1册。胡滨译。1980年中华书局刊行。《英国议会文书》俗称《英国蓝皮书》,是英国政府提交议会两院的外交文书。其中有关中国义和团运动的文书资料共16册,约200余万字,绝大多数都是英国驻华公使、领事、海陆军军官等在华官员向本国政府提交的报告书。是书选译《英国蓝皮书》中有关中国义和团运动文书资料16册中的9册,共30余万字,起自1899年12月山东“卜克斯教案”,止于1901年签定辛丑条约。
The Gelaohui (哥老會; lit. Elders Brothers Society), also called Futaubang, or Hatchet Gang (Chinese:斧头帮), as every member allegedly carried a small hatchet inside the sleeve, was a secret society and underground resistance movement against the Qing dynasty. Although it was not associated with Sun Yat-sen's Tongmenhui, they both participated in the Xinhai Revolution. Originating in western China, likely in Sichuan or Guizhou, the society engaged in several uprisings across China, notably in Hunan province during 1870 and 1871. Numerous individuals notable in late-19th and early-20th Chinese history (including Zhu De, Wu Yuzhang, Liu Zhidan and He Long) were Gelaohui members. Strongly xenophobic and anti-Qing, the Gelaohui were active in the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, as well as taking part in attacks on Catholic missions and converts in 1912. Originally quite willing to take on other "oppressed" Chinese minorities, several Chinese Muslim Gelaohui members participated in the Ningxia Revolution, and there was a substantial number of Muslim Gelaohui in Shaanxi.
Jilin
- http://www.hkcd.com.hk/pdf/201605/0504/Hz20504CHAA.pdf 封襌大典
Beijing
- 東安市場是清朝至1990年代今北京王府井大街東側的一座大型集貿市場。1990年代被拆除，原址上建成了新東安市場（今北京apm）及東安市場這兩個大型百貨商場。
Hunan
- 湖南長沙寧鄉縣江花村村民近日發現，當地有一座建於清朝的箭樓。該座殘破不堪的古樓名為「江花箭樓」，初步推測始建於滿清順治年間，曾在同治年間進行修葺，至今已擁有超過三百年歷史。據了解，近日被發現的「江花箭樓」是當地謝氏望族於三百多年前修建，經歷歲月和風吹雨打的侵蝕後，原有的三座箭樓，如今僅存一座。orientaldaily 25oct17
sichuan
- 大金川和小金川，分別是現在的金川縣和小金縣，都隸屬於四川省阿壩藏族羌族自治州。具體位置，距離成都市不遠，在成都市的西部。旁邊，就是著名的汶川。兩個縣加起來不到1.2萬平方公里，以山地為主。地形狹長，山勢險峻，落差較大，水流湍急。人口呢，以藏族人為主，加起來也不到20萬。至於乾隆年間，加起來不到4萬人。乾隆登基後不到十年，川西高原的幾十位土司，對中央並不馴服。朝廷呢，也一直在西南地區推行「改土歸流」的政策，希望能夠廢除土司制，由朝廷管理。在這個背景下，中央和川西的土司，彼此的矛盾，愈發尖銳。大金川的土司—莎羅奔，也就是金川縣的土皇帝。他雄心勃勃，一直希望統一川西高原，多次攻擊別的土司。被攻擊的土司呢，則向中央求救。
莎羅奔為何敢如此「放肆」呢？畢竟，當時的清軍兵強馬壯，清朝呢國力富強，沒有哪個土司敢直接和朝廷對抗。其實呢，一切都是有原因的。乾隆九年，幾十名清軍在巡邏的路上，被人搶劫，全部被扒光。川陝總督慶復火冒三丈，一口咬定是瞻對部落的人幹的，這個部落，也就是現在的四川省新龍縣。似乎一切進展順利，一年後慶復向朝廷報捷:攻克了瞻對部落，燒死了土司班滾。瞞的過朝廷，卻瞞不住下邊人。事實上呢，清軍投入了幾萬人，瞻對卻只有幾千人的武裝。結果呢，清軍沒贏過一次戰鬥，而且被打的東躲西藏。慶復總督，面對朝廷的催促，竟然想出了以重金賄賂瞻對土司的辦法。最後，慶復給了瞻對部落大批的金銀財物，雙方停戰。瞻對人讓出一個寨子，任清軍隨便燒。瞻對人呢，則三年不許出頭。於是，川西高原暫時太平了。當地駐軍，也獲得了乾隆的大力表彰。張廣泗來到川西之後，經過仔細偵察，加上多年的經驗，很快認清了大金川地勢險峻，易守難攻的事實。於是，他提醒皇帝，重視大金川，別輕敵大意。同時，要求增派援兵和糧草。最後，他還捅破了慶復賄賂瞻對部落的事情，告訴皇帝，瞻對土司班滾壓根不老實，還活着，沒死。
乾隆聞訊後，暴跳如雷，立刻處死了川陝總督慶復。又給張廣泗增加了兩萬官兵，催促他儘快剷平大金川。但是呢，大金川到處都是用石頭構建的碉樓，低的也有十米以上，極其堅固。莎羅奔在碉樓上屯兵屯糧，堅守不出，隨時尋機偷襲清軍。清軍呢，挖地道、埋地雷、用炮轟……都未能攻破碉樓。
莎羅奔的部隊，隨即發動了反攻。當年年底，在大金川的馬爾邦，一次就殲滅了至少3000清軍。清軍屢屢遭到襲擊或者伏擊，損失過萬，徹底陷入被動，疲憊不堪，士氣低落。總之，乾隆十二年到四十一年，乾隆為了平定這個地方，不惜徵調用兵近30萬，動用民夫47萬多人，前後總耗費了一億兩白銀。這是一個驚人的數字，一億白銀在當時相當於清朝13年的國庫收入，更是四川30年的所有稅收收入。但是，客觀上來說，對於領土的完整，意義重大，也保證了國家的統一。明清兩代耗費200年付出慘烈代價推行的「改土歸流」政策，使得中原王朝在南方的經營終於取得了成功，基本劃定了今日中國的南方邊界。原文網址：https://kknews.cc/history/5bela36.html
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170213/PDF/a11_screen.pdf12日，农历正月十六，一年一度的四川广汉“保保节”如期而至。“拉保保”缘于清朝康熙年间，距今已有300多年歷史。百姓在正月十六“游百病”时，为家中子女寻找一名乾爹。孩子将帽子戴在对方头上，认作保保或保爷，两家大人则以“亲家”互称，此举有保佑子女健康长大之意。
views on foreigners
- http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/supplement/columnist/%E9%99%B6%E5%82%91/art/20170716/20090713 梁啟超論歐洲各國，也很有意義：「荷蘭，條頓民族之邦國人，其人情之忍耐節儉，勉於職業。葡萄牙，拉丁民族之邦國也，其人情之浮薄輕佻，其宗教為天主教，政治上之變化騷動甚多。條頓民族，其中軍也，斯拉夫民族，其後殿也。條頓民族，商人之性質，其腦髓所含者，算術也。至於斯拉夫民族，其事業非花非劇，非商非算，幽涼而沉雄，宏遠而堅毅。」梁啟超論三大歐洲民族，觀察很準確，另有英國作家摩利士（Jan Morris）分別論述。民主和自由，只會在這三大民族匯聚成的西方文明之間滋長，其他不必浪費時間了。
養糧
- according to 温州基督教編年史, a group of 失養窮困的族民(滿人), 吃现成的養糧, 就不謀求行業;及至民國,養糧取消,即遭困苦
religion
- catholicism
- 天津教案とは、1870年に天津で発生した教案（反キリスト教事件）。1858年の天津条約によって、清国内でのキリスト教布教が公認されると、宣教師たちは各地で布教を開始した。宣教師は教会を建設し、治外法権を有し、「寛容条款」によって特権を認められていた。「寛容条款」は教会に付与された特権で、中国人のキリスト教徒も清の法律が適用されないというものである。そのため各地の流民が教会に混入するようになり、各地を横行してトラブルが多発した。また外国人の宣教師は中国の土地建物を購入する権利を得、各地で宣教師が土地を買い占め、キリスト教徒と非キリスト教徒が衝突する事件が頻発した。キリスト教と伝統的な思想・信仰・風俗習慣は相容れないものであった。宣教師たちは祖先を敬って天を祀ることに反対し、道教や仏教を邪教としたために民衆の反感を買った。民衆の反抗には郷紳たちの支援もあり、初期の衝突の多くは役人や郷紳たちの引き起こしたものだった。交渉の結果に朝廷と民衆は不満を抱き、曽国藩の名声は大いに傷ついた。またこの事件のニュースは各地に影響をおよぼし、キリスト教徒と非キリスト教徒の衝突は頻発するようになった。
- Claude de Visdelou (12 August 1656 – 11 November 1737) was a French Jesuit missionary. De Visdelou was born at the Château de Bienassis, Erquy, Brittany. He entered the Society of Jesus on 5 September 1673, and was one of the missionaries sent to China by Louis XIVin 1687. He acquired a wide knowledge of the Chinese language and literature. Other learned Jesuits considered that he gave too much credit to modern Chinese commentators, who being atheists and materialists read their own ideas into the ancient Chinese sages. When the papal legate Mgr. de Tournon came to China in 1705, chiefly to regulate the question of the Chinese Rites, Visdelou was the only Jesuit favourable to their prohibition. Tournon appointed him Vicar Apostolic of Kwei-chou with the title of bishop of Claudiopolis in Isauria, but his superiors opposed the nomination, since Visdelou had not received papal dispensation from his vow not to accept ecclesiastical dignity. With the missionaries who had submitted to the decree against the rites, Visdelou followed the legate to Macau, where he was secretly consecrated bishop, 2 February 1709. He then set out for Pondicherry where he arrived, 25 June 1709; he remained there in great retirement in the house of the French Capuchins until his death at Pondicherry. 克勞德·德維斯德盧（Claude de Visdelou，1656年8月12日－1737年11月11日），漢名刘应，字声闻，法国人，耶稣会传教士，汉学家，与白晋等五人，受法国国王路易十四派遣，前往中国传教。1687年来华直至1709年离去，曾向康熙皇帝奉献金鸡纳霜（奎宁），治好康熙皇帝的疟疾。 刘应对中国和中亚历史都有研究，所着《鞑靼史》(Histoire de la Tartarie)汇集了中国史书有关匈奴、鞑靼、蒙古、突厥等史料，刊于Herbelot的《东方学目录》(Bibliotheque orientale,1779)中。还有拉丁文《中国历史》六册、《中国哲学家的宗教史》、《中国人的礼仪与祭祀》、《易经概说》(Notice du livre chinois nommé Y-king)。同时编译了多部儒家经典：《礼记》、《书经》、《中庸》等拉丁文译本。
