Thursday, March 14, 2019

usa indigenous people

Indigenous people
- https://www.quora.com/How-warlike-were-pre-colonial-Native-American-societies note the mention of han tribe
- 美國紐約大都會藝術博物館（The Met）周二宣布，已聘請印第安裔藝術專家諾比（Patricia Marroquin Norby）出任美洲原住民藝術館副館長，是The Met成立一百五十年來首位原住民副館長。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200912/00180_041.html
- Native American boarding schools, also known as Indian Residential Schools, were established in the United States during the early 19th and mid 20th centuries with a primary objective of "civilizing" or assimilating Native American children and youth into Euro-American culture, while destroying and vilifying Native American culture. At the same time a basic education in Euro-American subjects was provided. These boarding schools were first established by Christian missionaries of various denominations, who often started schools on reservations, especially in the lightly populated areas of the West. The government paid religious orders to provide basic education to Native American children on reservations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) later founded additional boarding schools based on the assimilation model, usually away from reservations. Off reservation schools such as St. Joseph's Indian School in South Dakota continue to operate.
- trivia

  • [fast answers to common questions published by gale group] the five civilised tribes is the name given to five native american tribes by american settlers during the early 1800s.  The settlers considered members of these five tribes "civilised" because they adopted a number of european customs, attended christian churches, and sent their children to schools run by christian missionaries.  The five civilised tribes were the chocotaw, creek, seminole, cherokee, and chickasaw tribes.

- The Cherokee (/ˈtʃɛrəkiː/; Cherokee: ᎠᏂᏴᏫᏯ, translit. Ani-Yunwiya or Cherokee: ᏣᎳᎩ, translit. Tsalagi) are a Native American people, originally indigenous to the Southeastern United States, including Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Virginia and West Virginia. Currently there are three federally recognized Cherokee tribes: the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians in North Carolina, the Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma, and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians, also in Oklahoma. The Cherokee language is part of the Iroquoian language group. In the nineteenth century, historians and ethnographers recorded an oral tradition that told of the tribe having migrated south in ancient times from the Great Lakes region, where other Iroquoian-speaking peoples lived. By the 19th century, European settlers in the United States classifed the Cherokee of the Southeast as one of the "Five Civilized Tribes," because they had adopted numerous cultural and technological practices of the European American settlers. The Cherokee were one of the first, if not the first, major non-European ethnic group to become U.S. citizens. Article 8 in the 1817 treaty with the Cherokee stated Cherokees may wish to become citizens of the United States. The Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma has around 300,000 tribal members, making it the largest of the 566 federally recognized tribes in the United States. In addition, numerous groups claim Cherokee lineage, and some of these are state-recognized. A total of 819,000-plus people claim having Cherokee ancestry on the US census, which includes persons who are not enrolled members of any tribe. Of the three federally recognized Cherokee tribes, the Cherokee Nation (CNO) and the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (UKB) have headquarters in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. The UKB are mostly descendants of "Old Settlers," Cherokee who migrated to Arkansas and Oklahoma about 1817 prior to Indian Removal. They are related to the Cherokee who were later forcibly relocated there in the 1830s under the Indian Removal Act. The Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians is on the Qualla Boundary in western North Carolina; their ancestors resisted or avoided relocation, remaining in the area.

  • notable people
  • ????https://www.quora.com/How-do-white-supremacists-feel-about-Native-Americans The grand irony is that many White supremacist/racists -especially southerners - tend to come from a particular population where “Indian blood” lore is prevalent. And some can even hold simultaneously odd notions that they are both White and “part-Cherokee” (and proud!). I suppose if the level of non-White ancestry is low enough, it’s okay. Although, it should also be mentioned that most of these sort of claims are totally incorrect. But, the eagerness to assert the claim is what is notable here. An autobiography recounting author “Forrest Carter's” childhood, being raised by his Cherokee grandparents in the Appalachian mountains. It was a moderate success during initial release in the 70s, but had a resurgence of popularity in the 90s. It even became a New York Times best seller and got an American Booksellers Award. What’s so odd about that? Well, it was a literary hoax. The real author was Asa Earl Carter, a KKK leader and segregationist speech writer.However, I have noticed that the White supremacists out west and in the northern plains, who are around actual Native Americans, and who don’t have the pronounced “part-Cherokee” lore tradition tend to be more aggressively racist toward Natives.
- cheyenne people

