eurasia
- ancient greek geographers believed europe and asia were separated by a river, tanais, which was supposed to flow suthwards from headwaters in arctic to empty into the sea of azov.
- vailii tatisschchev in 1730s proposed the ural mountain range to replace the apocryphal tanais as the genuine europe-asia boundary
- austrian geologist eduard suess declared that the landmass shared by europe and asia properly represented a single unified geographical continent, whichnhe christened eurasien, or eurasia.
- in his manfesto russia and europe, nikolai danilevskii embraced the new geographical picture of euro-asiatic unity
- 3 decades later vladimir lamanskii began his own tract - the three worlds of asiatic-european continent
- russia
- semenov-tian-shanskii
- tout court - historical, political and cultural complex, legacy of genghis khan, mestorazvitie or topogenesis
- classical eurasiansim had been denounced as a bourgeois nationalism in the ussr
- aleksandr dugin promoted legacy of classical eurasianism, and called for reestablishment of russian imperial and soviet states in the form of a mighty eurasian empire
- the neo-eurasian paradigm includes old cultural links to the finno-ugric and turkic speaking populations of russia as well as, in a broader perspective, ultimately states such as serbia and bulgaria, and even iran, china, turkey and india - in contrast to the germanic-romantic culture of western europe.
- eurolinguist helmar frank even talked about russian as a eurasian language
- uk
- british political geographer and parliamentarian halford mackinder's referenes of heartland, inner and outer crescent. Famous dictum: who rules east europe commands the heartland; who rules the haertland commands the world-island; who rules the world-island controls the world
- george orwell gave eurasia a demonic face in 1984 "protected by its vast land spaces", orwell's eurasia was home to hordes of unspeakably brutal soldiers, with monstrous figures and expressionless mongolian faces
- policy of containment, organised around the specter of euraisa as a hostile continent-hegemon dominated by soviet union, provided the framework fornamerican - and by extension western - grand strategy for ensuing 4 decades
- kazakhstan
- president nursultan nazarbaev shared the eurasian vision and supported recombining territories and people of former soviet union into some sort of common ecnomic and political entity
The Black Sea is a body of water and marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean between the Balkans, Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Western Asia. It is supplied by a number of major rivers, such as the Danube, Dnieper, Southern Bug, Dniester, Don, and the Rioni. About a third of Europe drains into the Black Sea,[2] including the countries of Austria, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Georgia, Germany, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Turkey and Ukraine.
- In Greece, the historical name "Euxine Sea", which holds a different meaning (see below), is still widely used: Greek: Éfxeinos Póntos (Eύξεινος Πόντος); the literal Mavri Thalassa (Μαύρη Θάλασσα) is less common. The principal Greek name "Póntos Áxeinos" is generally accepted to be a rendering of Iranian word *axšaina- (“dark colored”), compare Avestan axšaēna- (“dark colored”), Old Persian axšaina- (color of turquoise), Middle Persianaxšēn/xašēn ("blue"), and New Persian xašīn ("blue"), as well as Ossetic œxsīn (“dark gray"). The ancient Greeks, most likely those living to the north of the Black Sea, subsequently adopted the name and altered it to á-xe(i)nos. Thereafter, Greek tradition refers to the Black Sea as the "Inhospitable Sea", Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos, which is first attested in Pindar (c. 475 BC).[15] The name was considered to be "ominous" and was later changed into the euphemistic name "Hospitable sea", Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos, which was also for the first time attested in Pindar.[15] This became the commonly used designation for the sea in Greek.[15] In contexts related to mythology, the older form Póntos Áxeinos remained favored.
- 美國相隔不足兩周再派軍艦前往黑海，神盾驅逐艦唐納德‧庫克號上周六經土耳其進入該海域。俄羅斯隨即派出巡邏艦全程監視，而兩艦未有發生衝突。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190121/00180_021.html- In Greece, the historical name "Euxine Sea", which holds a different meaning (see below), is still widely used: Greek: Éfxeinos Póntos (Eύξεινος Πόντος); the literal Mavri Thalassa (Μαύρη Θάλασσα) is less common. The principal Greek name "Póntos Áxeinos" is generally accepted to be a rendering of Iranian word *axšaina- (“dark colored”), compare Avestan axšaēna- (“dark colored”), Old Persian axšaina- (color of turquoise), Middle Persianaxšēn/xašēn ("blue"), and New Persian xašīn ("blue"), as well as Ossetic œxsīn (“dark gray"). The ancient Greeks, most likely those living to the north of the Black Sea, subsequently adopted the name and altered it to á-xe(i)nos. Thereafter, Greek tradition refers to the Black Sea as the "Inhospitable Sea", Πόντος Ἄξεινος Póntos Áxeinos, which is first attested in Pindar (c. 475 BC).[15] The name was considered to be "ominous" and was later changed into the euphemistic name "Hospitable sea", Εὔξεινος Πόντος Eúxeinos Póntos, which was also for the first time attested in Pindar.[15] This became the commonly used designation for the sea in Greek.[15] In contexts related to mythology, the older form Póntos Áxeinos remained favored.
The Bosphorus (/ˈbɒsfərəs/ or /ˈbɒspərəs/) or Bosporus (/ˈbɒspərəs/; Ancient Greek: Βόσπορος, Bósporos, pronounced Vosporos in modern Greek; Turkish: Boğaziçi, pronounced [boːaziˈt͡ʃi]) is a narrow, natural strait and an internationally significant waterway located in northwestern Turkey. It forms part of the continental boundary between Europe and Asia, and separates Asian Turkey from European Turkey. The world's narrowest strait used for international navigation, the Bosphorus connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara, and, by extension via the Dardanelles, the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas.The original name of the channel comes from an Anglicisation of the Ancient Greek Βόσπορος (Bosporos), which was folk-etymologised as βοὸς πόρος, i.e. "cattle strait" (or "Ox-ford"[3]), from the genitive of bous βοῦς "ox, cattle" + poros πόρος "passage", thus meaning "cattle-passage", or "cow passage".[4] This is in reference to the mythological story of Io, who was transformed into a cow, and was subsequently condemned to wander the Earth until she crossed the Bosphorus, where she met the Titan Prometheus, who comforted her with the information that she would be restored to human form by Zeus and become the ancestress of the greatest of all heroes, Heracles (Hercules). This folk etymology was canonized by Aeschylus in Prometheus Bound (v. 734f.), where Prometheus prophesies to Io that the strait would be named after her. The site where Io supposedly went ashore was near Chrysopolis (present-day Üsküdar), and was named Bous "the Cow". The same site was also known as Damalis, as it was where the Athenian general Chares had erected a monument to his wife Damalis, which included a colossal statue of a cow (the name Damalis translating to "calf").The spelling with -ph-, as Bosphorus, has no justification in the ancient Greek name, but it occurs as a variant in medieval Latin (as Bosphorus, and occasionally Bosforus, Bosferus), and in medieval Greek sometimes as Βόσφορος, giving rise to the French form Bosphore, Spanish Bósforo and Russian Босфор. The 12th century Greek scholar John Tzetzes calls it Damaliten Bosporon (after Damalis), but he also reports that in popular usage the strait was known as Prosphorion during his day,[7] the name of the most ancient northern harbour of Constantinople. Historically, the Bosphorus was also known as the "Strait of Constantinople", or the Thracian Bosphorus, in order to distinguish it from the Cimmerian Bosporus in Crimea. These are expressed in Herodotus' Histories, 4.83; as Bosporus Thracius, Bosporus Thraciae , and Βόσπορος Θρᾴκιος, respectively. Other names by which the strait is referenced by Herodotus include Chalcedonian Bosporus (Bosporus Chalcedoniae, Bosporos tes Khalkedonies, Herodotus 4.87), or Mysian Bosporus (Bosporus Mysius).
- The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits is a 1936 agreement that gives Turkey control over the Bosporus Straits and the Dardanelles and regulates the transit of naval warships. The Convention gives Turkey full control over the Straits and guarantees the free passage of civilian vessels in peacetime. It restricts the passage of naval ships not belonging to Black Sea states. The terms of the convention have been the source of controversy over the years, most notably concerning the Soviet Union's military access to the Mediterranean Sea. Signed on 20 July 1936 at the Montreux Palace in Switzerland, it permitted Turkey to remilitarise the Straits. It went into effect on 9 November 1936 and was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 11 December 1936. It is still in force today, with some amendments.The proposed 21st century Kanal Istanbul project may constitute a possible by-pass to the Montreux Convention and force greater Turkish autonomy with respect to the passage of military ships from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara.