- buddhism
- qianlong was the most active in his veneration of tibetan buddhism. He sponsored the compilation and translation of many literary classics of tibetan buddhism and construction of buddhist temples in and outside the palace
- immortals pagoda hall in 故宮
- taoism
- originally named the study of enduring spring, the room was renovated between 1746 and 1747 to become a buddhist prayer room. A 7 storey amitabhs pagoda of rare zitan was placed at the centre of the room, creating a mandala like setting. Housed sets of thankas with 5 dhyani buddhas
- 江西 龍虎山張元旭剛剛承襲第六十二代 天師。有人向他獻計，花費二千兩 銀子運作，可獲賜二品頂戴。 張天師是道教正一派的世襲首 領。明朝時，多位皇帝迷信道教， 張天師地位崇隆，官居正二品，與 孔子後裔衍聖公平級。但到了清朝 ，崇儒抑道，衍聖公升格為正一品 ，張天師則降為正三品。乾隆五年 ，第五十五代天師張錫麟進京祝壽 ，有大臣上奏： 「道流卑賤，不宜 濫廁朝班。」 乾隆皇帝遂下旨，禁 止張天師隨同百官朝見，並將其級 別又降為五品。雖然幾十年後恢復 了正三品，但其權勢已大不如前。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200617/PDF/b7_screen.pdf
literature
- 《日知錄》是明末清初學者顧炎武（1613年—1682年）的代表作品之一。《日知錄》是顧炎武「稽古有得，隨時札記，久而類次成書」的著作。在四庫全書中為子部雜家類。
- The Peach Blossom Fan 《桃花扇》乃清初作家孔尚任經十餘年苦心創作，三易其稿而寫出的一部傳奇劇本，共有44齣，通過男女主人公侯方域（字朝宗）和李香君的愛情故事，反映明末南明滅亡的歷史劇。The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature has called it "China's greatest historical drama." An English translation published by the University of California Press was translated by Chen Shih-hsiang and Harold Acton, K.B.E. with Cyril Birch collaborating.
- 『聊齋志異』（りょうさいしい、聊斎志異）は、中国の清代の短編小説集。作者は蒲松齢（1640年（崇禎13年） - 1715年（康熙54年））。1766年の刻本刊行までに、いくつかの抄本（筆写本）が残存するが、完本としては『鋳雪斎抄本聊斎志異』がある。済南の朱氏[注 4]による1723年の抄本（朱家抄本）を張希傑[注 5]が筆写したもので、1751年の日付がある。字句の異同があるが、篇次等が手稿本に最も近い最早の抄本とされている。1975年に上海人民出版社から影印本が、1979年に上海古籍出版社（中国語版）から活字本が出版された。474篇収録されている。なお、朱家抄本は残存していない。1948年、東北（満洲）の西豊解放[注 6]の時、一貧農の家から聊斎志異の作者手稿本が発見された。ただしその所収は全編でなく237篇（重複が1篇あるので実質236篇）だった。またこの手稿本にあって1766年の刻本に含まれないものや手稿本以外の写本にみられるものなどがある。
- ヨーロッパでは1880年にハーバート・ジャイルズが『聊斎志異』から162篇[注 13]を抜粋英訳したが、これは削除ないし簡略化がなされているとチャールズ・エールマー（英語版）から評されている。 ドイツでは1911年、 マルティン・ブーバー の『中国幽霊・恋愛物語集』Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten が聊斎志異からのドイツ語訳16篇を収録しているが、これは上記ジャイルズの英訳を知人の中国人の協力を得て是正した独訳である 。 この選集に対しカフカは、後に彼の婚約者となったフェリーツェ宛ての1913年1月16日付けの手紙の中で、これは自分の「知る限り」では「すばらしい」本だと留保つきで称賛している。
- 蓮花公主 - snake as antagonist, beehive as palace
- 青蛙神（せいあじん、ちんわせん）は、中国の妖怪。ただ「青蛙」とも。蝦蟇仙人が従えている三本足の蟾蜍（ヒキガエル）の霊獣とされる。3本の内訳は前足が2本、後足が1本で、後足はお玉杓子の尾のように中央に付く。天災を予知する力を持つ霊獣もしくは神。大変に縁起の良い福の神とされ「青蛙将軍」、「金華将軍」などとも呼ばれる。道教徒の間で特に信仰されていた。清の蒲松齢の小説『聊斎志異』にも登場する。日本では青蛙神を題材に岡本綺堂が『青蛙堂鬼談』を執筆し、彼の養子の岡本経一が創立した出版社は青蛙神にあやかって「青蛙房」と命名されている。
- 羅祖（らそ、 1442年(正統7年) - 1527年(嘉靖6年)）は、中国の明代に興った新興宗教である羅教（無為教）の開祖である。
- a story on 鴝鵒 (八哥)
Arts
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160822/PDF/b8_screen.pdf一九○○年清末代表作之一，乃用錘鍱、起突等種種細巧手藝，製成與別不同的“眼形”（如欖尖形）黃金帶扣。凸出的紋飾如龍鳳花鳥，一應俱全，滿布全器；構圖及層次緊密，分佈有度。據説這種“眼形”金飾，最初始於公元前古埃及人之迷信觀念，認為欖尖形構圖代表“守護之眼”（UDJAT），可以永遠看守佩戴者的靈魂，消除魔孽。那時所用物料，並非純黃金；造型十分簡單古拙。 至於這類帶扣，我國古代也稱“鐍”，意指“有舌之環”；有人稱為“鉸具”，即于環中裝活動釦針，以鈎貫帶頭，使之鉸連。遠自漢代，已有銀錯金帶扣（雲南石寨山曾出土）。清末此一珍品，乃源於此，但特別在“眼形”。
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160828/PDF/a20_screen.pdf琺瑯彩瓷始於康熙一朝，乃吸收銅胎畫琺瑯技法，用各種琺瑯彩料描畫圖紋于瓷胎上，入爐燒成，屬釉上彩。康熙時期，先在景德鎮燒製白瓷胚胎，才運至京城造辦處，由御用畫師精心繪畫；故瓷質瑩潤，色彩艷麗，繪工細緻。雍正與乾隆時繼承其製法。其實，清初三朝御製的銅胎畫琺瑯器，同樣珍貴精美，可遇而不可求。例如附圖，為乾隆初期銅胎畫琺瑯（金屬胎之一種），全于那時京城製造。造型較特別，為六方瓶（高十二公分半），且屬“開光”，每方彩繪不同洋女郎，上下襯以花紋。琺瑯乃薄的“玻化物質”，混合硅酸鹽與硼酸鹽，富光澤。琺瑯器製作科技，乃十四世紀蒙古人西征時，從拜占庭等地傳入中原；元代時仍是仿造階段，明朝技巧才漸成熟，清初更發揚光大。所謂“開光”，乃于器表構成長方形、圓形、菱形或扇形等外框，才在其內繪畫。畫琺瑯器“開光”者，清初時大多畫外國女郎，次為洋童。
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161005/PDF/b9_screen.pdf清代乾隆時期御製的銅胎琺瑯和“景泰藍”器，素來在收藏界享盛譽，因為精美華貴，可直追明代景泰年間上品之作。 附圖為乾隆時鑄製的銅胎燒琺瑯鳥形雙輪香爐。燒琺瑯亦名“燒藍”，此器也以藍地為主，較獨特是加鍍金及鎏金工藝，作為花紋、爐邊、輪緣、鳥喙、雙目、雙耳等裝飾
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160909/PDF/b15_screen.pdf珊瑚紅，乃清初創始之一種低 溫鐵紅釉，通常呈色紅中閃黃。康 熙中後期，喜歡偶以珊瑚紅作地色 ，繪五彩花紋（見附圖），或繪紛彩 、或描金，或燒製珊瑚紅蓋雪等品 種，現今要遇見真品，須看機緣。 所繪五彩，皆光潤艷麗；各 色皆用平塗畫法，設色對比 較強，甚重線的筆力。畫稿以 宮廷名畫師如焦秉貞和劉源（ 伴阮）等原作為藍本；繪工精細 ，各極其勝。
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161001/PDF/b10_screen.pdf 清代中期（乾隆末至嘉慶期間）精製的銅水注- 活用古代“錯金銀”工藝科技，發揮淋漓盡致，春秋戰國時興起此一細工裝飾方法，乃用金銀絲或片，嵌進銅器表面，構成紋飾，用“錯石”（磨石）錯平磨光而成。
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161003/PDF/b5_screen.pdf 嘉慶官窰粉彩賁巴壺。其紋飾疏朗悅目；造型有點兒古怪，壺流彎向上翹，酷肖象拔。驟看壺身與口流 ，活像一隻小象（小圓黑點似眼睛），背着一座有罩枱燈，但欠大耳朵與幼長尾巴。
- porcelain
- garlic head vases used for ritual purposes and were heavily produced for qing ceremonies involving buddhism
- 清康熙八蛮进宝青花大碗，碗径20厘米，高8厘米，里外青花满工绘就。碗内绘有云龙图案，龙四爪，首尾相衔，气势恢弘；碗外壁绘“进宝图”，共有8人一驾；满载进贡宝物果实。 碗内绘有云龙图案，龙四爪，首尾相衔，气势恢弘；碗外壁绘“进宝图”，共有8人一驾；满载进贡宝物果实。8个人物形态各异，束身着靴，俱异族装扮，有持宝物者，有捧美果者，牵车跳跃，挤眉弄眼，憨态可掬。碗底有“英”字青花方块款，观此碗造型隽秀，瓷土选料精细，胎坚白细润，釉面色调纯白，青花色彩青翠明丽，碗底足修胎洁净，十分规整，足边滚圆，呈“泥鳅背”状，是典型的雍正风格。此碗乃康熙民窑精品，其图所反映的是“八蛮进宝”之内容。 八蛮，据《周礼·尔雅释地疏》中记载，是指我国古代以南的8个国名，即天竺、咳首、焦侥、穿胸、踵、儋耳、狗帜、旁眷。其中天竺，经考证为印度；踵似指越南，其余皆无可考。我国在清康、雍、乾时代，疆土有所扩展，藩属之国年年进贡，岁岁来朝。此清康熙八蛮进宝青花大碗所绘内容正是当时异域各国来朝进宝的真实写照。 see also https://auction.artron.net/paimai-art5099490493/
- lock http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161108/PDF/b21_screen.pdf
- 紋
- 聖壽無疆http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20171012/PDF/b10_screen.pdf
- 又称“过墙花”、“过墙龙”，一种特殊构图的纹饰。所谓过枝，即指器物内壁与外壁或器盖与器身的纹饰相连，浑然一体，宛如花枝越过墙头，从外壁伸至内墙。常见纹样有过枝花卉、过枝花果等。过枝纹流行于清代，以雍正、乾隆、道光、光绪等朝为盛。所见多为盘、碗、碟、盏及盖碗等器式，以青花、五彩、粉彩等品种为常见，有过枝牡丹、过枝菊花、过枝梅花等。
- la danse
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170324/PDF/a11_screen.pdf路易十五委託 「博韋」製作了一批不同題 材的掛毯，有部分於一七六六年贈予乾隆皇帝 。現今展出的四幅一直留在法國，以中國的庭 園、舞蹈、市集和宴會為題。 「中國市集」的 人物都是法國人樣貌，有上層貴族，亦有低下 階層的小販，背景隱約現出一些中式建築，令 觀者恍若置身東西方兩個國度。 與掛毯一同展出的還有一系列銅版畫，名 為《乾隆平定西域得勝圖》。這些版畫由乾隆 皇帝下旨，由宮中的耶穌會士畫家繪製，以頌 讚戰功，之後送到巴黎鑄印。掛毯和銅版畫的 製造時期正值 「中國風」在法國風靡一時，中 國宮廷亦對法國藝術抱有興趣，因此造就了文 化交融的作品。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170331/PDF/b11_screen.pdf 乾隆在位期间曾收过一份来自法国君王路易十五的礼物，用一套共六幅大型挂毯将法国人对中国的想像送至北京，还被乾隆展于圆明园。四幅来自同系列的挂毯现正于香港大学（港大）美术博物馆徐展堂楼展出，同场更别出心裁地展示了十一幅由北京朝廷的传教士画师创作的宫廷版画《乾隆平定西域得胜图》，将来自同年代的两国乾隆印象共聚一堂。