  • [tr berg]viewed mo'ohta-vo'honaaeva, the black hills in dakota as world's centre
- *****奇克索人The Chickasaw (/ˈtʃɪkəsɔː/ CHIK-ə-saw) are an indigenous people of the Southeastern Woodlands. Their traditional territory was in the Southeastern United States of Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennessee. Their language is classified as a member of the Muskogean language family. In the present day, they are organized as the federally recognized Chickasaw Nation.Sometime prior to the first European contact, the Chickasaw migrated from western regions and moved east of the Mississippi River, where they settled mostly in present-day northeast Mississippi, Alabama, and into Lawrence County, Tennessee, where they encountered European explorers and traders. They had interaction with the French, English, and Spanish during the colonial years. The United States considered the Chickasaw one of the Five Civilized Tribes of the Southeast, as they adopted numerous practices of European Americans. Resisting European-American settlers encroaching on their territory, they were forced by the US to sell their country in the 1832 Treaty of Pontotoc Creek and move to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) during the era of Indian Removal in the 1830s.Most of their descendants remain as residents of what is now Oklahoma.[3] The Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma is the 13th-largest federally recognized tribe in the United States. Its members are related to the Choctaw and share a common history with them. 
  • ******Oxford and Lafayette County were formed from lands ceded by the Chickasaw people in the Treaty of Pontotoc Creek in 1832. The county was organized in 1836, and in 1837 three pioneers—John Martin, John Chisom, and John Craig—purchased land from Hoka, a female Chickasaw landowner, as a site for the town.[6] They named it "Oxford", intending to promote it as a center of learning in the Old Southwest. In 1841, the Mississippi legislature selected Oxford as the site of the state university, which opened in 1848.
- Chinookan peoples include several groups of indigenous people of the Pacific Northwest in the United States who speak the Chinookan languages. In the early 19th century, the Chinookan-speaking peoples resided along the Lower and Middle Columbia River (Wimahl)(″Big River″) from the river's gorge (near the present town of The Dalles, Oregon) downstream to the river's mouth, and along adjacent portions of the coasts, from Tillamook Bay of present-day Oregon in the south, north to Willapa Bay in southwest Washington. In 1805 the Lewis and Clark Expedition encountered the Chinook tribe on the lower Columbia.The name ″Chinook″ came from a Chehalis word Tsinúk for the inhabitants of and a particular village site on Baker Bay. Since the late 20th century, the unrecognized Chinook Indian Nation of Washington made up of 2700 members of westernmost Lower Chinook peoples (the Clatsop and Kathlamet of what is now Oregon and the Lower Chinook (Chinook proper), Wahkiakum and Willapa Chinook of Washington State), has worked to obtain federal recognition. It gained this in 2001 from the Department of Interiorunder President Bill Clinton. The unrecognized Tchinouk Indians of Oregontrace their Chinook ancestry to two Chinook women who married French Canadians traders from the Hudson's Bay Company prior to 1830.
- 喬克托The Choctaw (in the Choctaw language, Chahta) are a Native American people originally occupying what is now the Southeastern United States (modern-day Alabama, Florida, Mississippi and Louisiana). Their Choctaw language belongs to the Muskogean language family group.喬克托這個名稱是來自西班牙語「chato」，意思是沼地，是以表示喬克托人的聚居地為沼澤地。Leur nom historique lors de la colonisation française est Chactas, Tchaktas ou Tchactas. L'appellation Chattas est moins usitée. 

  • language
  • Okaloosa (county in florida) is a Choctaw word meaning "black water". It was formed from western ranges of Walton County and eastern ranges of Santa Rosa County. "Oka" means water, and "lusa" is black in the Choctaw language.


- The Crow, called the Apsáalooke in their own Siouan language, or variants includingAbsaroka, are Native Americans, who in historical times lived in the Yellowstone River valley, which extends from present-day Wyoming, through Montana and intoNorth Dakota, where it joins the Missouri River. Today, they are enrolled in thefederally recognized Crow Tribe of Montana.[citation needed] Pressured by the Ojibwe and Cree peoples (the Iron Confederacy), who had earlier and better access to guns through the fur trade, they had migrated there from the Ohio Eastern Woodland area to settle south of Lake Winnipeg, Canada. From there, they were pushed to the west by theCheyennes. Both the Crow and the Cheyennes were then pushed farther west by the Lakota (Sioux), who took over the territory from the Black Hills of South Dakota to the Big Horn Mountains of Montana; the Cheyennes finally became close allies of the Sioux, but the Crows remained bitter enemies of both Sioux and Cheyennes. The Crow were generally friendly with the whites and managed to retain a largereservation of over 9300 km2 despite territorial losses.[citation needed] Since the 19th century, Crow people have been concentrated on their reservation established south ofBillings, Montana. They also live in several major, mainly western, cities. Tribal headquarters are located at Crow Agency, Montana.
  • The Crazy Mountains, often called the Crazies, are a mountain range in the northern Rocky Mountains in the U.S. state of Montana.The name Crazy Mountains is said to be a shortened form of the name "Crazy Woman Mountains" given them, in complement to their original Crow name, after a woman who went insane and lived in them after her family was killed in the westward settlement movement.The Crow people called the mountains Awaxaawapìa Pìa, roughly translated as "Ominous Mountains", or even rougher and less accurately, "Crazy Mountains". They were famous to the Crow people for having metaphysical powers and being unpredictable—a place used for vision quests.
- The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida. They comprise three federally recognized tribes and independent groups, most living in Oklahoma with a minority in Florida. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of groups of Native Americans, most significantly Creek from what are now northern Muscogee. The word Seminole is a corruption of cimarrón, a Spanish term for "runaway" or "wild one". During their early decades, the Seminole became increasingly independent of other Creek groups and established their own identity. They developed a thriving trade network during the British and second Spanish periods (roughly 1767–1821). The tribe expanded considerably during this time, and was further supplemented from the late 18th century by free black people and escaped enslaved people who settled near and paid tribute to Seminole towns. The latter became known as Black Seminoles, although they kept their own Gullah culture of theLow Country. They developed the Afro-Seminole Creole language, which they spoke through the 19th century after the move to Indian Territory. Seminole culture is largely derived from that of the Creek; the most important ceremony is the Green Corn Dance; other notable traditions include use of the black drink and ritual tobacco. As the Seminole adapted to Florida environs, they developed local traditions, such as the construction of open-air, thatched-roof houses known as chickees. Historically the Seminole spoke Mikasuki and Creek, both Muskogean languages.[6] After the independent United States acquired Florida from Spain in 1819, its settlers increased pressure on Seminole lands. During the period of the Seminole Wars (1818–1858), the tribe was first confined to a large reservation in the center of the Florida peninsula by theTreaty of Moultrie Creek (1823) and then evicted from the territory altogether according to the Treaty of Payne's Landing (1832). By 1842, most Seminoles and Black Seminoles had been coerced or forced to move to Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. During theAmerican Civil War, most of the Oklahoma Seminole allied with the Confederacy, after which they had to sign a new treaty with the U.S., including freedom and tribal membership for the Black Seminole. Today residents of the reservation are enrolled in the federally recognizedSeminole Nation of Oklahoma, while others belong to unorganized groups. Perhaps fewer than 200 Seminoles remained in Florida after the Third Seminole War (1855-1858), but they fostered a resurgence in traditional customs and a culture of staunch independence. In the late 19th century, the Florida Seminole re-established limited relations with the U.S. government and in 1930 received 5,000 acres (20 km2) of reservation lands. Few Seminole moved to reservations until the 1940s; they reorganized their government and received federal recognition in 1957 as the Seminole Tribe of Florida. The more traditional people near the Tamiami Trail received federal recognition as the Miccosukee Tribe in 1962.