- http://www.scmp.com/news/world/europe/article/2149025/how-istanbuls-man-made-canal-project-could-trigger-arms-race-black When the Turkish government announced in 2011 the plan to build a new canal, called Kanal Istanbul, to relieve the congestion in the Bosphorus, questions stirred about the implications for the Montreux Convention. Would the canal allow the passage of warships, highly restricted under the Montreux Convention, into the Black Sea? Russia, which considers the Black Sea its strategic backyard, will want to prevent them entering the new canal. China, Russia’s main ally, shares the same strategic views: the more strictly regulated maritime navigation is, the better. China monitors the Black Sea with particular interest as it seeks to regulate the passage of warships and tighten its control over another strategic maritime passage: the South China Sea.
The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed inland body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the world's largest lake or a full-fledged sea. It is an endorheic basin (a basin without outflows) located between Europe and Asia. The word Caspian is derived from the name of the Caspi, an ancient people who lived to the southwest of the sea in Transcaucasia.[8] Strabo wrote that "to the country of the Albanians belongs also the territory called Caspiane, which was named after the Caspian tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe has now disappeared".[9] Moreover, the Caspian Gates, which is the name of a region in Iran's Tehran province, possibly indicates that they migrated to the south of the sea. The Iranian city of Qazvin shares the root of its name with that of the sea. In fact, the traditional Arabic name for the sea itself is Baḥr al-Qazwin (Sea of Qazvin). In classical antiquity among Greeks and Persians it was called the Hyrcanian Ocean.[11] In Persian antiquity, as well as in modern Iran, it is known as درياى خزر, Daryā-e Khazar; it is also sometimes referred to as Mazandaran Sea (Persian: دریای مازندران) in Iran.[12] Ancient Arabic sources refer to it as Baḥr Gīlān (بحر گیلان) meaning "the Gilan Sea". Turkic languages refer to the lake as Khazar Sea. In Turkmen, the name is Hazar deňizi, in Azeri, it is Xəzər dənizi, and in modern Turkish, it is Hazar denizi. In all these cases, the second word simply means "sea", and the first word refers to the historical Khazars who had a large empire based to the north of the Caspian Sea between the 7th and 10th centuries. An exception is Kazakh, where it is called Каспий теңізі, Kaspiy teñizi (Caspian Sea).
Renaissance European maps labelled it as Abbacuch Sea (Oronce Fine's 1531 world map), Mar de Bachu (Ortellius' 1570 map), or Mar de Sala (Mercator's 1569 map). Old Russian sources call it the Khvalyn or Khvalis Sea (Хвалынское море / Хвалисское море) after the name of Khwarezmia. In modern Russian, it is called Каспи́йское мо́ре, Kaspiyskoye more.
- 其實，早在蘇聯建立之初，蘇聯便與當時波斯（伊朗前稱）分別在1921 年、1935年及1940 年就以上兩點達成共識，例如雙方視裏海為內湖，並擁有平等的自由航行及捕魚之權利，以及劃分了行政分界線，惟當時並未發掘在海底下的豐富天然資源，因此雙方未有劃分海底的問題。
到了蘇聯解體後，哈薩克、土庫曼及亞塞拜然獨立，3 國不承認此前蘇聯與伊朗之間的協議，使5 國需要重新決定裏海的法律地位和體制。https://l.facebook.com/l.php?u=https%3A%2F%2Ftheglocalhk.com%2F%E3%80%8C%E8%AA%B0%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6%E6%AD%90%E4%BA%9E%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%B8%EF%BC%8C%E5%B0%B1%E8%83%BD%E6%93%8D%E6%8E%A7%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E3%80%8D%EF%BC%88%E4%B8%8A%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E5%BE%9E%E4%B8%80%2F&h=AT3f5Lvv4YjTlr7F5YNHMm39YtDMp0NxiftyXHblW8RAmIqOHhHUC3nJKAAxflyCzeAviXYN2GOv8BDNI87GCKsCjRZ3kgvEb3xsyczYXObhW6ye_JeAjdLTGbzny9bNY5IxU4dpdBCMKRcgzCcudJuv7OtSRF5-WPh51q7-J-liBiMzynr1_onJUdQ8mLxgL4DbM-sjbGlz1xOxabm8tuX1W1pUBgySIs4-eqvfONFdEEm06hRTOTsdoVT4Yh2CT_7bE6m4pWqig1iSn8kQyGuDanW_HX1PYoo9xtSN2gKy2nN8-AwMbuBn2af0ql8vg1FmzN4Tpx6DzXaoJuA_bdlM
- https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45162282 Russia, Iran, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan - all bordering the Caspian Sea - have agreed in principle on how to divide it up. Their leaders signed the Convention on the Legal Status of the Caspian Sea in the Kazakh city of Aktau on Sunday. It establishes a formula for dividing up its resources and prevents other powers from setting up a military presence there.
- any relation?
- CS lewis map of narnia for prince caspian 1951 (designed to illustrate prince caspian, 2nd book in the series, though was never published in lewis's lifetime)
Caucasus /ˈkɔːkəsəs/ or Caucasia /kɔːˈkeɪʒə/ is a region located at the border of Europe and Asia, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea and occupied by Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia. A less common definition includes also portions of northwestern Iran and northeastern Turkey.Pliny the Elder's Natural History (77–79 AD) derives the name of the Caucasus from Scythian kroy-khasis ("ice-shining, white with snow").[4] German linguist Paul Kretschmer notes that the Latvian word Kruvesis also means "ice". In the Tale of Past Years (1113 AD), it is stated that Old East Slavic Кавкасийскыѣ горы (Kavkasijskyě gory) came from Ancient Greek Καύκασος (Kaukasos; later Greek pronunciation Kafkasos)),[7] which, according to M. A. Yuyukin, is a compound word that can be interpreted as the "Seagull's Mountain" (καύ-: καύαξ, καύηξ, ηκος ο, κήξ, κηϋξ "a kind of seagull" + the reconstructed *κάσος η "mountain" or "rock" richly attested both in place and personal names.) According to German philologists Otto Schrader and Alfons A. Nehring, the Ancient Greek word Καύκασος (Kaukasos) is connected to Gothic Hauhs ("high") as well as LithuanianKaũkas ("hillock") and Kaukarà ("hill, top").[7][9] British linguist Adrian Room points out that Kau- also means "mountain" in Pelasgian. The Transcaucasus region and Dagestan were the furthest points of Parthian and later Sasanian expansions, with areas to the north of the Greater Caucasus range practically impregnable. The mythological Mount Qaf, the world's highest mountain that ancient Iranian lore shrouded in mystery, was said to be situated in this region. In Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian era, the Caucasus range was referred to as Kaf Kof.[11] The term resurfaced in Iranian tradition later on in a variant form when Ferdowsi, in his Shahnameh, referred to the Caucasus mountains as Kōh-i Kāf.[11] "Most of the modern names of the Caucasus originate from the Greek Kaukasos (Lat., Caucasus) and the Middle Persian Kaf Kof". "The earliest etymon" of the name Caucasus comes from Kaz-kaz, the Hittite designation of the "inhabitants of the southern coast of the Black Sea". It was also noted that in Nakh Ков гас (Kov gas) means "gateway to steppe"
- language
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-main-characteristics-of-the-Caucasian-languages
- Chufut-Kale (Tatar pronunciation: [tʃuˈfut qaˈle]; Russian and Ukrainian: Чуфут-Кале - Chufut-Kale; Crimean Tatar: Çufut Qale; Karaim: Къале - קלעה - Qale) is a medieval city-fortress in the Crimean Mountains that now lies in ruins. It is a national monument of Crimean Karaites culture just 3 km east of Bakhchisaray.Its name is Crimean Tatar and Turkish for "Jewish Fortress" (çufut/çıfıt - Jew, qale/kale - fortress), while Crimean Karaites refer to it simply as "Fortress", considering the place as historical center for the Crimean Karaite community. In the Middle Ages the fortress was known as Qırq Yer (Place of Forty) and as Karaites to which sect the greater part of its inhabitants belong, Sela' ha-Yehudim (The Rock of the Jews).