- 西泠印社创立于清光绪三十年（1904年），是中国现存歷史最悠久、成就最高、影响最广的文人社团，也是海内外成立最早的金石篆刻专业学术团体，社址坐落于浙江省杭州市西湖景区孤山西麓，为国家重点文物保护单位。西泠印社为联合国人类非物资文化遗产代表作“中国篆刻”的保护传承单位。西泠印社由浙派篆刻家丁辅之、王福庵、吴隐、叶为铭等召集同人发起创建，被后人誉为“创社四君子”。西泠印社还与集古斋共同创办了香港西泠学堂，今后将立足香港，开展教育培训和有关书法篆刻的文化艺术交流活动。饶宗颐为西泠学堂题字，并在现场举行揭牌仪式。
- In 1885, a series of large-scale Imperial paintings was commissioned to commemorate the Qing military’s victories over three major 19th century rebellions in China: the Taiping Rebellion, the Nian Rebellion and the Muslim Rebellions.https://www.sothebys.com/en/slideshows/victory-memorialized-an-imperial-guangxu-period-battle-painting note the flags!!!
- 清初“四高僧”名画家为弘仁、髡残、八大山人（朱耷）和石涛（朱若极，法号原济，别号清湘陈人、苦瓜和尚、大涤子等）。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170618/PDF/a21_screen.pdf
- https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2019/arts-dasie/quatre-feuilles-de-lalbum-imperial-des-minorites encre et couleurs sur soie, l'une représentant un homme issu d'un groupe de minorités, avec un titre et une inscription en chinois à droite, les trois autres représentant chacune une femme issue de différents groupes de minorités, avec un titre en chinois et en manchu à droite, et avec une inscription en manchu à gauche
- 清代上海舊校場年畫中，有一幅名叫《西國車利尼大馬戲空中懸繩大戰》。畫面中，西國女子在表演馬上跳布、馬上賣藝等馬戲。從此年畫中我得知上海開埠後，很多外國馬戲團來到上海演出，車利尼大馬戲便是其中最有影響力的一家。因為他們能表演出驚險的高空節目，一時萬人空巷，故而也成為年畫題材之一。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200204/PDF/b4_screen.pdf
- 呉 昌碩（ご しょうせき 、1844年9月12日 - 1927年11月29日）は中国の清朝末期から近代にかけて活躍した画家、書家、篆刻家。清代最後の文人といわれ、詩・書・画・篆刻ともに精通し、「四絶」と称賛され、中国近代でもっとも優れた芸術家と評価が高い。初めの名は俊（しゅん）、のちに俊卿（しゅんけい）、字をはじめ香圃。1912年（中華民国元年）、69歳から昌碩とする。別字に蒼石、倉石、倉碩。号に缶廬（フロ）、苦鉄、破荷、大聾、老蒼、石尊者、石人子、石敢当、破荷亭長、蕪青亭長、五湖印丐など。呉昌碩は特に篆刻の評価が高く、はじめ浙派に学び、ついで鄧派の影響を受け、さらに石鼓文などの研究を通して独自の刻風を生み出した。
- lança characters
- "荒崖寂寞無俗情" calligraphy has reference to 赤城. There is 赤城山（あかぎさん、あかぎやま、後述）は、関東地方の北部、群馬県.大沼の東岸、最高峰 黒檜山(くろびさん)の山麓に当たる場所に赤城神社があり、山麓各地に里宮があるほか、関東一円に末社約300社が分布している。「赤城山」の読みは「あかぎさん」・「あかぎやま」の2通りがあり、いくつかの事典・辞書では2通りの読みを併記している[7]。1947年（昭和22年）に誕生した群馬県の郷土かるたである「上毛かるた」の読み札に『裾野は長し赤城山（あかぎやま）』とあるように、群馬県民の間では「あかぎやま」と呼ばれ、親しまれている[8]。地元の道路案内標識での表記は「赤城山Mt.Akagi」のほかは、「赤城山Akagiyama」または「赤城山Mt.Akagiyama」である。また、昭和時代の郷土力士である赤城山晃（藤岡市出身）の四股名の読み方も「あかぎやま」である。
- On a stem bowl http://www.sothebys.com/en/auctions/ecatalogue/2017/important-chinese-art-hk0745/lot.3684.html
culture
- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2016/09/10/a17-0910.pdf根據蘇州園林和綠化管理局向記者提供的一份繡園歷史資料，繡園亦稱「龐家花園」，始建於清光緒元年（1875）。原名謳園，是清末詞人鄭文焯的寓所。沈壽在此建繡校光緒三十一年，刺繡大師沈壽與丈夫余覺，得劉伯年三四千銀元，購得謳園，創辦「同立繡校」，兼作福壽繡品公司，培養了不少刺繡能手。翌年5月，余覺、沈壽夫婦進京，此園屋出租予人。百年來幾經易手民國2年（1913年）後，余覺由張謇委派赴上海負責經營福壽繡品公司，後因經營不善，公司虧損，余覺以4,000元將馬醫科園宅作價給張謇，以此抵償公司債務。之後張謇又以4,500元售與龐國鈞。龐氏後將此改為龐氏義莊，取名「居安」。新中國成立後，園子轉為直管公房，1966年由蘇州市房管局整修，取名「繡園」。其內主建築為「墨繡堂」和「雲芝軒」，池水居中，東增建「片雲亭」，南有「杏蔭榭」，迴廊西面建有扇形餘風亭。大廳南有園，其平面為狹長曲尺形，以水為主。池形由2個曲尺連成，三面繞以廳堂及廊。
- new year celebrations http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/02/20/a19-0220.pdf
- winter sport
- 現時故宮博物院中，藏有一幅清代乾隆年間宮廷畫家張為邦與姚文瀚合繪的《冰嬉圖卷》。這幅長度逾五米半的畫作，正正生動展現了彼時宮廷冬日冰上遊樂的熱鬧圖景。中國古代向來有冰上活動的傳統，《宋史》中已記載皇家冬日喜「觀冰嬉」，而對於清代入主中原的滿人而言，他們在京城滑冰，是當年北地民俗傳統的延續，說得「形而上」一些，也是身份認同與集體回憶的某種表徵。難怪乾隆曾以「冰嬉為國制所重」來形容之。http://www.takungpao.com.hk/culture/237140/2020/0430/443271.html
garden
- 圓明園
- 長春園西洋樓 建築群海晏堂外 十二生肖獸首噴泉http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20191114/PDF/a9_screen.pdf
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20191229/PDF/a18_screen.pdf
music
- Mo Li Hua (Chinese: 茉莉花; pinyin: Mòlìhuā; literally: "Jasmine Flower"[a]) is a popular Chinese folk song. The song dates back to the 18th century. In time, many regional variations were created, and the song gained popularity both in China and abroad.It was created during the Qianlong era (1735–1796) of the Qing dynasty. There are several regional versions of the song,[7][8]:84– the more well-known one from Jiangsu Province, and the other from Zhejiang Province. They have different lyrics and melody.[9]:46– One version of the song describes a custom of giving jasmine flowers, popular in the southern Yangtze delta region of China. Another, longer version describes the fear of plucking the flower.[9]:46–[8]:81–82 It has been played on ancient metal bells (bianzhong) and modern jade chimes. It uses the five note (pentatonic) scale developed in China and popular through Asia.[9]:47– The tune is one of xiaodiao ("short tunes"), popular in Chinese urban areas. In 1804 a British diplomat, John Barrow, noted that the tune seems to be one of the most popular songs in China.The song became one of the first Chinese folk songs to become widely known outside China.[8]:81–82 In 1896 the song was used as temporary national anthem by the Qing Chinese officials in Europe. The melody has become well known among Western listeners as it was used by Giacomo Puccini in his opera Turandot (1926), where it is associated with 'Turandot's splendor'. It appeared in a 1934 Hollywood movie The Good Earth (based on a novel by Pearl Buck).[13]:51– It has been adapted by many artists around the world, for example by Kenny G.[8]:84– Anton Arensky included an arrangement of the song in his Etude from his Op.25.[citation needed] In 1982 the song found a place on a UNESCO list of recommended songs.[8]:84– When China regained sovereignty of Macau and Hong Kong, in 1999 and 1997, respectively, this music was played in the ceremonies. The song was said to be a favorite of China’s former leader, Jiang Zemin (it was at his request that the song was played during the transfer ceremony in Hong Kong). The tune was played during Central Committee of the Communist Party of China meetings.