- Guale was an historic Native American chiefdom of Mississippian culture peoples located along the coast of present-day Georgia and the Sea Islands. Spanish Florida established its Roman Catholic missionary system in the chiefdom in the late 16th century. During the late 17th century and early 18th century, Guale society was shattered by extensive epidemics of new infectious diseases and attacks by other tribes. Some of the surviving remnants migrated to the mission areas of Spanish Florida while others remained near the Georgia coast. Joining with other survivors, they became known as the Yamasee, an ethnically mixed group that emerged in a process of ethnogenesis. Scholars have not reached a consensus on how to classify the Guale language. Early claims that the Guale spoke a Muskogean language were questioned by the historian William C. Sturtevant. He has shown that recorded vocabulary, which sources had believed to be Guale, was Creek, a distinct historical Muskogean language. Historical references note that the Jesuit Brother Domingo Agustín Váez recorded Guale grammar in 1569, but the documents have not been found. The Guale are believed to have been a Mississippian culture group.
  • founder of abc, Edward John Noble bought in 1943 the St. Catherines Island on the coast of Georgia; in 1968, ten years after his death, the island was transferred to the Edward J. Noble Foundation. The island is now owned by the St. Catherines Island Foundation, and the island's interior is operated for charitable, scientific, literary, and educational purposes. The foundation aims to promote conservation of natural resources, the survival of endangered species, and the preservation of historic sites, and to expand human knowledge in the fields of ecology, botany, zoology, natural history, archaeology, and other scientific and educational disciplines. The island has been inhabited for at least 4000 years, and was a Guale settlement by 1576. It was the site of the first Spanish outpost in Georgia.
- Martis is the name given by scientists to the group of Native Americans who lived in Northern California on both the eastern and western sides of the Sierra Nevada. The Martis complex lasted from 2000 BCE to 500 CE, during the Middle Archaic era.[2] Evidence of Martis habitation has been found from Carson River and Reno, Nevada in the east to Auburn, California and Oroville, California in the west.[3] The Martis name refers to the geographic region of Martis Creek which spans Nevada County, California and Placer County, California.
  •  里诺 Reno (/ˈriːnoʊ/ REE-noh) is a city in the northwest section of the U.S. state of Nevada, approximately 22 miles (35 km) from Lake Tahoe, known as "The Biggest Little City in the World".Archaeological finds place the eastern border for the prehistoric Martis people in the Reno area.[6] As early as the mid 1850s a few pioneers settled in the Truckee Meadows, a relatively fertile valley through which the Truckee River made its way from Lake Tahoe to Pyramid Lake. 以博彩業聞名，亦是著名博彩集團凱撒娛樂集企業（Caesars Entertainment Corporation，舊稱Harrah's Entertainment）的發源地。另外，全世界最大的角子機製造商國際博弈科技公司（International Game Technology，簡稱IGT）的總部所在地亦設於此城。    Le site de la ville actuelle est colonisé vers 1858 et appelé par la suite Lake’s Crossing. 
- The Massachusett are a Native American people and ethnic group in the United States Commonwealth of Massachusetts, mostly inhabiting their traditional homeland which covers much of present-day Greater Boston. The people take their name from the indigenous name for the Blue Hills overlooking Boston Harbor from the south, which was a ceremonial and sacred area for the people of the region. As some of the first people to make contact with the European explorers and English colonists, the Massachusett and other coastal peoples were almost decimated from an outbreak of leptospirosis circa 1619, which had mortality rates as high as 90% in these areas. This was followed by devastating impacts of virgin soil epidemics such as smallpox, influenza, scarlet fever and others that the indigenous people lacked natural immunity. Their territories, on the more fertile and flat coastlines, with access to coastal resources, was mostly taken over by English colonists, as the Massachusett were too few in number to put up any effective resistance. Under the missionary John Eliot, the majority of the Massachusett were converted to Christianity and settled in 'Praying towns' established where the converted Indians were expected to submit to the colonial laws, accept some elements of English culture and forced to abandon their traditional religion, but were allowed to use their language. Through intermediaries, Eliot learned the language and even published a translation of the Bible. The language, related to other Eastern Algonquian languages but more specifically, the regional languages of southern New England, would slowly fade, ceasing to serve as the primary language of the Massachusett communities by the 1750s, and the language was likely extinct by the early years of the nineteenth century. The Massachusett language was shared with several other peoples in the region, and the Wampanoag preserved their dialect of the language until the death of its last speaker sometime in the 1890s. The last of their common lands were sold in the early nineteenth century, loosening the community and social bonds that held the Massachusett families together, and most of the Massachusett were forced to settle amongst their English neighbors, but mainly settled the poorer sections of towns where they were segregated with Blacks, recent immigrants and other Indians. The Massachusett mainly assimilated and integrated into the surrounding communities. Two groups of Massachusett have received state recognition after the creation of the Massachusetts Commission on Indian Affairs. The Ponkapoag Massachusett, descendants of the Praying Indians of Ponkapoag, centered around what is now Canton, Massachusetts, and the Natick Massachusett-Nipmuc. As the Natick were formed from a substantial input of Nipmuc families, and maintained close connection with the Nipmuc communities, the Natick Massachusett-Nipmuc are recognized as a tribe of Nipmuc, via their involvement with the Nipmuc Nation.