- note different spelling in other languages esp french
- The town was probably a fortified settlement in the 5th or 6th century on the periphery of the Byzantine Empire. Others are of the opinion that the fortified settlement appeared in the 10th-11th centuries. During the early period of the town's history, it was mainly populated by Alans, the most powerful of a late Sarmatian tribes of Iranian descent. They began penetrating the Crimea from the 2nd century AD. Settling down in the mountainous Crimea, the Alans adopted Christianity. In written sources the cave town is mentioned in the 13th century under the name of Kyrk-Or (Forty Fortifications). This name lasted until the mid-17th century. In 1299 the Tatar horde of Emir Nogai raided the Crimean peninsula. Kyrk-Or was then garrisoned by Byzantine soldiers. The stout fortress resisted direct storming by the Tatars, who then contrived to weaken the defenders by playing loud music for three days and nights. On the fourth morning, the defenders were too exhausted to repel a fresh attack, and the fortress succumbed to a general massacre. Having thus seized the town, the Tatars quartered their garrison in it. At the turn of the 15th century, Tatars settled Karaite craftsmen in front of the eastern line of fortifications and built a second defensive wall to protect their settlement, and thus a new part of the town appeared. In the 15th century the first Crimean Khan, Hadji-Girei, realizing the fortress’ advantages, turned the old section of the town into his fortified residence. After the defeat of the Golden Horde, the Crimean Khanate became considerably stronger. The significance of Kyrk-Or as a stronghold declined, and the Crimean Khan, Menglis-Girei, moved his capital to Bakhchisarai. The old town remained a citadel of Bakhchisarai and a place of incarceration for aristocratic prisoners. In the mid-17th century Tatars left Kyrk-Or. Only Karaites and several Krymchakfamilies[14] remained living there due to anti-Jewish restrictions on stays in other towns of the Crimean Khanate.[15] Tatars considered Karaites to be Jews, hence the town gradually acquired the name of Chufut-Kale, which in Turkic meant "Jewish fortress" with negative and scornful meaning.After the Crimea's conquest and its inclusion into the Russian empire, the fortress inhabitants were permitted to live anywhere in the Crimea. From that time on, Chufut-Kale was deserted. By the mid-19th century the town ceased to exist.
- https://www.rbth.com/travel/332364-5-must-see-underground-tourist-attractions
- 巴赫奇薩賴Bakhchysarai (Ukrainian & Russian: Бахчисарáй; Crimean Tatar: Bağçasaray; Turkish: Bahçesaray; Persian: باغچه سرای Bāghche Sarāy) is a town in central Crimea, a territory recognized by a majority of countries as part of Ukraine and annexed[2] by Russia as the Republic of Crimea. It is the administrative center of the Bakhchysarai Raion (district), as well as the former capital of the Crimean Khanate. Its main landmark is Hansaray, the only extant palace of the Crimean Khans, currently open to tourists as a museum. Bakhchysarai first appears in historical documents in 1502. In 1532 Sahib I Giray, the Khan of Crimea from 1532 to 1551, established his residence there. From that time it served as the capital of the Crimean Khanate and the center of political and cultural life of the Crimean Tatar people. After several wars with Russia from 1737 (when General Burkhard Christoph von Münnich burnt down the capital of the Khanate) and following the annexation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire in 1783, Bakhchysarai became an ordinary town, having lost administrative significance. However, it remained the cultural center of the Crimean Tatars for several decades afterward, fostered by Ismail Gaspirali (1851-1914) who founded the local newspaper Tercüman in 1883.其名稱來自土耳其語 باغچه سرای，意為「花園宮殿」
- scmp 30may2021 picture of a walking gibbon
The Alborz ( Persian: البرز) range, also spelled as Alburz, Elburz or Elborz, is a mountain range in northern Iran that stretches from the border of Azerbaijan along the western and entire southern coast of the Caspian Sea and finally runs northeast and merges into the Aladagh Mountains in the northern parts of Khorasan. The name Alborz is derived from Harā Barazaitī, a legendary mountain in the Avesta, the main text of Zoroastrianism. Harā Barazaitī is from a Proto-Iranianname, *Harā Bṛzatī, meaning "Mountain Rampart." *Bṛzatī is the feminine form of the adjective *bṛzant- "high", the ancestor of modern Persian bouland (بلند) and Barz/Berazandeh, cognate with Sanskrit Brihat (बृहत्). Harā may be interpreted as "watch" or "guard", from an Indo-European root *ser- "protect". In Middle Persian, Harā Barazaitībecame Harborz, Modern Persian Alborz, which is a cognate with Elbrus, the highest peak of the Caucasus.Zoroastrians seems to identify the range with the dwelling place of the Peshyotan, and the Zoroastrian Ilm-e-Kshnoom sect identifies Mount Davamand as the home of the Saheb-e-Dilan ('Masters of the Heart'). In his epic Shahnameh, the poet Ferdowsi speaks of the mountains "as though they lay in India."[1] This could reflect older usage, for numerous high peaks were given the name, and some even reflect it to this day, including Mount Elbrus in the Caucasus Mountains and Mount Elbariz (Albariz, Jebal Barez) in the Kerman area above the Strait of Hormuz. All these names reflect the same Iranian language compound, and have been speculatively identified, at one time or another, as the legendary mountain Harā Bərəzaitī of the Avesta.
The Pamir Mountains, or the Pamirs, are a mountain range in Central Asia at the junction of the Himalayas with the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush, Suleman and Hindu Raj ranges. They are among the world’s highest mountains. The precise extent of the Pamir Mountains is debatable. They lie mostly in Gorno-Badakhshan province of Tajikistan. To the north they join the Tian Shan mountains along the Alay Valley of Kyrgyzstan. To the south they border the Hindu Kush mountains along Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor. To the east they are generally considered to extend to the range that includes China's Kongur Tagh, a peak which is included in the "Eastern Pamirs" more often than in theKunlun Mountains, as Kongur Tagh and the Kunlun range are separated by the large Yarkand River valley; no valley of such significance separates the Pamirs and Kongur Tagh, just political boundaries.
- Since Victorian times, they have been known as the "Roof of the World", presumably a translation from Persian. In other languages they are called: Kyrgyz Памир тоолору, Pamir Tooloru, پامىر توولورۇ; Persian: رشته کوه های پامیر, Rešte Kūh-hāye Pāmīr; Tajik: Ришта Кӯҳҳои Помир, Rişta Kûhhoyi Pomir; Pashto: د پامير غرونه Da Pāmir Ğruna; Uyghur: پامىر ئېگىزلىكى, Памир Езгизлики, Pamir Ëzgizliki; Urdu: پامیر کوهستان Pamir Kuhestan;蔥嶺; pinyin: Cōnglǐng; Wade–Giles: Ts'ung-ling or "Onion Range" (after the wild onions growing in the region); Dungan: Памир or Цунлин, written inXiao'erjing: پَامِعَر or ڞوْلٍْ. The name "Pamir" is used more commonly in Modern Chinese and loaned as 帕米爾; pinyin: Pàmǐ'ěr.
- According to Middleton and Thomas, "pamir" is a geological term. A pamir is a flat plateau or U-shaped valley surrounded by mountains. It forms when a glacier or ice field melts leaving a rocky plain. A pamir lasts until erosion forms soil and cuts down normal valleys. This type of terrain is found in the east and north of the Wakhan,[8] and the east and south of Gorno-Badakhshan, as opposed to the valleys and gorges of the west. Pamirs are used for summer pasture. The Great Pamir is around Lake Zorkul. The Little Pamir is east of this in the far east of Wakhan.[8] The Taghdumbash Pamir is between Tashkurgan and the Wakhan west of the Karakoram Highway. TheAlichur Pamir is around Yashil Kul on the Gunt River. The Sarez Pamir is around the town of Murghab. The Khargush Pamir is south of Lake Karakul. There are several others. The Pamir River is in the south-west of the Pamirs.