- sung in the film "sophie's misfortunes" by father huc
- diplomatic representation
- 清光緒初年，廣東人陳蘭彬被派遣為首任駐美國公使。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200214/PDF/a21_screen.pdf
- debt
- 美媒報道，美國總統特朗普對華打貿易戰無所不用其極，甚至曾研究要求中國政府，償還一批由清政府一九一一年發行的債券，以作為貿易談判中的「籌碼」。有債券持有人表示，考慮到通貨膨脹、利息和賠償費用，中國或要支付超過一萬億美元（約七點八萬億港元）。惟報道指，連華府內部也認為有關做法在法律上不可行。報道引述知情人士指，特朗普及財政部長姆紐欽曾先後接見多名債券持有人；美國債券持有人基金會（American Bondholders Foundation）甚至建議，先把債券所有權轉移到美國政府，再要求中方償還。惟美國財政部經研究後，認為建議不可行。美國政府拒絕評論報道。杜克大學法學教授古拉提形容有關想法愚蠢。據報道，該批債券由晚清政府為資助建設湖廣鐵路而發行，面值分別為廿及一百英鎊，且債券上有清朝「郵傳部印」公章，和郵傳大臣盛宣懷的簽名，並蓋有「大清欽差出使大臣關防」印章；美國至少有數千人持有該批債券，惟中共建政後，中方從未承認這項債務。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190902/00180_004.html
- Yung Wing (simplified Chinese: 容闳; traditional Chinese: 容閎; pinyin: Róng Hóng; Jyutping: Jung4 Wang4; November 17, 1828 – April 21, 1912) was the first Chinese student to graduate from a United States university (Yale College in 1854). He was involved in business transactions between China and the United States and brought students from China to study in the United States on the Chinese Educational Mission. He became a naturalized American citizen, but his status was later revoked under the Naturalization Act of 1870.Yung Wing is the first-known Chinese student to graduate from a U.S. university. He graduated from Yale College in 1854 where he was a member and librarian of Brothers in Unity, a prominent Yale student literary society. His time at Yale was sponsored by Samuel Robbins Brown (1810–1880). In 1851, at the end of his freshman year, Wing wrote to Albert Booth, a fellow alumnus of Munson Academy and "old Yale, where you have the satisfaction + honor to have gone through." Wing asked for Booth's help in acquiring study materials and stated, "Now you know probably the many disadvantages in which I labor aside from these additional studies." He was a member of the Phi chapter of the Delta Kappa Epsilon Fraternity. After finishing his studies, Yung Wing returned to Qing Dynasty China and worked with western missionaries as an interpreter. In 1859, he accepted an invitation to the court of the Taiping rebels in Nanjing, but his proposals aimed at increasing the efficiency of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom were all eventually refused. In 1863, Yung Wing was dispatched to the United States by Zeng Guofan to buy machinery necessary for opening an arsenal in China capable of producing heavy weapons comparable with those of the western powers. The arsenal later became Jiangnan Shipyard. Yung Wing was naturalized as an American citizen on October 30, 1852, and in 1876, he married Mary Kellogg, an American. They had two children: Morrison Brown Yung and Bartlett Golden Yung. At Yale's centennial commencement in 1876, Yung Wing received an honorary Doctor of Laws. He persuaded the Qing Dynasty government to send young Chinese to the United States to study Western science and engineering. With the government's eventual approval, he organized what came to be known as the Chinese Educational Mission, which included 120 young Chinese students, to study in the New England region of the United States beginning in 1872. The Educational Mission was disbanded in 1881, but many of the students later returned to China and made significant contributions to China's civil services, engineering, and the sciences. Yung Wing was a lifelong supporter of reform in China. He had followed the lead of the Guangxu Emperor, whom Yung described as the great pioneer of reform in China. The coup d'état of 1898 by the Empress Dowager Cixi aborted the reforms, and many of the reformers were decapitated.[5] A price of $70,000 was placed on Yung's head and he fled Shanghai to Hong Kong. While in Hong Kong, he applied to the US Consul to return to the US. In a 1902 letter from the US Secretary of State John Sherman, Yung was informed that his US citizenship that he had held for 50 years was revoked and he would not be allowed to return to the United States. Through the help of friends, he was able to sneak into the United States in time to see his youngest son, Bartlett, graduate from Yale. In 1908, Yung joined "General" Homer Lea, the former American military advisor to Kang Youwei, in a bold and audacious military venture in China called the “Red Dragon Plan” that called for organizing a revolutionary conspiracy to conquer the two southern Guang provinces. Through Yung, Lea planned to solicit a united front of various southern Chinese factions and secret societies to organize an army that he would command for the revolution. If successful, Yung was slated to head a coalition government of revolutionary forces while Lea and his fellow conspirators hoped to receive wide-ranging economic concessions from the new government. The Red Dragon conspiracy subsequently collapsed and Yung lived his remaining years in poverty in Hartford, Connecticut, and died in 1912.1863年には旧知の数学者李善蘭の紹介で、清朝の実力者曽国藩と面会している。以後容閎は太平天国の天敵であった洋務派官僚に接近し、洋務運動を側面から支援していく。翌年、西洋の国々に匹敵する武器工場を建設するのに必要な機械類の買い付けのために曽国藩によってアメリカに派遣された。帰国後、無事機器購入に成功した功を認められ「候補同知」という官職を与えられている。1870年、児童をアメリカに留学させる計画を提案し、曽国藩・李鴻章・丁日昌の支持を得た。1872年、120人の児童がアメリカ留学に出発し、容閎は留学生監督と駐米副公使に任命された。しかし数年後、留学生たちが自由・民主の考え方に触れて儒学への関心を失うようになると、駐米公使の陳蘭彬は留学生を帰国させるべきと主張して容閎との論争が絶えない状態となった。1881年、総理各国事務衙門は留学生に帰国を命じたため、留学は10年で中断されることとなり、容閎も留学生とともに帰国した。しかし留学は完全に成功しなかったとはいえ、留学生の中から外交官の唐紹儀・劉玉麟、中国鉄道の父詹天佑、香港の政界で活動した周寿臣などの人物が現れている。1890年、清の政府に国立銀行の設立を建議し、研究のためにアメリカに派遣されたが、盛宣懐の反対で中止された。その後、康有為や梁啓超と知り合い、戊戌の変法では変法派を支持した。しかし戊戌の政変により香港に逃れた。1900年には唐才常の呼びかけた自立軍運動に参加し、「中国国会」会長に選ばれている。この運動は失敗に終わったが、その後孫文を知り、アメリカから孫文の革命運動を支援した。1911年、辛亥革命が成功すると孫文は容閎に帰国を要請したが、翌年にアメリカで死去した。
- Anson Burlingame (November 14, 1820 – February 23, 1870) was an American lawyer, legislator, and diplomat. Burlingame was born in New Berlin, Chenango County, New York. In 1823 his parents (Joel Burlingame and Freelove Angell) took him to Ohio, and about ten years afterwards to Michigan. Between 1838 and 1841 he studied at the Detroit branch of the University of Michigan, and in 1846 graduated from Harvard Law School. On June 3, 1847 he married Jane Cornelia Livermore. They had sons Edward Livermore Burlingame (born 1848) and Walter Angell Burlingame (born 1852), as well as a daughter Gertrude Burlingame (born 1856). Burlingame practiced law in Boston, Massachusetts, and won a wide reputation by his speeches for the Free Soil Party in 1848. He was a member of the Massachusetts constitutional convention in 1853, of the state senate from 1853 to 1854, and of the United States House of Representatives from 1855 to 1861, being elected for the first term as a Know Nothing and afterwards as a member of the new Republican Party, which he helped to organize in Massachusetts. He was a brother of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity (Sigma chapter).On March 22, 1861, after Burlingame lost his bid for re-election, President Abraham Lincoln appointed Burlingame as Minister to the Austrian Empire, but Burlingame, who had championed the Hungarian Lajos Kossuth and his drive for independence from the Austrian Empire, was not acceptable and did not serve. On June 14, 1861 Lincoln instead appointed Burlingame as minister to the Qing Empire. Burlingame worked for a cooperative policy rather than the imperialistic policies of force which had been used during the First and Second Opium Wars and developed relations with the reform elements of the court. The success of this diplomacy was not lost on Qing dynasty court officials. On November 16, 1867, when he was set to retire and return to his political career at home, the Chinese government appointed Burlingame envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to head a Chinese diplomatic mission to the United States and the principal European nations. The mission, which included two Chinese ministers, an English and a French secretary, six students from Peking, and a considerable retinue, arrived in the United States in March 1868. Burlingame used his personal relations with the Republican administration to negotiate a relatively quick and favorable treaty. In a series of speeches across the country, he displayed eloquent oratory to advocate equal treatment of China and a welcoming stance toward Chinese immigrants. On July 28, 1868 the mission concluded at Washington, D.C. a series of articles, supplementary to the Reed Treaty of 1858, and later known as the Burlingame Treaty. The treaty provided that Chinese subjects in the United States should enjoy the same rights as citizens of the most favored nation, a legal strategy which up until that point had only been used to expand foreign privileges in China. Burlingame worked successfully to include a clause permitting Chinese to become citizens, which was barred by American law. This treaty was the first equal treaty between China and a western power after the Opium War. Subsequently, Burlingame also negotiated treaties with Denmark, Sweden, Holland, and Prussia.[9] He died suddenly at Saint Petersburg on February 23, 1870, while negotiating terms for a treaty with Russia. He was buried in Boston.