- Paiute (/ˈpaɪjuːt/; also Piute) refers to three closely related groups of indigenous peoples of the Great Basin:
  • Northern Paiute of California, Idaho, Nevada and Oregon.
  • Owens Valley Paiute of California and Nevada.
  • Southern Paiute of Arizona, southeastern California, Nevada and Utah.
Their peoples have become members of numerous federally recognized tribes, as noted in the sections below. In many locations they have colocated with peoples of the Shoshone and Washoe tribes, who have also long been in the Great Basin.
  • The California Water Wars were a series of conflicts between the city of Los Angeles and farmers and ranchers in the Owens Valley of Eastern California. As Los Angeles grew in the late 19th century, it started to outgrow its water supply. Fred Eaton, mayor of Los Angeles, realized that water could flow from Owens Valley to Los Angeles via an aqueduct. The aqueduct construction was overseen by William Mulholland and was finished in 1913. The water rights were acquired through political fighting and, as described by one author, "chicanery, subterfuge ... and a strategy of lies."[1]:62 Since 1913, the Owens River had been diverted to Los Angeles, causing the ruin of the valley's economy. By the 1920s, so much water was diverted from the Owens Valley that agriculture became difficult. This led to the farmers trying to destroy the aqueduct in 1924. Los Angeles prevailed and kept the water flowing. By 1926, Owens Lake at the bottom of Owens Valley was completely dry due to water diversion. The water needs of Los Angeles kept growing. In 1941, Los Angeles diverted water that previously fed Mono Lake, north of Owens Valley, into the aqueduct. Mono Lake's ecosystem for migrating birds was threatened by dropping water levels. Between 1979 and 1994, David Gaines and the Mono Lake Committee engaged in litigation with Los Angeles. The litigation forced Los Angeles to stop diverting water from around Mono Lake, which has started to rise back to a level that can support its ecosystem.
  • The Paiute natives were the original inhabitants living in the valley, and used irrigation to grow crops. In 1833, Joseph Reddeford Walker led the first known expedition into the central California area that would later be called the Owens Valley. Walker saw that the valley’s soil conditions were inferior to those on the other side of the Sierra Nevada range, and that runoff from the mountains was absorbed into the arid desert ground. After the United States gained control of California in 1848, the first public land survey conducted by A.W. von Schmidt from 1855 to 1856 was an initial step in securing government control of the valley. Von Schmidt reported that the valley’s soil was not good for agriculture except for the land near streams, and incorrectly stated that the "Owens Valley [was] worthless to the White Man."[3]:23 In 1861, Samuel Bishop and other ranchers started to raise cattle on the luxuriant grasses that grew in the Owens Valley. They came into conflict with the Paiutes over land and water use, and most of the Paiutes were driven away from the valley by the U.S. Army in 1863 during the Owens Valley Indian War.
  • Chinatown is a 1974 American neo-noir mystery film, directed by Roman Polanski from a screenplay by Robert Towne, starring Jack Nicholson and Faye Dunaway. The film was inspired by the California Water Wars, a series of disputes over southern California water at the beginning of the 20th century, by which Los Angeles interests secured water rights in the Owens Valley. The Robert Evans production, a Paramount Pictures release, was the director's last film in the United States and features many elements of film noir, particularly a multi-layered story that is part mystery and part psychological drama. In 1991, the film was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically or aesthetically significant" and it is frequently listed as one of the greatest films of all-time.