Pontus (/ˈpɒntəs/; Greek: Πόντος, translit. Póntos, "Sea"[1]) is a historical Greek designation for a region on the southern coast of the Black Sea, located in modern-day eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey. The name was applied to the coastal region and its mountainous hinterland (rising to the Pontic Alps in the east) in antiquity by the Greeks who colonized the area and derived from the Greek name of the Black Sea: Πόντος Εὔξεινος Pontos Euxeinos ("Hospitable Sea"[2]), or simply Pontos. Having originally no specific name, the region east of the river Halys was spoken of as the country Ἐν Πόντῳ En Pontōi, "on the [Euxeinos] Pontos", and hence it acquired the name of Pontus, which is first found in Xenophon's Anabasis. The extent of the region varied through the ages but generally extended from the borders of Colchis (modern western Georgia) until well into Paphlagonia in the west, with varying amounts of hinterland. Several states and provinces bearing the name of Pontus or variants thereof were established in the region in the Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods, culminating in the late Byzantine Empire of Trebizond. Pontus is sometimes considered as the home of the Amazons, with the name Amazon used not only for a city (Amasya) but for all of Pontus[citation needed] in Greek mythology.
- The Pontic Greeks, also known as Pontian Greeks (Greek: Πόντιοι, Ελληνοπόντιοι, Póntioi, Ellinopóntioi; Turkish: Pontus Rumları, Karadeniz Rumları, Georgian: პონტოელი ბერძნები, P’ont’oeli Berdznebi), are an ethnically Greek group who traditionally lived in the region of Pontus, on the shores of the Black Sea and in the Pontic Mountains of northeastern Anatolia. Many later migrated to other parts of Eastern Anatolia, to the former Russian province of Kars Oblast in the Transcaucasus, and to Georgia in various waves between the Ottoman conquest of the Empire of Trebizond in 1461 and the second Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829. Those from southern Russia, Ukraine, and Crimea are often referred to as "Northern Pontic [Greeks]", in contrast to those from "South Pontus", which strictly speaking is Pontus proper. Those from Georgia, northeastern Anatolia, and the former Russian Caucasus are in contemporary Greek academic circles often referred to as "Eastern Pontic [Greeks]" or as Caucasian Greeks, but also include the Turkic-speaking Urums. Pontic Greeks have Greek ancestry and speak the Pontic Greek dialect, a distinct form of the standard Greek language which, due to the remoteness of Pontus, has undergone linguistic evolution distinct from that of the rest of the Greek world. The Pontic Greeks had a continuous presence in the region of Pontus (modern-day northeastern Turkey), Georgia, and Eastern Anatolia from at least 700 BC until 1922.
「歐亞大陸難抵極」是個什麼都沒有的地方的動人名稱。它是地球上距離海或大洋最遠的地方。這個難抵極位於中國與哈薩克斯坦邊境線以東，與港口和海岸線的距離極為遙遠，至少是2500公里，這是地球上人口最稀少的地方之一，坐落在廣闊無垠的白色乾草原和淡藍色山巒之間。它居於哈薩克斯坦邊境天山山脈的兩個分支之間，是中亞僅存的一些遊牧民族居住的地方，在這裡，世界歷史上最大的基礎設施項目正在拔地而起。在距離這個難抵極約130公里的地方，邊境線的哈薩克斯坦這一邊，有一個叫霍爾果斯的村子。在其歷史上大部分時間裡，這個地方都與國際事務不沾邊，村裡的正式人口只有908人。但在過去的幾年裡，它已成為全球經濟的一個重要節點，成了非正式名稱為「新絲綢之路」倡議的一部分。這個由中國牽頭的倡議旨在建設一個四通八達的公路、鐵路和海上航運線路的龐大網路，以及在數十個國家建設支持這個網路的數百家新工廠、新管線和供公司員工生活的小鎮。最終，這個正式名稱為「一帶一路」倡議的項目將把中國沿海的工廠和不斷壯大的消費階層，與中亞、東南亞和南亞，與海灣國家和中東，與非洲、以及俄羅斯和整個歐洲連接起來，這一切將由一個縱橫交錯的陸路和海路網路來實現，項目的總體目標令人難以置信。https://cn.nytimes.com/business/20190211/china-globalization-kazakhstan/zh-hant/
The Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) is an economic union of states located in central and northern Asia and Eastern Europe. The Treaty on the Eurasian Economic Union was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders of Belarus, Kazakhstan and Russia, and came into force on 1 January 2015.[5] Treaties aiming for Armenia's and Kyrgyzstan's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October and 23 December 2014, respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015.[6]Kyrgyzstan's accession treaty came into effect on 6 August 2015.[7] It participated in the EAEU from the day of its establishment as an acceding state.The Eurasian Economic Union has an integrated single market of 183 million people and a gross domestic product of over 4 trillion U.S. dollars (PPP). The EAEU introduces the free movement of goods, capital, services and people and provides for common policies in the macroeconomic sphere, transport, industry and agriculture, energy, foreign trade and investment, customs, technical regulation, competition and antitrust regulation. Provisions for a single currency and greater integration are envisioned in future.The union operates through supranational and intergovernmental institutions. The Supreme Eurasian Economic Council is the supreme body of the Union, consisting of the Heads of the Member States. The second level of intergovernmental institutions is represented by the Eurasian Intergovernmental Council (consisting of the Heads of the governments of member states). The day-to-day work of the EAEU is done through the Eurasian Economic Commission, the executive body of the Union. There is also a judicial body – the Court of the EAEU.http://eaeunion.org/
- During the 1990s, the Eurasian integration process was slow, possibly due to the economic crisis experienced after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the size of the countries involved (Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan cover an area of about 20 million km²). As a result, numerous treaties have been signed by member states to establish the regional trading bloc gradually.[journal 3][journal 2] In 1995, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, and later acceding states Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan signed the first agreements on the establishment of a Customs Union. Its purpose was to gradually lead the way toward the creation of open borders without passport controls between member states. In 1996, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia and Kyrgyzstan signed the Treaty on Increased Integration in the Economic and Humanitarian Fields to begin economic integration between countries to allow for the creation of common markets for goods, services, capital, labour, and developing single transport, energy and information systems.[journal 2] In 1999, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Russia, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan signed the Treaty on the Customs Union and the Single Economic Space by clarifying the goals and policies the states would undertake in order to form the Eurasian Customs Union and the Single Economic Space.- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2015/02/13/a16-0213.pdf 俄羅斯、白俄 羅斯與哈薩克斯坦去年 5月簽約成立歐亞經濟 聯盟（EAEU），今年 1 月 1 日起正式生效， 亞美尼亞翌日加入成為第四個成員國。俄哈 兩國總領事昨於香港舉行酒會慶祝聯盟成 立 ， 俄 駐 港 總 領 事 加 里 寧 （Vladimir Anatolyevich Kalinin）致辭時表示，EAEU 期 待與中國內地及香港建立合作，尤其在商品 及服務清關資訊方面。加里寧表示，目前已有約 40 個國家和組織有意與 EAEU簽訂自貿區協議，EAEU與越南自貿區談判已進入 最後階段，希望未來能與內地和香港建立合作。聯盟亦 正與以色列、埃及及南方共同市場尋找成熟合作模式。 亦有不少歐洲國家表達合作意願。 根據計劃，EAEU將於明年建立統一藥品市場，2019 年前建立共同電力市場，2025年前建立統一石油、天然 氣和石油產品市場。2025年還將在哈薩克斯坦的阿拉木 圖市建立負責調解聯盟金融市場的超國家機構。 出席同一場合的哈薩克斯坦駐港總領事阿卜迪莫穆諾 夫（Nurzhan Abdymomunov）於致辭時表示，關注到中 國提出重建「新絲綢之路經濟帶」，並積極發展交通基 建及高速鐵路，認為 EAEU可在歐洲與亞太地區產業合 作方面擔任平台角色，惠及全球經濟。 出席昨日酒會的有外交部駐港特派員公署副特派員宋 如安及多國駐港總領事及商界人士80餘人。- meeting
- https://astanatimes.com/2019/08/eurasian-intergovernmental-council-discusses-integration-status-of-current-agreements/ Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU) member states prime ministers discussed ways to increase integration, the status of agreements and future cooperation at the Aug. 9 Eurasian Intergovernmental Council (EIC) meeting in Cholpon Ata, Kyrgyzstan, according to the Kazakh Prime Minister’s office. Participants discussed trade and economic cooperation, the removal of obstacles in the EAEU domestic market, the regulation of the alcohol and financial markets, the cooperation of member state custom services and other issues. Mamin said EAEU members are working to implement EAEU treaty provisions on cooperation and to draft strategic directions to develop EAEU economic integration until 2025.