europe
- delegation from china
- 在西方大航海時代幾百 年後，直到一八六六年，中國才派 出第一個出使歐洲的官方考察團。 帶隊的是滿族老官僚斌椿。而他之 所以中選，並非因為有多高的西學 造詣，而是其子與 「洋道台」 赫德 相熟。 斌椿沿途考察不可謂不認真， 回來後寫了一本《乘槎筆記》，是 中國第一本親歷、親見、親手寫成 的有關歐洲的考察報告，記述了他 對火車、電燈、電梯、顯微鏡、 電鈴等新科技的新奇感受，大開 眼界。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200527/PDF/a31_screen.pdf
UK
- The Treaty of Lhasa, officially the Convention Between Great Britain and Thibet, was a treatysigned in 1904 between Tibet and the British Empire, in Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, then under administrative rule of the Qing dynasty. It was signed following the British expedition to Tibetof 1903-1904, a military expedition led by Colonel Francis Younghusband, and was followed by the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906.The main points of the treaty allowed the British to trade in Yadong, Gyantse, and Gartokwhile Tibet was to pay a large indemnity of 7,500,000 rupees, later reduced by two-thirds, with the Chumbi Valley ceded to Britain until payment was received. Further provisions recognised the Sikkim-Tibet border and prevented Tibet having relations with any other foreign powers therbey effectively converting Tibet into a British protectorate.The Qing imperial resident in Lhasa, the Amban later publicly repudiated the treaty, while Britain announced that it still accepted Chinese claims of authority over Tibet. Acting Viceroy Lord Ampthill reduced the indemnity by two-thirds and considerably eased the terms in other ways. The provisions of this 1904 treaty were revised in the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906. The British, for a fee from the Qing court, also agreed "not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet", while China engaged "not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet".
- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2016/12/01/a18-1201.pdf 在英國東北部港口城市紐卡斯爾 的聖約翰墓園，有兩座墓碑面 向大海比鄰相依，一人高的黑色墓碑 上鐫刻着醒目的漢字：「大清故勇福 建福州府侯官縣陳受富之墓」、「大 清故勇福建福州府閩縣陳成魁之 墓」。事實上，這個墓園裡共有五座 這樣的中式墓碑（另外三座墓碑已經 倒塌）該五座墓的墓主皆為清朝光緒年間 北洋水師的水兵。 1881 年和 1887 年，北洋水師籌備期間曾從位於紐卡 斯爾的阿姆斯特朗船廠購買了四艘巡 洋艦，分別是第一批的「超勇艦」、 「揚威艦」和第二批的「致遠艦」、 「靖遠艦」。為了接取軍艦，當時的 清政府派遣了一批官兵前往英國。在 赴英的接艦官兵中，袁培福、顧世 忠、連金源、陳成魁和陳受富等五位 年輕水兵因病客死他鄉。
- delegation to china
- The Macartney Embassy, also called the Macartney Mission, was the first British diplomatic mission to China, which took place in 1793. It is named for its leader, George Macartney, Great Britain's first envoy to China. The goals of the mission included the opening of new ports for British trade in China, the establishment of a permanent embassy in Beijing, the cession of a small island for British use along China's coast, and the relaxation of trade restrictions on British merchants in Guangzhou (Canton). Macartney's delegation met with the Qianlong Emperor, who rejected all of the British requests. Although the mission failed to achieve its official objectives, it was later noted for the extensive cultural, political, and geographical observations its participants recorded in China and brought back to Europe.
- people
- Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet, FRS, FRGS (19 June 1764 – 23 November 1848) was an English statesman and writer. Barrow was born the only child of Roger Barrow, a tanner in the village of Dragley Beck, in the parish of Ulverston, Lancashire.[1] He was schooled at Town Bank grammar school, Ulverston, but left at age 13 to found a Sunday school for the poor. Barrow was employed as superintending clerk of an iron foundry at Liverpool. At only 16, he went on a whaling expedition to Greenland. By his twenties, he was teaching mathematics, in which he had always excelled, at a private school in Greenwich.Barrow taught mathematics to the son of Sir George Leonard Staunton; through Staunton's interest, he was attached on the first British embassy to China from 1792 to 1794 as comptroller of the household to Lord Macartney. He soon acquired a good knowledge of the Chinese language, on which he subsequently contributed articles to the Quarterly Review; and the account of the embassy published by Sir George Staunton records many of Barrow's valuable contributions to literature and science connected with China. Barrow ceased to be officially connected with Chinese affairs after the return of the embassy in 1794, but he always took much interest in them, and on critical occasions was frequently consulted by the British government. In 1797, Barrow accompanied Lord Macartney as private secretary in his important and delicate mission to settle the government of the newly acquired colony of the Cape of Good Hope. Barrow was entrusted with the task of reconciling the Boer settlers and the native Black population and of reporting on the country in the interior. In the course of the trip, he visited all parts of the colony; when he returned, he was appointed auditor-general of public accounts. He then decided to settle in South Africa, married, and bought a house in 1800 in Cape Town. However, the surrender of the colony at the peace of Amiens (1802) upset this plan. During his travels through South Africa, Barrow compiled copious notes and sketches of the countryside that he was traversing. The outcome of his journeys was a map which, despite its numerous errors, was the first published modern map of the southern parts of the Cape Colony.[4] William John Burchell (1781–1863) was particularly scathing: "As to the miserable thing called a map, which has been prefixed to Mr. Barrow’s quarto, I perfectly agree with Professor Lichtenstein, that it is so defective that it can seldom be found of any use."
- purchased esther scroll (or megillah) (made in italy) in china in 1794, a rematkable emblem of judaism in china in colonial era
- Sir Robert Hart, 1st Baronet GCMG (20 February 1835 – 20 September 1911), was a British diplomat in China, who served as the second Inspector-General of China's Imperial Maritime Custom Service (IMCS) from 1863 to 1911. According to Jung Chang, "Under Hart, Chinese Customs was transformed from an antiquated set-up, anarchical and prone to corruption, into a well-regulated modern organisation, which contributed enormously to China's economy." The good relations Hart established with the imperial authorities in Peking while deputising for Lay led them to dismiss the difficult and haughty Lay upon his return from leave. Hart was appointed in his place in November 1863, with British approval. As Inspector-General of China's Imperial Maritime Custom Service (IMCS), Hart's main responsibilities included collecting custom duties for the Chinese government, as well as expanding the new system to more sea and river ports and some inland frontiers, standardising its operations, and insisting on high standards of efficiency and honesty.
- http://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/article/1349719/affairs-our-hart
- http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2017-03/24/content_28659554.htm A new biography sheds light on Sir Robert Hart's time in China as a customs official duringthe Qing Dynasty.
- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/04/10/b08-0410.pdf
- Major General Charles George Gordon CB (28 January 1833 – 26 January 1885), also known as Chinese Gordon, Gordon Pasha, and Gordon of Khartoum, was a British Army officer and administrator. He saw action in the Crimean War as an officer in the British Army. But he made his military reputation in China, where he was placed in command of the "Ever Victorious Army," a force of Chinese soldiers led by European officers. In the early 1860s, Gordon and his men were instrumental in putting down the Taiping Rebellion, regularly defeating much larger forces. For these accomplishments, he was given the nickname "Chinese Gordon" and honours from both the Emperor of China and the British.