- The Pima /ˈpiːmə/ (or Akimel O'odham, also spelled Akimel O'otham, "River People", formerly known as Pima) are a group of Native Americans living in an area consisting of what is now central and southern Arizona. The majority population of the surviving two bands of the Akimel O'odham are based in two reservations: the Keli Akimel O'otham on the Gila River Indian Community (GRIC) and the On'k Akimel O'odham on the Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community (SRPMIC). They are closely related to other river people, the Ak-Chin O'odham, now forming the Ak-Chin Indian Community. They are also related to the Sobaipuri, whose descendants reside on the San Xavier Indian Reservation or Wa:k (together with the Tohono O'odham), and in the Salt River Indian Community. Together with the kindred Tohono O'odham ("Desert People", formerly known as the Papago ([NATS] "bean eaters, a derogatory term from the spanish", from sonoran desert, pic of woman holding a large container on her head;helped to construct mission san xavier del bac near tuscon in 1700;burgeoning cattle industry in what now is arizona; mexican influenced dishes became part of traditional diet; image of cowboy became part of cultural identity )) of Eastern Papagueria, and the Hia C-ed O'odham ("Sand Dune People", formerly known as Sand Papago) of the Western Papagueria, the Akimel O'odham form the Upper O'otham or Upper Pima (also known as Pima Alto). The short name, "Pima," is believed to have come from the phrase pi 'añi mac or pi mac, meaning "I don't know," which they used repeatedly in their initial meetings with Spanish colonists. The latter referred to them as the Pima. This term was adopted by later English speakers: traders, explorers and settlers. The Pima Indians called themselves Othama until the first account of interaction with non-Native Americans was recorded. Spanish missionaries recorded Pima villages known as Kina, Equituni and Uturituc. European Americans later corrupted the miscommunication into Pimos, which was adapted to Pima river people. The Akimel O'otham people today call their villages District #1-Oos kehk (Blackwater), District #2-Hashan Kehk (Saguaro Stand), District #3-Gu U Ki (Sacaton), District #4-Santan, District #5-Vahki (Casa Blanca), District #6-Komatke (Sierra Estrella Mountains), and District #7-Maricopa Colony. The Akimel O'Otham (known as the Pima to anthropologists) are a subgroup of the Upper O'otham or Upper Pima (also known as Pima Alto), whose lands were known in Spanish as Pimería Alta. These groups are culturally related. They are thought to be culturally descended from the group classified in archaeology as the Hohokam.The term Hohokam is a derivative of the O'otham word Huhugam (pronounced hoo-hoo-gahm), which is literally translated as "those who have gone before," meaning "The Ancestors."
  • https://selinc.com/featured-stories/toua In the remote Native American region of Arizona is the second-oldest tribally owned and operated electric utility in the United States: the Tohono O’odham Utility Authority (TOUA). The Tohono O’odham, which means “Desert People” in their language, created TOUA in the late 1960s to boost their sovereignty and economic future. After purchasing an on-reservation distribution system from an outside electric cooperative, the utility’s first big undertaking was to connect more homes to the electric grid. The Tohono O’odham Nation spans 4,460 square miles west of Tucson and south across the border into northern Mexico. 
- The Shoshone or Shoshoni (/ʃoʊˈʃoʊniː/ or /ʃəˈʃoʊniː/) are a Native American tribe with four large cultural/linguistic divisions:
They traditionally speak the Shoshoni language, part of the Numic languages branch of the large Uto-Aztecan language family. The Shoshone were sometimes called the Snake Indians by neighboring tribes and early American explorers.ショショーニ族の伝統的な家は草で作られていたことから、周辺の部族では彼らを「草の家の人（Grass House People）」と呼ぶ者もいた。 ショショーニ族での自称は「人々」を意味する「Newe」である[2]。メリウェザー・ルイスは1805年、ショショーニ族のことを「Sosoneesあるいはスネーク・インディアン」と記録した[2]。休休尼人早期偶爾被歐洲裔的獵人、旅人、移民等稱為「蛇－印地安人」（Snake Indians）北休休尼人聚居於愛達荷州東部、懷俄明州西部，和猶他州北部；居於帳篷，騎馬、獵水牛。東休休尼人則居於懷俄明州、科羅拉多州北部，和蒙大拿州。1750年以後，由於與他族戰爭和壓力之故，被迫向南和西遷。部份族人甚至南抵德克薩斯州，成為科曼奇人。西休休尼人則分布於奧勒岡州、愛達荷州西部；自愛達荷州中部、猶他州西北部，至內華達州中部，皆有西休休尼人的活動蹤跡；加利福尼亞州亦然。其中愛達荷州的西休休尼人，被稱為「食羊人」；居於內華達州和猶他州者，被稱為「食香蒲人」；而居於加利福尼亞者，則定居於今日的加州東部的山谷地區，在當地有聯邦政府劃定認可的生活保護區。西休休尼人居於無頂的棚屋裡；他們在傳統上，以獵鳥、魚和兔子為生。
- The Tongva (/ˈtɒŋvə/ TONG-və) are Native Americans who inhabited the Los Angeles Basin and the Southern Channel Islands. Many lines of evidence suggest that the Tongva are descended of Uto-Aztecan-speaking peoples from Nevada who moved southwest into coastal Southern California 3,500 years ago. These migrants either absorbed or pushed out the Hokan-speaking peoples in the region. By 500 AD, the Tongva had come to occupy all the lands now associated with them. A hunter-gatherer society, the Tongva traded widely with neighboring peoples. Over time, scattered communities came to speak distinct dialects of the Tongva language, part of the Takic subgroup of the Uto-Aztecan language family. There may have been five or more such dialects (three on the Channel Islands and at least two on the mainland).The Tongva language became extinct in the twentieth century, but a reconstructed form continues to be spoken today. Initial Spanish exploration of the Los Angeles area occurred in 1542, but sustained contact with the Tongva came only after Mission San Gabriel Arcángel was constructed in 1771. This marked the beginning of an era of forced relocation and exposure to Old World diseases, leading to the rapid collapse of the Tongva population.[4] At times the Tongva violently resisted Spanish rule, such as the 1785 rebellion led by the female chief Toypurina.[1] In 1821, Mexico gained its independence from Spain and the government sold mission lands to ranchers, forcing the Tongva to culturally assimilate. Three decades later, California was ceded to the United States following the Mexican–American War. The US government signed treaties with the Tongva, promising 8.5 million acres (3,400,000 ha) of land for reservations, but these treaties were never ratified.[5] By the turn of the 20th century, the Island Tongva had disappeared and the mainland communities were also nearing extinction. The endonym Tongva was recorded by American ethnographer C. Hart Merriam in 1903 and has been widely adopted by scholars and descendants,[1] although some prefer the endonym Kizh.[7] Since 2006, there have been four organizations claiming to represent the Tongva Nation: the Gabrielino-Tongva Tribe, known as the "hyphen" group from the hyphen in their name;[8] the Gabrielino/Tongva Tribe, known as the "slash" group;[9] the Gabrieleño Band of Mission Indians;[10] and the Gabrieleño/Tongva Tribal Council.[11] Two of the groups are the result of a hostile split over the question of building an Indian casino.[12] In 1994, the state of California recognized the Tongva "as the aboriginal tribe of the Los Angeles Basin," but no group representing the Tongva has attained recognition by the federal government.[5] In 2008, more than 1,700 people identified as Tongva or claimed partial ancestry.