- iran
- https://www.ft.com/content/e2d7da8c-3ee8-11e7-9d56-25f963e998b2 The Moscow-led Eurasian Economic Union aims to finalise a free-trade deal with Iran by the end of the year, in an attempt by Russia and its fellow members to deepen ties with Tehran. The trade overtures are taking place amid signs that Iran’s relationship with the US will deteriorate under the administration of Donald Trump. The US president last week attacked Iran for fuelling “the fires of sectarian conflict and terror” during visits to the country’s regional rivals Saudi Arabia and Israel, days after Iran re-elected moderate President Hassan Rouhani on a platform of international re-engagement. Russia and Iran co-operate on a number of geopolitical issues, most notably in the war in Syria. The two countries have sought to deepen their relationship since the EU and US imposed sanctions on Moscow in 2014.
- https://www.bilaterals.org/?iran-signs-provisional-pact-to The five-nation Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) has signed a 3-year provisional agreement with Iran to welcome the Islamic Republic into the bloc’s free-trade zone. “The temporary agreement stipulates an effective dispute settlement mechanism, including arbitration… It also creates a joint committee of high-ranking officials and establishes a business dialogue,” the chair of EEU economic commission board, Tigran Sargsyan, said at the ceremony in Astana, Kazakhstan on Thursday. The arrangement is the first step in implementing free trade between Iran and the five members of the union, which includes Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia.
- http://sputniknews.com/middleeast/20150706/1024279020.html#ixzz3f7km6C3pThe member states of the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) have agreed with Delhi to form a group to explore the possibility of creating a free trade zone with India, Russian presidential aide Yuri Ushakov said Monday. "The Indian side is expressing interest for building relations with the Eurasian Economic Union, an agreement was reached to form a joint group to study the possibility of concluding an agreement on free trade between the member states of the union and India," Ushakov said at a briefing.
- 欧亚经济委员会（欧亚经济联盟的管理机构）新闻处宣布，欧亚经济联盟（EEC）和中国日前达成有关跨越联盟和中国过境的商品及交通工具的协议。欧亚经济联盟海关基础设施司司长巴克特别克·拜谢尔基耶夫（Baktybek Bayserkeev）说：“双方起草协议草案的工作持续了五年。我们经过艰苦谈判终于达成了一份符合所有各方利益的文件。”
来源：«透视俄罗斯» - http://tsrus.cn/jingji/caijing/2017/11/27/659803 - http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201805/18/WS5afe4aaba3103f6866ee941b.html China and member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union on Thursday signed an agreement in Astana, Kazakhstan, to cut trade barriers and facilitate economic activities, said the Ministry of Commerce. The ministry said this is the first institutional arrangement representing a new stage of enhanced cooperation between the two sides. The economic and trade agreement covers 13 chapters, ranging from customs cooperation and trade facilitation, intellectual property rights, to government procurement, with new topics including e-commerce and market competition, according to the ministry.
- vietnam
- http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/vietnam-signs-free-trade-agreement-with-russian-led-economic-union/522691.html The Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) signed a free trade agreement (FTA) with Vietnam on Friday, the first such deal struck by the Moscow-led body with a third party as it seeks to boost its presence in Asian markets. The EEU, which includes Russia, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, was launched in January to promote trade and economic integration. It has a combined population of 181 million and gross domestic product of around $2 trillion. Some see the Moscow-dominated grouping as a regional counterbalance to the European Union. Critics say this is Russian President Vladimir Putin's attempt to restore as much as possible of the former Soviet Union. "A historic act took place today," Viktor Khristenko, chairman of the Eurasian Economic Commission's board, said after the prime ministers of the five EEU member states signed the FTA with their Vietnamese counterpart Nguyen Tan Dung. "The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is an old good partner of all the nations taking part in the Eurasian Economic Union," he told journalists after the signing ceremony in a lakeside resort area in northern Kazakhstan. The free trade deal covers more than 90 percent of all goods traded between the EEU and Vietnam, Khristenko said. By signing the FTA, the EEU aims to increase its foreign trade turnover with Vietnam to at least $10 billion in five years to $4 billion in 2014, he said.
- http://www.aplf.com/en-US/leather-fashion-news-and-blog/news/34014/eurasian-trade-new-pact-set-to-boost-vietnam-russia-trade?platform=hootsuite
- Thailand
- http://rbth.com/business/2015/09/30/bangkok_to_closely_examine_trade_deal_with_eurasian_economic_union_-_49665.html After almost 4 years in Russia, Dr Itti Ditbanjong, Thailand’s Ambassador to Russia is set to return to Bangkok. In an exclusive interview with RBTH, he spoke about the increasingly active role of Thai businesses and investors in Russia, growing educational and cultural ties between the countries and how to increase two-way tourism. RBTH: Recently Vietnam signed a free trade agreement with the Eurasian Economic Union. Would Thailand be interested in a similar arrangement? I. D.: The offer was made to us during the visit of Prime Minister Medvedev, and after that when we attended the 6th joint commission that we had with Russia here in Moscow. We agreed to look very closely at this. We see its usefulness. But for us, we need to study further on the question. I think that there is a good possibility that we could have a closer cooperation with this group.
Trans-Caspian Transit Corridor
- The Trans-Caspian International Transport Route, a corridor of 6,500 km links Asia with Europe and passes through countries including Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, and Turkey. A flagship project of the corridor, the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars (BTK) Railway, was inaugurated in October in 2017.
The Baku–Tbilisi–Kars (BTK), or Baku-Tbilisi-Akhalkalaki-Kars railway (BTAK), became operational on October 30, 2017. This is a regional rail link project to directly connect Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey. The project was originally to be completed by 2010,[1] but was delayed to 2013,[2] 2015,[3] 2016, and following a fifth trilateral meeting in February 2016, the three countries' foreign ministers announced that the railway will finally be completed in 2017. Following the first test run by a passenger train from Tbilisi to Akhalkalaki on 27 September 2017, the BTK was inaugurated in the ceremony hosted by the President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev in Alyat on October 30, 2017. Passenger trains will feature new sleeping coaches. The Baku-Tbilisi-Kars project is intended to complete a transport corridor linking Azerbaijan to Turkey (and therefore Central Asia and China to Europe) by rail. (In late 2015, a goods train took only 15 days to travel from South Korea to Istanbul via China, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Georgia—considerably less time than a journey by sea.)
- The Trans-Caspian International Transport Route, a corridor of 6,500 km links Asia with Europe and passes through countries including Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, and Turkey. A flagship project of the corridor, the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars (BTK) Railway, was inaugurated in October in 2017.
The Baku–Tbilisi–Kars (BTK), or Baku-Tbilisi-Akhalkalaki-Kars railway (BTAK), became operational on October 30, 2017. This is a regional rail link project to directly connect Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey. The project was originally to be completed by 2010,[1] but was delayed to 2013,[2] 2015,[3] 2016, and following a fifth trilateral meeting in February 2016, the three countries' foreign ministers announced that the railway will finally be completed in 2017. Following the first test run by a passenger train from Tbilisi to Akhalkalaki on 27 September 2017, the BTK was inaugurated in the ceremony hosted by the President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev in Alyat on October 30, 2017. Passenger trains will feature new sleeping coaches. The Baku-Tbilisi-Kars project is intended to complete a transport corridor linking Azerbaijan to Turkey (and therefore Central Asia and China to Europe) by rail. (In late 2015, a goods train took only 15 days to travel from South Korea to Istanbul via China, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Georgia—considerably less time than a journey by sea.)
- The (Poti–)Tbilisi–Baku railway (the Transcaucasus Railway) was completed in 1883, and has since remained the backbone of Transcaucasia's railway network. By 1899, a branch line (Kars–Gyumri–Tbilisi railway) from Tbilisi to Marabda to Gyumri (then Alexandropol) to Kars was completed.[10] Due to the poor state of relations between Armenia and Turkey this branch line has been abandoned. In 1986, the construction of a 160 kilometers (99 mi) branch railway line from Marabda (on the Tbilisi-Gyumri line, 23 kilometers (14 mi) south of Tbilisi Junction) west to Akhalkalakiwas completed. However, this branch fell into disuse at a later stage. In 1993, Turkey closed its border with Armenia -- closing the Kars–Gyumri–Tbilisi railway, which goes through Armenia -- to support Azerbaijanin its conflict with Armenia following the Nagorno-Karabakh War. A railroad project between Azerbaijan and Turkey through Georgia, intended to provide an alternative to the closed route, was first discussed in July 1993. A multi-lateral accord to build the link was signed by the three countries in January 2005.[14] Because of a lack of funding at this time, this project was more or less abandoned.[15] However, during the inauguration of the Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline in May 2005, the Presidents of Azerbaijan, of Georgia and of Turkey evoked once again the possibility of building a railroad between their three countries.