- thomas meadows http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/supplement/columnist/%E9%99%B6%E5%82%91/art/20170223/19936608
- Walter Henry Medhurst (29 April 1796 – 24 January 1857), was an English Congregationalist missionary to China, born in London and educated at St Paul's School. He was one of the early translators of the Bible into Chinese language editions.Medhurst's father was an innkeeper in Ross-on-Wye, Herefordshire. As a young man Medhurst learned the business of a printer and typesetter at the Gloucester Herald. Becoming interested in Christian missions he sailed in 1816 to join the London Missionary Society's station at Malacca, which was intended to be a great printing centre. En route, he called at Madras where, in a little less than three months, he met Mrs Elizabeth Braune, née Martin (1794–1874), marrying her the day before he sailed to Malacca. Once he arrived, Medhurst quickly became proficient in Malay, in a knowledge of the written characters of Chinese, and in the colloquial use of more than one of its dialects. Medhurst was ordained at Malacca in 1819, and engaged in missionary labours, first at Penang, then at Batavia, where the church he founded operates today as All Saints Jakarta and the Parapattan Orphanage which he started, continues to this day. When peace was concluded with China in 1842, he moved to Shanghai where he founded the London Missionary Society Press together with Dr William Lockhart, and later was joined by Joseph Edkins, and William Charles Milne. There he continued until 1856, laying the foundations of a successful mission. Medhurst's principal labour for several years, was in leading the committee of delegates, which created the Delegates Version of the Bible. In the 1840s, a group of four people (Walter Henry Medhurst, John Stronach, Elijah Coleman Bridgman, and William Charles Milne) cooperated to translate the Bible into Chinese.
The translation of the Hebrew language part was done mostly by Gutzlaff from the Netherlands Missionary Society, with the exception of the Pentateuch and the book of Joshua, which were done by the group collectively. This translation, completed in 1847 is well known due to its adoption by the revolutionary peasant leader Hong Xiuquan of the Taiping Tianguo movement (Taiping Rebellion) as some of the reputed early doctrines of the organization. This Bible translation was a version in Classical Chinese, correct and faithful to the original. With John Stronach, and the assistance of Wang Tao, Medhurst later translated the New Testament into the Mandarin dialect of Nanking. His Chinese-English and English-Chinese dictionaries (each in 2 vols.) are still valuable, and to him the British public owed its understanding of the teaching of Hung-Sew-Tseuen, the leader of the Tai-ping rising (1851–64).- His son, Sir Walter Henry Medhurst (1822–1885), was British consul at Hankow and afterwards at Shanghai.
france
- the Chinese Museum and accompanying rooms built for Empress Eugenie in 1863 house her collection of Far-Eastern treasures. While some of these treasures were acquired from the imperial depository (mainly revolutionary plunder), Napoleon III and Eugenie acquired others from the Sack of the Summer Palace in Beijing by the French and British soldiers in 1860. The collection also includes diplomatic gifts from the Ambassador of Siam who visited Fontainebleau in 1861.
- people in china
Russia
- the Chinese Museum and accompanying rooms built for Empress Eugenie in 1863 house her collection of Far-Eastern treasures. While some of these treasures were acquired from the imperial depository (mainly revolutionary plunder), Napoleon III and Eugenie acquired others from the Sack of the Summer Palace in Beijing by the French and British soldiers in 1860. The collection also includes diplomatic gifts from the Ambassador of Siam who visited Fontainebleau in 1861.
- people in china
- Jean-François Gerbillon (4 June 1654, Verdun, France – 27 March 1707, Peking, China) was a French missionary who worked in China. He entered the Society of Jesus, 5 Oct, 1670, and after completing the usual course of study taught grammar and humanities for seven years. His long-cherished desire to labor in the missions of the East was gratified in 1685, when he joined the group of Jesuits who had been chosen to found the French mission in China. For the first leg of the trip, he was attached to the embassy of the Chevalier de Chaumont to Siam, and was accompanied by a group of Jesuit mathematicians (Jean de Fontaney (1643–1710), Joachim Bouvet (1656–1730), Louis Le Comte (1655–1728), Guy Tachard (1648–1712) and Claude de Visdelou (1656–1737)). Tachard would remain in Siam besides King Narai, but the others would reach China in 1687.Upon their arrival in Beijing they were received by the Kangxi Emperor who was favorably impressed by them and retained Gerbillion and Joachim Bouvet at the court. This famous monarch realized the value of the services which the fathers could render to him owing to their scientific attainments, and they on their part were glad in this way to win his favour and gain prestige in order to further the interests of the infant mission. As soon as they had learned the language of the country, Gerbillion with Thomas Pereira, one of his companions, was sent as interpreter to Nerchinsk with the ambassadors commissioned to treat with the Russians regarding the boundaries of the two empires, which were determined in the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689). This was but the beginning of his travels, during which he was often attached to the suite of the emperor. He made eight different journeys into "Tartary" (i.e., Manchuria and Mongolia). On one of these he was an eyewitness to the campaign in which Kangxi defeated the Oirats. On his last journey he accompanied the three commissioners who regulated public affairs and established new laws among the Khalkha Mongols, who had yielded allegiance to the emperor. He availed himself of this opportunity to determine the latitude and longitude of a number of places in what is today the Northeastern China and adjacent areas of Russia and Mongolia. Gerbillion was for a time in charge of the French college in Beijing, and afterwards became superior-general of the mission. He enjoyed the special friendship and esteem of the emperor, who had a high opinion of his ability and frequently availed himself of his scientific and diplomatic services. He was withal a zealous missionary, and in 1692 obtained an edict granting the free exercise of the Christian religion. After the emperor's recovery from a fever, during which he was attended by Gerbillion and Bouvet, he showed his gratitude by bestowing on them a site for a chapel and residence. Gerbillion was a skilled linguist. He was the author of several works on mathematics, and wrote an account of his travels in Tatary. These relations are valuable for their accurate account of the typography of the country, the customs of the people, and also for the details of life of the missionaries at the court.
Russia
- Sophia Alekseyevna (Russian: Со́фья Алексе́евна; IPA: [ˈsofʲɪjə ɐlʲɪˈksʲejɪvnə]; 27 September [O.S. 17 September] 1657 – 14 July [O.S. 3 July] 1704) ruled as regent of Russia from 1682 to 1689. She allied herself with a singularly capable courtier and politician, Prince Vasily Golitsyn, to install herself during the minority of her brother Ivan V and half-brother Peter I. She carried out her regency with a firm and heavy hand, not hesitating to use violent tactics to promote her agenda. The activity of this "bogatyr-tsarevna" (as Sergey Solovyov called her) was all the more extraordinary, as upper-class Muscovite women, confined to the upper-floor terem and veiled and guarded in public, invariably were kept aloof from any open involvement in politics.
- She was fictionally portrayed in Chinese novelist Jin Yong's novel The Deer and the Cauldron in which the young protagonist Wei Xiaobao went to Russia and helped her lead the coup against her half-brother Peter I. It was suggested that this event led to the peace between the Qing Empire and Russia in the Nerchinsk Treaty.
- In 1858 (Treaty of Aigun) Russia annexed the land north of the Amur [note the reversal (heilongjiang blog)] and in 1860 (Treaty of Beijing) took the coast down to Vladivostok. The current border runs along the Argun, Amur and Ussuri Rivers.
- hkej 19sep17 shum article
Italy
- people
- Giuseppe Castiglione, S.J. (simplified Chinese: 郎世宁; traditional Chinese: 郎世寧; pinyin: Lángshìníng) (19 July 1688 – 17 July 17 1766), was an Italian Jesuit lay brother and a missionary in China, where he served as an artist at the imperial court of three emperors – the Kangxi,Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors. He painted in a style that is a fusion of European and Chinese traditions.
- The most visible architectural remains of the Old Summer Palace (Yuanming Yuan (圓明園) )can be found in the Western mansions (Xiyang Lou) section of 18th century European-style palaces, fountains and formal gardens. These structures, built partly of stone but mainly with a Chinese infrastructure of timber columns, coloured tiles and brick walls, were planned and designed by the Jesuit Giuseppe Castiglione with Michel Benoist responsible for the fountains and waterwork.
- Matteo Ripa (29 March 1682, Eboli – 29 March 1746, Naples) was an Italian priest who was sent as a missionary to China by Propaganda Fide, and between 1711 and 1723 worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Manchu court of the Kangxi Emperor, under the Chinese name Ma Guoxian (馬國賢). In December 1723 Matteo Ripa left Beijing for Europe, travelling with four young Chinese Christians (Giovanni Gu (ca. 1700-1763), Giovanni Yin (ca. 1704-1735), Philipo Huang (ca. 1711 - 1776), and Lucio Wu (ca. 1712 - 1763)) and their Chinese teacher. His plan was to bring the youths to Naples, train them as priests, and let them go back to China as missionaries. This was the foundation of the "Collegio dei Cinesi" ("Chinese College"), sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the propagation of Christianity in China. All six travelers reached Italy by the way of Canton and London, where George I of Great Britain received them at his palace in 1724. Setting up a Chinese College in Naples turned out to be harder than Ripa thought, but eventually it was accomplished in 1732.
portugal
- according to Gianni Criveller (lecture on 3mar17 at Dante Alighieri ), he was an enemy of jesuits.