- Chugach /ˈtʃuːɡætʃ/, Chugach Sugpiaq or Chugachigmiut is the name of an Alaska Nativepeople in the region of the Kenai Peninsula and Prince William Sound on the southern coast of Alaska. The Chugach people are an Alutiiq (Pacific Eskimo) people who speak the Chugach dialect of the Alutiiq language.Their autonym Sugpiaq derives from suk, meaning "person" and -piaq, meaning "real." The term Alutiiq derives from the Russian term for the Aleut people. According to Ethnologue, earlier terms for the Chugach such as Chugach Eskimo, South Alaska Eskimo, Sugpiak Eskimo, and Sugpiaq Eskimo, are pejorative.

  • 世界各國的博物館都以自家的館藏為「生招牌」，藉此吸引更多遊客到訪，德國一間博物館周三（16日）卻將一批歷史文物歸還予美國阿拉斯加原住民楚加奇（Chugach）部族，原因是該批文物並非經合法的考古途徑取得，而是由一名挪威探險家於十九世紀末，從楚加奇人聚居地區搶掠得來。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20180519/00180_025.html


- http://www.economist.com/news/united-states/21705639-appalachian-people-offers-timely-parable-nuanced-history-race

- The Hualapai (pronounced Wa-la-pie)[needs IPA] is a federally recognized Indian tribe in Arizona with over 2300 enrolled members. Approximately 1353 enrolled members reside on the Hualapai Indian reservation, which spans over three counties in Northern Arizona (Coconino, Yavapai, and Mohave). The name, meaning "people of the tall pines", is derived from hwa:l, the Hualapai word for ponderosa pine[1] and pai "people". Their traditional territory is a 108-mile (174 km) stretch along the pine-clad southern side of the Grand Canyon and the Colorado River with the tribal capital at Peach Springs.
- The Modoc are a Native American people who originally lived in the area which is now northeastern California and central Southern Oregon. They are currently divided between Oregon and Oklahoma and are enrolled in either of two federally recognized tribes, the Klamath Tribes in Oregon and the Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma. The United States, the Klamath, the Modoc, and the Yahooskin band of Snake tribes signed a treaty in 1864 that established the Klamath Reservation.[13] The treaty required the tribes to cede the land bounded on the north by the 44th parallel, on the west and south by the ridges of the Cascade Mountains, and on the east by lines touching Goose Lake and Henley Lake back up to the 44th parallel. In return, the United States was to make a lump sum payment of $35,000, and annual payments totaling $80,000 over 15 years,[10] as well as providing infrastructure and staff for a reservation. The treaty provided that if the Indians drank or stored intoxicating liquor on the reservation, the payments could be withheld and that the United States could locate additional tribes on the reservation in the future.[27]The tribes requested Lindsay Applegate as the US Indian agent.[citation needed] The terms of the 1864 treaty demanded that the Modoc surrender their lands near Lost River, Tule Lake, and Lower Klamath Lake in exchange for lands in the Upper Klamath Valley.[10][28]They did so, under the leadership of Chief Schonchin.[29] The Indian agent estimated the total population of the three tribes at about 2,000 when the treaty was signed. The land of the reservation did not provide enough food for both the Klamath and the Modoc peoples. Illness and tension between the tribes increased. The Modoc requested a separate reservation closer to their ancestral home, but neither the federal nor the California governments would approve it. In 1870 Kintpuash (also called Captain Jack) led a band of Modoc to leave the reservation and return to their traditional homelands. They built a village near the Lost River. These Modoc had not been adequately represented in the treaty negotiations and wished to end the harassment by the Klamath on the reservation.