- http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20171109/00184_001.htmlBTK鐵路有助於解決南高加索以至土耳其的歷史矛盾。雖然亞美尼亞沒有納入，但這條歐亞貨運大通道亦可牽動亞美尼亞加入，透過市場誘因而不是政治談判威逼。土耳其會加重其歐亞連接的作用，不輕言棄亞從歐。土耳其在地中海東部，歐亞貨運便更可出地中海至北非。或許對中國在希臘港口比雷埃夫斯有競爭，實際會是相得益彰，加重地中海東岸通往西歐、北非的航運，衝擊現時西北歐壟斷的國際航運。BTK鐵路的啟動反映出新絲綢之路的優勢和吸引力，中國倡議背後是中國龐大的貿易量，就算不用中國投資，沿途國家也會在中國因素推動下相應投入和發展。一帶一路建設得道多助，是因為擺脫殖民主義、帝國主義的軌迹。
technology
- http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2016-09/22/content_26861172.htm Telecom service providers in eight countries of the Eurasian region have jointly committed to create a high-speed communication network to increase connectivity and promote cultural and economic exchanges. At a forum at the Fifth China-Eurasia Expo on Wednesday, 15 telecom providers from eight countries - including China, Pakistan, Russia and Iran - signed a manifesto aimed at improving connectivity. The expo is being hosted in Urumqi, capital of the Xinjiang Uygur autonomous region, this week. "We are aiming to push forward the Eurasian region to achieve connectivity ... in network infrastructure and forge a more efficient and open information network," the manifesto said. The 15 providers will hold a forum every two years - or special work conferences if necessary - to enable normalized communication and cooperation, it said.
Caspian three
- http://russiancouncil.ru/en/inner/?id_4=8016#top-content On August 8, 2016 in Baku, the first trilateral meeting of the Presidents of Russia, Azerbaijan, and Iran was held. The Caspian states have several things in common: their economies greatly depend on exporting hydrocarbons, they fight a high inflation, and also these countries are attempting to transform the Middle East and the Caspian region in accordance with their own vision. Despite these similarities, the countries approached the summit with different goals and in different moods. Russia is gradually getting used to life “after Crimea,” as it continues to withstand the international political pressure; Azerbaijan apparently found itself in the situation Russia was in 2015, while Iran does everything within its power to get economic reforms in the country going, as it is wary of possible growth of inflation and unemployment. The summit took place on the eve of President Vladimir Putin’s meeting with President Recep Erdogan, and therefore, the meeting could not but produce a great excitement, yet its consequences could be far-reaching for the entire Caspian region.
Catholics vs Ottoman Empire
- The Battle of Lepanto was a naval engagement taking place on 7 October 1571 in which a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of European Catholic maritime states arranged by Pope Pius V, led by Spanish admiral Don Juan of Austria and mostly financed by the Spanish Empire, decisively defeated the fleet of the Ottoman Empire on the northern edge of the Gulf of Corinth, off western Greece. The Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (Turkish: İnebahtı; Greek: Ναύπακτος or Έπαχτος Naupaktos or Épahtos) met the Holy League forces, which came from Messina, Sicily, where they had previously gathered. The victory of the Holy League prevented the Ottoman Empire from expanding further along the European side of the Mediterranean. Lepanto was the last major naval battle in the Mediterranean fought entirely between galleys and has been assigned great symbolic and historical importance by several historians.
Hellenistic empire
- The Attalid dynasty (/ˈætəlᵻd/; Greek:Δυναστεία των Ατταλιδών) was aHellenistic dynasty that ruled the city ofPergamon after the death of Lysimachus, a general of Alexander the Great. The Attalid kingdom was the rump state left after the collapse of the Lysimachian Empire. One of Lysimachus' officers, Philetaerus, took control of the city in 282 BC. The later Attalids were descended from his father and they expanded the city into a kingdom.Attalus I proclaimed himself King in the 230s BC, following his victories over theGalatians. The Attalids ruled Pergamon until Attalus III bequeathed the kingdom to the Roman Republic in 133 BC to avoid a likely succession crisis. A war withEumenes III resulted in the creation ofRoman province of Asia over much of the territory.
- [time travel] in 1886 about 1500 costumed actors performed the triumphal procession of a ruler of attalid kingdom, most likely king attalus I (greek festival of berlin). The pageant, held in the german city of berlin, presented the victorious hellenes and the defeated galatians (or celtic galatians) - allegory of prussians defeating france in 1871
The Seljuk Empire or Great Seljuk Empire (also spelled Seljuq) (Persian: آل سلجوق) was a medieval Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks.[16] The Seljuk Empire controlled a vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. From their homelands near the Aral sea, the Seljuks advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia. The Seljuk empire was founded by Tughril Beg (1016–63) in 1037. Tughril was raised by his grandfather, Seljuk-Beg, who was in a high position in the Oghuz Yabgu State. Seljuk gave his name to both the Seljuk empire and the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuks united the fractured political scene of the eastern Islamic world and played a key role in the first and second crusades. Highly Persianized in culture and language, the Seljuks also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia. The settlement of Turkic tribes in the northwestern peripheral parts of the empire, for the strategic military purpose of fending off invasions from neighboring states, led to the progressive Turkicization of those areas.
- probably linked to the "anatolia" activities in hk (also mentioned in Hodgson's book)
The Khwarazmian dynasty (IPA: [kwəˈræzmiːən]; also known as the Khwarezmid dynasty, the Anushtegin dynasty, the dynasty of Khwarazm Shahs, and other spelling variants; from (Persian: خوارزمشاهیان, translit. Khwārazmshāhiyān "Kings of Khwarezmia") was a Persianate Sunni Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin. The dynasty ruled large parts of Central Asia and Iran during the High Middle Ages, in the approximate period of 1077 to 1231, first as vassals of the Seljuqs and Qara-Khitan, and later as independent rulers, up until the Mongol invasion of Khwarezmia in the 13th century. The dynasty was founded by commander Anush Tigin Gharchai, a former Turkish slave of the Seljuq sultans, who was appointed as governor of Khwarezm. His son, Qutb ad-Din Muhammad I, became the first hereditary Shah of Khwarezm.
- The Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia from 1219 to 1221 marked the beginning of the Mongol conquest of the Islamic states. In the ensuing war, lasting less than two years, the Khwarezmid Empire was destroyed.