- The St. Joseph's Seminary and Church (Chinese: 聖若瑟修院及聖堂; Portuguese: Igreja e Seminário de São José). The seminary was established in 1728 followed by the church in 1758.O Seminário de São José foi fundado em 1728 pelos jesuítas ao serviço do Império português, no âmbito do acordo do Padroado português. Juntamente com o Colégio de São Paulo, construído pelos jesuítas em 1594 mas destruído por um incêndio em 1835, este seminário constituiu a base principal para a formação de missionários católicos para o Extremo Oriente, principalmente para a China. O currículo académico do Seminário era equivalente ao de uma universidade ocidental. Segundo a tradição local, o Seminário operou inicialmente em três pequenas casas oferecidas aos jesuítas pelo comerciante Miguel Cordeiro. Provavelmente, os jesuítas construíram um novo edifício de raiz em 1742 para substituir estas casas, que não se sabe ao certo se foram demolidas ou não. Os jesuítas foram forçados a abandonar este seminário em 1762, quando foram expulsos pelas autoridades portuguesas, durante a supressão da Companhia de Jesus. Após este acontecimento chocante, o Seminário suspendeu as suas actividades até 1783, quando foi reaberto pelos lazaristas vindos de Goa. A Casa Real Portuguesa financiou os custos da sua reabertura, incluindo os gastos relativos à reparação, mobilação e contrato de professores e funcionários. Rapidamente, esta instituição de ensino granjeou uma grande reputação e formou muitos padres chineses. Em 1800, a Rainha D. Maria I deu a esta instituição o título real de "Casa da Congregação das Missões". É a segunda mais antiga instituição universitária de Macau, a seguir ao Colégio de São Paulo. Durante as guerras napoleónicas, o Seminário teve grandes dificuldades em encontrar professores. De 1836 a 1860, as actividades de ensino do Seminário foram completamente suspendidas e interrompidas. Em 1862, este seminário foi devolvido aos jesuítas e reaberto. Porém, em 1870, eles voltaram a ser expulsos dos seus postos académicos, porque o Governo de Portugal proibiu qualquer estrangeiro de ser professor em seminários ou escolas católicas que operavam no Império português. Apesar dos protestos dos cidadãos locais, nomeadamente de Pedro Nolasco da Silva, este decreto foi implementado, afectando seriamente a educação portuguesa em Macau, já que a única escola ocidental que funcionava bem naquela altura era o Seminário de São José, cujos professores eram maioritariamente jesuítas estrangeiros e cujo ensino era desfrutado também por rapazes não-seminaristas. Com a expulsão dos jesuítas, o Seminário foi reorganizado e passou a ser operado por padres diocesanos locais. Em 1890, os jesuítas voltaram a assumir o controlo do Seminário. Porém, com a revolução republicana de 5 de Outubro de 1910, todos os jesuítas foram novamente expulsos do Império português, incluindo Macau. O Seminário, gravemente atingido por esta medida, passou novamente a ser operado pelos padres diocesanos locais. Em 1916, o edifício que aloja o seminário foi submetido a grandes obras de remodelação e restauro. Em 1929, devido à falta de professores, os jesuítas, que tinham uma missão em Shiu-Hing, voltaram a assumir o controlo do Seminário. Em 1940, eles abandonaram definitivamente este seminário histórico, que passou a ser pertencente e administrado pela Diocese de Macau, através dos seus padres diocesanos. No século XX, o Seminário de São José tornou-se de novo num dos principais centros de formação de missionários para o Extremo Oriente. Os seus estudantes eram oriundos maioritariamente de Macau, Hong-Kong, Portugal, Timor e China continental. O seminário era misto, ou seja, ministrava dois programas de ensino diferentes, um de matriz portuguesa e outro de matriz chinesa. O programa chinês, que tinha o português como língua estrangeira, seguia as directrizes e os programas oficiais traçados pela Igreja Católica chinesa, no sentido de formar missionários capazes de evangelizar a China. Além dos seminaristas, estudava também lá muitos rapazes internos e externos que, não sendo seminaristas, frequentavam o curso comercial e a instrução primária e secundária ministrados pelo seminário. Em 1924-1925, esta instituição de ensino chegou a ter 533 alunos matriculados, sendo 428 externos e 105 internos, dos quais 62 eram seminaristas. Porém, em 1929, encerrou-se o internato dos colegiais, ou seja, dos que não eram seminaristas. Em 1936, D. José da Costa Nunes acabou com o curso comercial e, em 1938, com o externato, com o objectivo de cumprir as normas ditadas pela Santa Sé, que estabeleciam que os seminários deviam ser usados exclusivamente para a formação do clero. O externato acabou por ser reaberto em 1949. Mas, devido ao clima de insegurança provocado pelo motim 1-2-3 e à falta de vocações sacerdotais, a formação (ou internato) para seminaristas deixou de funcionar em 1967 e o externato em 1968, durante o bispado de D. Paulo José Tavares. Os poucos seminaristas que ainda restaram ou apareceram depois foram estudar para Hong Kong e/ou Portugal.
- Cesar Guillen-Nuñez 's book on the church https://www.researchgate.net/project/Macaos-College-and-Church-of-St-Joseph-Splendour-of-the-Baroque-in-China
- established diplomatic relations in 1869, country name translated as 奥马斯加 in chinese hkej 15mar19 c1
japan
- Inukai Tsuyoshi (犬養 毅, 4 June 1855 – 15 May 1932) was a Japanese politician, cabinet minister, and Prime Minister of Japan from 13 December 1931 to his assassination on 15 May 1932.Inukai was born to a samurai family of Niwase Domain, in Niwase village, Bizen Province (now part of Okayama city, Okayama Prefecture), where his father had been a local official and magistrate under the Tokugawa shogunate.犬養 毅（いぬかい つよし[注釈 1]、1855年6月4日（安政2年4月20日） - 1932年（昭和7年）5月15日）は、日本の政治家。位階は正二位。勲等は勲一等。通称は仙次郎。号は木堂、子遠。中国進歩党総裁、立憲国民党総裁、革新倶楽部総裁、立憲政友会総裁（第6代）、文部大臣（第13・31代）、逓信大臣（第27・29代）、内閣総理大臣（第29代）、外務大臣（第45代）、内務大臣（第50代）などを歴任した。備中国賀陽郡川入村（現・岡山県岡山市北区川入）で大庄屋・郡奉行を務めた犬飼源左衛門の次男としてうまれる（後に犬養と改姓）。父は水荘と称した備中松山藩板倉氏分家の庭瀬藩郷士である。もともと、犬飼家は庭瀬藩から名字帯刀を許される家格であったが、毅が2歳の時、父がコレラで急死する不幸に見舞われたため、生活はかなり苦しかったという[1]。同藩の経世学者楠之蔚の下で漢籍をおさめたのち[2]、1876年（明治9年）に上京して慶應義塾に入学し、一時共慣義塾（渡辺洪基と浜尾新主宰の塾）に通い、また漢学塾・二松學舍では三島中洲に漢学を学んだ。慶應義塾在学中に、郵便報知新聞（後の報知新聞）の記者として西南戦争に従軍（ちなみに、抜刀隊が「戊辰の仇!」と叫びながら突撃した事実は、一説には犬養の取材によるものとも言われている）。1880年（明治13年）藤田茂吉と共に、慶應義塾卒業前に栗本鋤雲（郵便報知新聞社主筆）に誘われて記者となる[3]。He was also a strong supporter of the Chinese republican movement, visiting China in 1907, and subsequently lending aid to Sun Yat-sen during the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 which overthrew the Qing dynasty. He later assisted Sun when Sun had to flee to Japan after his attempt to overthrow Yuan Shikai failed. Inukai has a deep respect for Chinese culture, and felt that Sino-Japanese cooperation was the cornerstone of Asian solidarity.[2] Although in later years his vision of Sino-Japanese cooperation diverged greatly from Sun's, Inukai maintained close personal ties with many leading Chinese politicians. Inukai likewise supported the Vietnamese independence leader, Prince Cường Để, and invited him to Japan in 1915.
- 曾孫：緒方貞子 - 日本政府アフガニスタン支援特別代表、元国連難民高等弁務官。母は、芳沢謙吉・操夫妻の長女・恒子。父は、外交官の中村豊一。
- 曾孫：犬養千春 - 学習院卒業。叔母犬養道子に大きく影響を受ける。現 Pro Light Japan代表
- 従兄弟：小松原慶太郎－実業家。倉敷紡績所、倉敷銀行（現中国銀行）などを設立。
korea
- Kim Jeong-hui (김정희, 金正喜, Korean pronunciation: [kimdʑʌŋhi] born on the 3rd day of the 6th lunar month 1786, died on the 10th day of the 10th lunar month 1856) was one of the most celebrated practitioners of calligraphy, epigraphists, and scholars of Korea’s later Joseon period. He was a member of the Gyeongju Kim clan. He used various Ho (pen-names): Wandang (阮堂), Chusa (秋史), Yedang (禮堂), Siam (詩庵), Gwapa (果坡), Nogwa (老果) etc. (some 200 in all). He is especially celebrated for having transformed Korean epigraphy and for having created the “Chusa-che” (秋史體 Chusa writing style) inspired by his study of ancient Korean and Chinese epitaphs. His ink paintings, especially of orchids, are equally admired. In 1810, his adoptive father was appointed a vice-envoy in the annual embassy to Qing China and he accompanied him, spending some 6 months in China. There he met such noted scholars as Weng Fanggang (翁方綱, 1733–1818) and Ruan Yuan (阮元, 1764–1849) who recognized his qualities. He seems to have studied documentary history there especially. Ruan Yuan gave him a copy of his “Su Zhai Biji” (蘇齋筆記), a book about calligraphy, and Kim continued to correspond with them after his return to Korea. For a time after returning home he did not take up any official position but continued to study the Northern Learning and write essays criticizing rigid Neo-Confucianism. He also pursued research by visiting and studying the inscriptions on ancient stele. In 1815, the Venerable Cho-ui first visited Seoul and met Kim Jeong-hui there.
myanmar
- The Sino-Burmese War (Chinese: 中緬戰爭 or 清緬戰爭; Burmese: တရုတ်-မြန်မာ စစ် (၁၇၆၅–၆၉)), also known as the Qing invasions of Burma or the Myanmar campaign of the Qing dynasty,[10] was a war fought between the Qing dynasty of China and the Konbaung dynasty of Burma (Myanmar). China under the Qianlong Emperor launched four invasions of Burma between 1765 and 1769, which were considered as one of his Ten Great Campaigns. Nonetheless, the war, which claimed the lives of over 70,000 Chinese soldiers and four commanders,[11] is sometimes described as "the most disastrous frontier war that the Qing dynasty had ever waged",[10] and one that "assured Burmese independence". Burma's successful defense laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between the two countries.