  • people
  • David Warren Brubeck (/ˈbruːbɛk/; December 6, 1920 – December 5, 2012) was an American jazz pianist and composer, considered one of the foremost exponents of cool jazz. Dave Brubeck was born in the San Francisco Bay Area city of Concord, California,[1] and grew up in a city located in the Mother Lode called Ione, California. His father, Peter Howard "Pete" Brubeck, was a cattle rancher, and his mother, Elizabeth (née Ivey), who had studied piano in England under Myra Hess and intended to become a concert pianist, taught piano for extra money. His father had Swiss ancestry (the family surname was originally Brodbeck) and possibly Native American Modoclineage,[4] while his maternal grandparents were English and German.

- The Chumash are a Native American people who historically inhabited the central and southern coastal regions of California, in portions of what is now San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Ventura and Los Angeles counties, extending from Morro Bay in the north to Malibu in the south. They also occupied three of the Channel Islands: Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, and San Miguel; the smaller island of Anacapa was likely inhabited seasonally due to the lack of a consistent water source. Modern place names with Chumash origins include Cayucos, Malibu, Nipomo, Lompoc, Ojai, Pismo Beach, Point Mugu, Port Hueneme, Piru, Lake Castaic, Saticoy, Simi Valley and Somis. Archaeological research demonstrates that the Chumash have deep roots in the Santa Barbara Channel area and lived along the southern California coast for millennia. They also inhabited the Antelope Valley in Palmdale, California and traded with the Kitanemuk people in the Mojave desert.

  • San Miguel Island (Chumash: Tuqan)[1] is the westernmost of California's Channel Islands, located across the Santa Barbara Channel in the Pacific Ocean, within Santa Barbara County, California. San Miguel was occupied by the ancestors of the Chumash people for many millennia, who developed a complex and rich maritime culture based on marine fishing, hunting, and gathering. Rough seas and risky landings did not daunt the Chumash people. They called the island Tuquan in the Chumash language, and for many centuries, they built and used sophisticated canoes, called tomols, made from sewn planks caulked with asphaltum (bitumen). In tomols, they fished and hunted in island waters and participated in active trade with their neighbors on the other islands and mainland.
-The Caddo Nation is a confederacy of several Southeastern Native American tribes. Their ancestors historically inhabited much of what is now East Texas, Louisiana, and portions of southern Arkansas and Oklahoma. They were descendants of the Caddoan Mississippian culture that constructed huge earthwork mounds at several sites in this territory, beginning about 800 CE. In the early 19th century, Caddo people were forced to a reservation in Texas; they were removed to Indian Territory in 1859.Today, the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma is a federally recognized tribe with its capital at Binger, Oklahoma. Descendants of the historic Caddo tribes, with documentation of at least ​1⁄16 ancestry, are eligible to enroll as members in the Caddo Nation. The several Caddo languages have converged into a single language.The Caddo are thought to be an extension of Woodland period peoples, the Fourche Maline and Mossy Grove cultures, whose members were living in the area of Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas areas between 200 BCE and 800 CE.[7] The Wichitaand Pawnee are also related to the Caddo, as both tribes have historically spoken Caddoan languages.By 800 CE, this society had begun to coalesce into the Caddoan Mississippian culture. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers. Leaders directed the construction of major earthworks known as platform mounds, which served as temple mounds and platforms for residences of the elite. The flat-topped mounds were arranged around leveled, large, open plazas, which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family lineages gained prominence over others.[7]

By 1000 CE, a society that is defined by archaeologists as "Caddoan" had emerged. By 1200, the many villages, hamlets, and farmsteads established throughout the Caddo world had developed extensive maize agriculture, producing a surplus that allowed for greater density of settlement.[7] In these villages, artisans and craftsmen developed specialties. The artistic skills and earthwork mound-building of the Caddoan Mississippians flourished during the 12th and 13th centuries.[8]

The Spiro Mounds, near the Arkansas River in present-day southeastern Oklahoma, were some of the most elaborate mounds in the United States. They were made by Mississippian ancestors of the historic Caddo and Wichita tribes, in what is considered the westernmost area of the Mississippian culture.The Caddo creation story, as told in their oral history, says the tribe emerged from a cave, called Chahkaninaor "the place of crying," located at the confluence of the Red River of the South and Mississippi River (in northern present-day Louisiana). Their leader, named Moon, instructed the people not to look back. An old Caddo man carried a drum, a pipe, and fire, all of which have continued to be important religious items to the people. His wife carried corn and pumpkin seeds. As people and accompanying animals emerged, the wolf looked back. The exit from the underground closed to the remaining people and animals.[12]