- Though the Mongols had destroyed the Khwarezmian Empire in 1220, many Khwarezmians survived by working as mercenaries in northern Iraq. Sultan Jalal ad-Din's followers remained loyal to him even after his death in 1231, and raided the Seljuk lands of Jazira and Syria for the next several years, calling themselves the Khwarezmiyya. Ayyubid Sultan as-Salih Ayyub, in Egypt, later hired their services against his uncle as-Salih Ismail. The Khwarezmiyya, heading south from Iraq towards Egypt, invaded Crusader-held Jerusalem along the way, on 11 July 1244. The city's citadel, the Tower of David, surrendered on August 23, and the Christian population of the city was expelled. This triggered a call from Europe for the Seventh Crusade, but the Crusaders would never again be successful in retaking Jerusalem. After being conquered by the Khwarezmian forces, the city stayed under Muslim control until 1917, when it was taken from the Ottomans by the British.[citation needed] After taking Jerusalem, the Khwarezmian forces continued south, and on October 17 fought on the side of the Ayyubids at the Battle of La Forbie, as the Crusaders used to call Harbiyah, a village northeast of Gaza, destroying the remains of the Crusader army there, with some 1,200 knights killed. It was the largest battle involving the Crusaders since the Battle of the Horns of Hattin in 1187. The remains of the Muslim Khwarezmians served in Egypt as Mamluk mercenaries until they were finally beaten by al-Mansur Ibrahim some years later.[citation needed] Khwarizmi war captives assimilated into the Mongols, forming the modern Mongolian clan Sartuul.- Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu (Persian: جلال الدین خوارزمشاه; Turkmen: Jelaleddin Meňburun or Jelaleddin Horezmşa; full name: Jalal ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Abul-Muzaffar Manguberdi ibn Muhammad) or Manguberdi (Turkic for "Godgiven"), also known as Jalâl ad-Dîn Khwârazmshâh, was the last ruler of the Khwarezmian Empire.他是阿拉烏丁·摩訶末長子，臂力過人，驍勇善戰。初時，摩訶末立幼子斡思剌黑為繼承人，扎蘭丁聽從其母親勸諫遠離中央，所以扎蘭丁受封於古爾（今阿富汗哈扎里斯坦）及哥疾寧（今阿富汗喀布爾西南的加茲尼）之地（因其母是土庫曼人，不受康里將領支持）。
Mongol Empire
- establishnent of conquest states led to rise of new frontier capitals - delhi, beijing, vijayanagar, bijapur, ahmadnagar, golkonda, combining access to sources of mobile warfare(horses) and to an expanding agricultural base
- Yasser (alternatively: Yasa, Yasaq, Jazag, Zasag, Mongolian: Их засаг, Yehe Zasag) was a secret written code of law created by Genghis Khan. The word Yassa translates into "order" or "decree". It was the de facto law of the Mongol Empire even though the "law" was kept secret and never made public. The Yassa seems to have its origin as decrees issued in war times. Later, these decrees were codified and expanded to include cultural and life-style conventions. By keeping the Yassa secret, the decrees could be modified and used selectively. It is believed that the Yassa was supervised by Genghis Khan himself and his stepbrother Shihihutag who was then high judge (in Mongolian: улсын их заргач) of the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan appointed his second son Chagatai (later Chagatai Khan) to oversee the execution of the laws. {note that in britainnica and in Hodgson's book, the term is spelt as Yasa}
- http://ausbeli.blogspot.hk/2016/12/blog-post_28.html
蒙古帝國還存在的話 會是怎樣? note the emblem - circle and crescent
- reference
- 杉山正明(http://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/research/forefronts/archives/sugiyama.html)'s book on mongol history hkcd 18jun17 t2
Kievan Rus
- Kievan Rus' (Old East Slavic: Рѹ́сь[1] (Rus'), Рѹ́сьскаѧ землѧ (Ruskaya zemlya), Ancient Greek: Ῥωσία, Latin: Rus(s)ia, Ruscia, Ruzzia, Rut(h)enia, Old Norse: Garðaríki) was a loose federation[4] of East Slavic tribes in Europe from the late 9th to the mid-13th century,[5]under the reign of the Rurik dynasty. The modern peoples of Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia all claim Kievan Rus' as their cultural ancestors.[6] At its greatest extent in the mid-11th century, it stretched from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south and from the headwaters of the Vistula in the west to the Taman Peninsula in the east,[7][8 uniting the majority of East Slavic tribes.[4] According to Russian historiography the first ruler to start uniting East Slavic lands into what has become known as Kievan Rus' was Prince Oleg (882–912). He extended his control from Novgorod south along the Dnieper river valley to protect trade from Khazar incursions from the east,[4] and he moved his capital to the more strategic Kiev. Sviatoslav I (died 972) achieved the first major expansion of Kievan Rus' territorial control, fighting a war of conquest against the Khazars. Vladimir the Great (980–1015) introduced Christianity with his own baptism and, by decree, extended it to all inhabitants of Kiev and beyond. Kievan Rus' reached its greatest extent under Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054); his sons assembled and issued its first written legal code, the Rus' Justice, shortly after his death.[9] The state declined beginning in the late 11th century and during the 12th century, disintegrating into various rival regional powers.[10] It was further weakened by economic factors such as the collapse of Rus' commercial ties to Byzantium due to the decline of Constantinople and the accompanying diminution of trade routes through its territory. The state finally fell to the Mongol invasion of the 1240s.
- http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21709553-russia-statues-are-politics-other-means-tale-two-vladimirs
- The Christianization of Kievan Rus' took place in several stages. In early 867, Patriarch Photius of Constantinople announced to other Orthodox patriarchs that the Rus', baptised by his bishop, took to Christianity with particular enthusiasm. Photius's attempts at Christianizing the country seem to have entailed no lasting consequences, since the Primary Chronicle and other Slavonic sources describe the tenth-century Rus' as firmly entrenched in paganism. Following the Primary Chronicle, the definitive Christianization of Kievan Rus' dates from the year 988 (the year is disputed[1]), when Vladimir the Great was baptized in Chersonesus and proceeded to baptize his family and people in Kiev. The latter events are traditionally referred to as baptism of Rus' (Russian: Крещение Руси, Ukrainian: Хрещення Русі) in Russian and Ukrainian literature.
- http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/58123Vladimir Putin attended events to mark the 1030th anniversary of the Baptism of Rus.
Anatolia
- Göbekli Tepe (Turkish: [ɟœbecˈli teˈpe],[1] "Potbelly Hill")[2] is an archaeological site in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey.
- https://www.quora.com/What-s-your-best-theory-on-the-handbags-of-the-ancients-Now-they-ve-appeared-in-Gobekli-Tepe-which-is-11k-years-old
- it’s quite clear that whatever they were, they were most likely relatively unsophisticated early Neolithic farmers, not an urban society (which is what historians and archaeologists mean by “civilization”). Remains of various artifacts in the backfill indicate that whoever did it had fairly unremarkable early Neolithic technology like low-fired pottery but none of the hallmarks usually regarded as indicative of more sophisticated societies.https://www.quora.com/Was-Gobekli-Tepe-really-buried-by-a-hidden-lost-civilisation-If-so-where-are-they-now
- 喬魯姆省早在於公元前十六世紀至公元前十二世紀期間的赫梯帝國（Hittites）已崛起，藝術及經濟發展蓬勃，成為當時小亞細亞一個顯要的地區，亦是赫梯帝國首都哈圖沙在所的省份，現時以擁有不少赫梯帝國及其後的佛里幾亞王國考古遺迹馳名。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20171223/00180_035.html
- https://www.quora.com/If-Hittites-were-Indo-European-did-they-feel-kinship-with-Greeks
- people
- Agnès Varda (French: [aɲɛs vaʁda]; 30 May 1928 – 29 March 2019) was a Belgian-born French film director. Her films, photographs, and art installations focused on documentary realism, feminist issues, and social commentary with a distinctive experimental style.Film historians have cited Varda's work as central to the development of the French New Wave; her employment of location shooting and non-professional actors were unconventional in the context of 1950s French cinema.Varda was born Arlette Varda on 30 May 1928 in Ixelles, Brussels, Belgium, the daughter of Christiane (née Pasquet) and Eugène Jean Varda, an engineer. Her mother was from Sète, France, and her father came from a family of Greek refugees from Asia Minor.