mongolia
- [gc pang and h toth]during 1750s, the manchus decided, for administrative purposes, to divide mongolia into northern (outer mongolia) and southern regions(inner mongolia). Chinese traders and moneylenders played a defining role in mongolian society. The mongolians fell increasingly into debt to the manchus, were forced to pay high taxes, and were resentful of being dominated by them. The outer mongolia, with russia's support, took the opportunity in 1911 revolution to declare its independence. Bogd khan (8th javzandamba khutagt) led the revolt. In 1915, with russian support, mongolia signed a treaty with china and russia, recognising autonomy of outer mongolia while latter accepting chinese suzerainty. But in 1919, chinese troops invaded mongolia while russia was occupied with the russian revolution. Baron roman von ungern-sternberg (mad baron, a russian czarist general who had escaped the revolution in russia), helped by attacking urga with an army of opportunists (included russians, mongolians, tibetans and poles) , driving out the chinese army and rescuing bogd khan.
heilongjiang
- 清永陵和赫圖阿拉城位於距離撫順市東南115公里的新賓滿族自治縣，新賓滿族自治縣面積4,432平方公里，人口32萬（滿族人口佔百分之70），這是一個山明水秀，朝氣勃勃的小縣城。清永陵是清朝皇帝的祖陵，從努爾哈赤六世祖開始共4輩人的陵寢均在此地。赫圖阿拉城是一座擁有400多年歷史的古城，滿清王朝奠基者努爾哈赤、皇太極、多爾袞等都在這裡出生。1587年，努爾哈赤在此地統一女真；1603年，努爾哈赤開始在此地建城；1616年，努爾哈赤在此建後金國，即汗位。大家在古城裡舉目看到的建築物都是近年新建的，原有的赫圖阿拉古城，已於1904年，日俄戰爭期間（日俄政府強迫中國政府在中國境內劃出交戰區予兩國交戰），俄國霸佔整個東北地區，400多年古城就在此時被俄國軍隊破壞殆盡，毀於一旦！http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/03/11/b08-0311.pdf
chaozhou
- 我小時候在家鄉聽說，因為潮州人當年曾為清廷平亂（大概是指太平天國）有功，因此潮汕的「厝」的屋頂，其檐邊可以雕刻成類如北京皇宮建築般的華麗，說這是全國其他各地所沒有的。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/08/14/a22-0814.pdf
taiwan
- The Republic of Formosa (literally Democratic State of Taiwan, also known informally in English as the Republic of Taiwan) was a short-lived republic that existed on the island of Taiwan in 1895 between the formal cession of Taiwan by the Qing Dynasty of China to the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki and its taking over by Japanese troops. The Republic was proclaimed on 23 May 1895 and extinguished on 21 October, when the Republican capital Tainan was taken over by the Japanese. Though sometimes claimed as the first Asian republic to have been proclaimed, it was predated by the Lanfang Republic in Borneo, established in 1777, as well as by the Republic of Ezo in Japan, established in 1869.
Hong kong
- customs
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160401/PDF/b12_screen.pdf 一八四八年，中國近代思想家魏源寫下長篇敍事詩《香港島觀海市歌》，記錄了他所見到港島周圍海上出現的“海市蜃樓”景觀。作者“甫出港，而海中忽湧出數山。”因為歷時持久，海市的幻境出現了發展變幻的幾大段落，經歷了“雄城”、“大都會”兩大場景。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160402/PDF/b10_screen.pdf
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160807/PDF/a23_screen.pdf
康有為的香港足印
- tuen mun
mongolia
- [gc pang and h toth]during 1750s, the manchus decided, for administrative purposes, to divide mongolia into northern (outer mongolia) and southern regions(inner mongolia). Chinese traders and moneylenders played a defining role in mongolian society. The mongolians fell increasingly into debt to the manchus, were forced to pay high taxes, and were resentful of being dominated by them. The outer mongolia, with russia's support, took the opportunity in 1911 revolution to declare its independence. Bogd khan (8th javzandamba khutagt) led the revolt. In 1915, with russian support, mongolia signed a treaty with china and russia, recognising autonomy of outer mongolia while latter accepting chinese suzerainty. But in 1919, chinese troops invaded mongolia while russia was occupied with the russian revolution. Baron roman von ungern-sternberg (mad baron, a russian czarist general who had escaped the revolution in russia), helped by attacking urga with an army of opportunists (included russians, mongolians, tibetans and poles) , driving out the chinese army and rescuing bogd khan.
heilongjiang
- 清永陵和赫圖阿拉城位於距離撫順市東南115公里的新賓滿族自治縣，新賓滿族自治縣面積4,432平方公里，人口32萬（滿族人口佔百分之70），這是一個山明水秀，朝氣勃勃的小縣城。清永陵是清朝皇帝的祖陵，從努爾哈赤六世祖開始共4輩人的陵寢均在此地。赫圖阿拉城是一座擁有400多年歷史的古城，滿清王朝奠基者努爾哈赤、皇太極、多爾袞等都在這裡出生。1587年，努爾哈赤在此地統一女真；1603年，努爾哈赤開始在此地建城；1616年，努爾哈赤在此建後金國，即汗位。大家在古城裡舉目看到的建築物都是近年新建的，原有的赫圖阿拉古城，已於1904年，日俄戰爭期間（日俄政府強迫中國政府在中國境內劃出交戰區予兩國交戰），俄國霸佔整個東北地區，400多年古城就在此時被俄國軍隊破壞殆盡，毀於一旦！http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/03/11/b08-0311.pdf
chaozhou
- 我小時候在家鄉聽說，因為潮州人當年曾為清廷平亂（大概是指太平天國）有功，因此潮汕的「厝」的屋頂，其檐邊可以雕刻成類如北京皇宮建築般的華麗，說這是全國其他各地所沒有的。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/08/14/a22-0814.pdf
taiwan
- The Republic of Formosa (literally Democratic State of Taiwan, also known informally in English as the Republic of Taiwan) was a short-lived republic that existed on the island of Taiwan in 1895 between the formal cession of Taiwan by the Qing Dynasty of China to the Empire of Japan by the Treaty of Shimonoseki and its taking over by Japanese troops. The Republic was proclaimed on 23 May 1895 and extinguished on 21 October, when the Republican capital Tainan was taken over by the Japanese. Though sometimes claimed as the first Asian republic to have been proclaimed, it was predated by the Lanfang Republic in Borneo, established in 1777, as well as by the Republic of Ezo in Japan, established in 1869.
- http://www.appledaily.com.tw/realtimenews/article/new/20161116/990279/我國在10月8日於高雄舉辦的亞洲盃資格賽附加賽第二輪對東帝汶的第一場賽事結束後，日前中華民國足協收到亞足聯來函表示，我國球迷掛「All Hail Formosa(中文即多漂亮的美麗之島)」被判定為「政治性標語」而裁罰4千美元(約12.7萬台幣)，足協正在申訴中。
- http://hkm.appledaily.com/detail.php?guid=19972301&category_guid=15335&category=daily&issue=20170328台灣日前舉行U18冰球錦標賽，兩岸球員互毆事件未了，前日在台北舉行男足亞洲盃又出事。有台灣球迷持「Formosa」（福爾摩沙）標語為球隊打氣，台灣足協要求撤除。民進黨立委昨與球迷團體開記者會，轟當局政治打壓。
- any relation?
- 台灣人公共事務會（Formasan Association For Public Affairs) http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/12/12/a10-1212.pdf
Hong kong
- customs
- 一八八七年粤海关在香港成立九龙关，总关设于皇后大道中十六至十八号，由英国人摩根出任税务司，管辖中港边境关卡，包括上述四个关厂。摩根在汲水门关厂之下设立荃湾、朱谷湾和深水埗分厂，在九龙城关厂之下设立沙田分厂。一八九五年又将深水埗分厂升格为关厂，凸显其重要性。一八九八年英国租借新界，翌年清廷关闭香港境内的关厂。深水埗关厂旧址先后用作“猪仔馆”（供劳工等候出洋）、检疫站、荔枝角监狱、荔枝角医院和疗养院。二○○九年当局将此地交予香港中华文化促进中心活化为饶宗颐文化馆，其间在山坡树丛寻回一块刻有“九龙关地界”的碑石，证实了深水埗关厂昔日所在位置。香港曾有多个关厂隶属九龙关，但建筑遗迹早已不存，只有在马湾和深水埗找到遗物。马湾的关厂于光绪二十三年（一八九七年）重建，当中涉及借用私人土地。马湾乡事委员会保留了“九龙关”和“九龙关借地七英尺”两块碑石，显示关厂向村民借地后立碑为记。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170409/PDF/a17_screen.pdf
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160401/PDF/b12_screen.pdf 一八四八年，中國近代思想家魏源寫下長篇敍事詩《香港島觀海市歌》，記錄了他所見到港島周圍海上出現的“海市蜃樓”景觀。作者“甫出港，而海中忽湧出數山。”因為歷時持久，海市的幻境出現了發展變幻的幾大段落，經歷了“雄城”、“大都會”兩大場景。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160402/PDF/b10_screen.pdf
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160807/PDF/a23_screen.pdf
康有為的香港足印
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161030/PDF/a17_screen.pdf
清朝三欽差南下港澳- tuen mun
- 屯门蓝地的福亨村路花园是一座平平却有奇的休憩公园，因为园内屹立一座精美而带文化气息的门楼，顿时使全园生色不少。该建筑称为“李苑门楼”，距今近80年，不算太古旧，也未列为法定古蹟，但颇有可观之处，因为它嵌着清末民国书法家的题字http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170919/PDF/b17_screen.pdf
Macau
-http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160402/PDF/b10_screen.pdf
Historical reference
Historical reference
- - 增井经夫的《大清帝国》- hkcd 22sep17, no wikipedia or baidu
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