The Caddo peoples moved west along the Red River, which they called Bah'hatteno in Caddo.[13] A Caddo woman, Zacado, instructed the tribe in hunting, fishing, building dwellings, and making clothing. Caddo religion focuses on Kadhi háyuh, translating to "Lord Above" or "Lord of the Sky." In early times, the people were led by priests, including a head priest, the xinesi, who could commune with spirits residing near Caddo temples.[12] A cycle of ceremonies developed around important periods of seasonal corn cultivation. Tobacco was also cultivated, and was and is used ceremonially. Early priests drank a purifying sacrament drink made of wild olive leaves.The Caddo first encountered Europeans and Africans in 1541 when the Spanish Hernando de Soto Expeditioncame through their lands.[20] De Soto's force had a violent clash with one band of Caddo Indians, the Tula people, near present-day Caddo Gap, Arkansas. This historic event has been marked by the modern town with a monument.French explorers in the early 18th century encountered the Natchitoche in northern Louisiana. They were followed by fur traders from french outposts along the Gulf Coast. Later Catholic missionaries from France and Spain also traveled among the people. The Europeans carried infections such as smallpox and measles, because these were endemic in their societies. As the Caddo peoples had no acquired immunity to such new diseases, they suffered epidemics with high fatalities that decimated the tribal populations. Influenza and malaria were additional new diseases that caused many deaths among the Caddo.[15]

French traders built their trading posts and associated forts near Caddo villages. These were already important hubs in the Great Plains trading network well before the 18th and 19th centuries. These stations attracted more French and other European settlers. Among such settlements are the present-day communities of Elysian Fields and Nacogdoches, Texas, and Natchitoches, Louisiana. In the latter two towns, early explorers and settlers kept the original Caddo names of the villages.Having given way over years before the power of the former Ohio Valley tribes, the later Caddo negotiated for peace with the waves of Spanish, French, and finally Anglo-American settlers. After the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, by which the United States took over the former French colonial territory west of the Mississippi River, the US government sought to ally with the Caddo peoples. During the War of 1812, American generals such as William Henry Harrison, William Clark, and Andrew Jackson crushed pro-British uprisings among other Southeast Indians, in particular the Creek, also known as Muscogee. Tensions within their tribe resulted in near civil war among the Creek.Due to the Caddo's neutrality and their importance as a source of information for the Louisiana Territory government, the US forces left them along. But following Congressional passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830 under President Andrew Jackson, the federal government embarked on a program of removal of tribes from the Southeast in order to enable European-American settlement. Land-hungry migrants pressed from the east.[21]

In 1835 the Kadohadacho, the northernmost Caddo confederacy, signed a treaty with the US to relocate to independent Mexico (which then included present-day Texas). The area for their reservation in East Texas had been lightly settled by Mexican colonists, but there was rapidly increasing immigration of European Americans here. In 1836, the Anglo-Americans declared independence from Mexico and established the Republic of Texas, an independent nation.[13] The name "Texas" is derived from the Hasinai word táysha, meaning "friend".


- The Hasinai Confederacy (Caddo: Hasíinay was a large confederation of Caddo-speaking Native Americans, who occupied territory between the Sabine and Trinity rivers in eastern Texas. Today, their descendants are enrolled in the Caddo Nation of Oklahoma.Hasinai, also spelled Hasini, comes from the Caddo word táyshaʼ, meaning "friend." Colonists adopted the latter term as the name of Texas. Earlier Spanish explorers referred to the Hasinai as Texas, their transliteration of the name in the old Spanish spelling.[citation needed] The Hasinai are also referred to as Hasini, Asenai, Asinai, Assoni, Asenay, Cenis, Senis, and Sannaye.When the Spanish and the French encountered the Hasinai in the 1680s, they were a centrally organized chiefdom under the control of a religious leader, known as the Grand Xinesi. He lived in a secluded house and met with a council of elders.The chieftainship consisted of several subdivisions, which have been designated "cantonments". Each was under the control of a Caddi. There were also men designated as Canahas and Chayas, who helped the Caddi run the system.During the 17th century, the Hasinai traded with the Jumano at the western Hasinai city of Nabedache.[4] Some consider the residents of Nabedache to have been a distinct people designated by that name.
  • Tejas may refer to:
  • Tejas, a Spanish name, derived from Caddo (Indian) term,Taysha from which Texas is derived. 
  • Coahuila y Tejas, a state under the 1824 Mexican constitution that included the region of present-day Texas
  • Tejas, Yabucoa, Puerto Rico, a barrio in Puerto Rico
  •  province of Nuevas Filipinas (or Tejas) https://www.quora.com/How-would-North-America-look-If-the-American-Revolution-never-happened-Would-the-13-colonies-still-exist-but-in-a-form-similar-to-Canada-as-a-dominion-that-is-independent-but-associated-with-Britain-Would-larger
- Walla Walla (/ˌwɒlə ˈwɒlə/), sometimes Waluulapam, are a Sahaptin indigenous people of the Northwest Plateau. The duplication in their name expresses the diminutive form. The name Walla Walla is translated several ways but most often as "many waters."Many Walla Wallas live on the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation Wallas share land and a governmental structure with the Cayuseand the Umatilla tribes as part of the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla. The reservation is located in the area of Pendleton, Oregon, United States, near the Blue Mountains. Some Walla Wallas are also enrolled in the federally recognizedConfederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Nation.
- The Wintun are members of several related Native American peoples of Northern California, including the Wintu (northern), Nomlaki (central), and Patwin (southern).

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