- ****looks a bit like sister of chow yun fat and octavia spencer
- language
- The Hittite language was Indo-European and they used the Akkadian cuneiform writing system. The deciphered inscriptions of the Hittites deal with the kings and their campaigns, referring to royal correspondence with foreign rulers and a lot of information about day-to-day life.https://www.quora.com/Why-are-the-Hittites-significant-in-Mesopotamian-history
- https://www.quora.com/What-do-the-numeric-subscripts-preceded-by-hs-indicate-in-Proto-Indo-European-phonology
- https://www.quora.com/How-do-we-know-for-sure-that-Hittite-was-an-Indo-European-language
- history
- The Hittites occupied Anatolia (modern-day Turkey, NOT Mesopotamia) from 1700–1200 BCE. They absorbed and developed the culture of Hatti - Wikipedia which was the previous residents of the area. Hatti’s capital, Hattusa, was sacked and abandoned but later became the capital city of the Hittite Empire. They expanded their territories into an Empire which rivaled and threatened Egypt, reaching their peak under the reign of King Suppiluliuma I (1344–1322 BCE) and his son Mursilli II (1321–1295 BCE). In the years to come after Mursilli’s reign they declined gradually and finally fell to the Assyrians, after the attacks of the Sea People and the Kaskians - Wikipedia. The treaty of Kadesh; It is a peace treaty between Ramesses II of Egypt and Muwatalli II of the Hittite Empire, signed in 1258 BCE. It is the oldest treaty in the world that the records of both sides have survived. The Hittites were the link between the Mesopotamians and the Aegean peoples. They were influenced by Akkadians and Sumerians (cuneiform, similar gods) from direct interactions between them or indirectly, as the Hatti before them had commerce with the Babylonians. The commercial and cultural trades between the Hittites and the Aegean civilizations were responsible for the expansion of civilization towards the West. Iron processing! They were the first (after the collapse of the Bronze Age) to make a successful iron alloy. The new iron weapons, better than the bronze ones, found their way to the Aegean once more and this is how the Iron Age had begun. Lions’ gates at Hattusa https://www.quora.com/Why-are-the-Hittites-significant-in-Mesopotamian-history
- legacy
- Their legacy is preserved by today’s people of Turkey and part of a patriotic pride. The Hittite lion (known as “eti aslanı” in Turkey), for example, was one of the symbols of the Hittite Empire, and it adorns Mustafa Kemal Atatürk’s mausoleum in Ankara. There are plenty of artifacts from the Hittite period exhibited in many Turkish museums. Then, of course, the ancient city of Hattusa (Boğazkale) is a landmark in the Çorum province. The Hittites are known to have founded a mighty Anatolian state in the 2nd millenium BC. Their name comes from a toponym defining a previous non-Hittite culture known as the “Hatti”. They manufactured iron goods and weapons and that contributed to their military victories against neighbours. Though, it must also be noted that the first peace treaty between two states was signed between the Hittite Empire and Egypt in the 13th century BC. (The Treaty of Kadesh). Carved on clay tablets, Hittite copies of this treaty are still preserved in Istanbul. 24 Hittite-style lions from the Republican Turkey in Ankara, adorning the mausoleum of Atatürk, the first president of the country and the founder of the republic, the number 24 is also said to represent the 24 Oğuz Turkic tribes which inhabited Anatolia. Thus, this art genuinely represents the cultural synthesis and continuity in the history of the country https://www.quora.com/Why-are-the-Hittites-forgotten
- Eğridir, turkey was founded by the Hittites before falling to the Phrygians in around 1200 BC, and subsequently being conquered by the Lydians, the Persians and the forces of Alexander the Great.
- In antiquity, Cilicia (/sɪˈlɪʃiə/) was the south coastal region of Asia Minor and existed as a political entity from Hittite times into the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia during the late Byzantine Empire. Extending inland from the southeastern coast of modern Turkey, Cilicia is due north and northeast of the island of Cyprus and corresponds to the modern region of Çukurova in Turkey.Ancient Cilicia was naturally divided into Cilicia Trachaea and Cilicia Pedias by the Limonlu River. Salamis, the city on the east coast of Cyprus, was included in its administrative jurisdiction. The Greeks invented for Cilicia an eponymous Hellene founder in the purely mythical Cilix, but the historic[5] founder of the dynasty that ruled Cilicia Pedias was Mopsus, identifiable in Phoenician sources as Mpš, the founder of Mopsuestia who gave his name to an oracle nearby. Homer mentions the people of Mopsus, identified as Cilices (Κίλικες), as from the Troad in the northernwesternmost part of Anatolia.
- we are indigenous Anatolians, whose DNA pool is expanded vastly by contributions from the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, Caucasia, Balkans, Eastern Europe etc. including Greeks and Armenians.
Finding out that our ancestors were once named as Hattians, then Hittites, then Persians, then Romans, then Greeks, then Seljuks, then Mongolians, then Armenians, then Ottomans, then Turks does not change our love and loyalty to our country. We come to the conclusion that this is the course of history. Rulers changed, religions changed, languages changed, political systems changed, borders changed, but the people were more or less the same people.https://www.quora.com/As-a-Turk-if-you-learned-you-were-of-Greek-or-Armenian-descent-what-would-you-feel
The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (Middle Armenian: Կիլիկիոյ Հայոց Թագաւորութիւն, Giligio Hayoc’ T’akavorut’yun), also known as the Cilician Armenia (Armenian: Կիլիկյան Հայաստան, Giligyan Hayastan), Lesser Armenia, or New Armenia, was an independent principality formed during the High Middle Ages by Armenian refugees fleeing the Seljuq invasion of Armenia. Located outside the Armenian Highland and distinct from the Armenian Kingdom of antiquity, it was centered in the Cilicia region northwest of the Gulf of Alexandretta.
- The kingdom had its origins in the principality founded c. 1080 by the Rubenid dynasty, an alleged offshoot of the larger Bagratid family, which at various times had held the thrones of Armenia and Georgia. Their capital was originally at Tarsus, and later became Sis.[3] Cilicia was a strong ally of the European Crusaders, and saw itself as a bastion of Christendom in the East. It also served as a focus for Armenian nationalism and culture, since Armenia proper was under foreign occupation at the time. Cilicia's significance in Armenian history and statehood is also attested by the transfer of the seat of the Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church, spiritual leader of the Armenian people, to the region. In 1198, with the crowning of Leo the Magnificent of the Rubenid dynasty, Cilician Armenia became a kingdom. In 1226, the crown was passed to rival Hethumids through Leo's daughter Isabella's second husband, Hethum I. As the Mongols conquered vast regions of Central Asia and the Middle East, Hethum and succeeding Hethumid rulers sought to create an Armeno-Mongol allianceagainst common Muslim foes, most notably the Mamluks.[5] In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Crusader states and the Mongol Ilkhanate disintegrated, leaving the Armenian Kingdom without any regional allies. After relentless attacks by the Mamluks in Egypt in the fourteenth century, the Cilician Armenia of the Lusignan dynasty, mired in an internal religious conflict, finally fell in 1375. Commercial and military interactions with Europeans brought new Western influences to the Cilician Armenian society. Many aspects of Western European life were adopted by the nobility including chivalry, fashions in clothing, and the use of French titles, names, and language. Moreover, the organization of the Cilician society shifted from its traditional system to become closer to Western feudalism.[7] The European Crusaders themselves borrowed know-how, such as elements of Armenian castle-building and church architecture.[8] Cilician Armenia thrived economically, with the port of Ayas serving as a center for East-West trade.
- Janus of Cyprus (1375 – 29 June 1432) was a King of Cyprus and titular King of Armenian Cilicia and Jerusalem from 1398 to 1432.Janus was born in Genoa, where his father, James I of Cyprus, was a captive. His mother, Helvis of Brunswick-Grubenhagen, named him in honor of the god Janus, the founder of Genoa according to mythological tradition. When his father was elected king, he negotiated an agreement with the Genoese to release him to go to Cyprus, which he signed on 2 February 1383. Under that agreement, the Genoese were given new commercial privileges. However, the Genoese demanded that his father leave his son Janus in their city as a hostage. James sent a noble to Genoa, John Babin, to act as stepfather to his son. As the Cypriot historian Leontios Makhairas writes, James ordered a special tax which required the Cypriots—both nobles and commoners—to purchase an amount of salt in order to collect the money needed to release his son from Genoese captivity; this was achieved on October 1392, when Janus was 18 years old.
- the chapelle royale in cyprus was built in 1421 by lusignan king janus, who is depicted in a fresco together with his wife, charlotte de bourbon, on the eastern facade
- kasteliotissa medieval hall
- part of the lusignan palace and dates back to 13th to 14th c
- has strong gothic elements and has been restored by the department of antiquities
- The Dardanoi (Greek: Δάρδανοι; its anglicized modern terms being Dardanians or Dardans) in classical writings were either the same people as, or a people closely related to, the Trojans, an ancient people of the Troad, located in northwestern Anatolia. The Dardanoi derived their name from Dardanus, the mythical founder of Dardania, an ancient city in the Troad. Rule of the Troad was divided between Dardania and Troy. Homer makes a clear distinction between the Trojans and the Dardanoi. The Royal House of Troy was also divided into two branches, that of the Dardanoi, and that of the Trojans (their city being called Troy, or sometimes Ilion/Ilium). The House of the Dardanoi (its members being the Dardanides, Greek: "Δαρδανίδες") was older than the House of Troy, but Troy later became more powerful. Aeneas is referred to in Virgil's Aeneid interchangeably as a Dardanian or as a Trojan, but strictly speaking, Aeneas was of the branch of the Dardanoi. Many rulers of Rome claimed descent from Aeneas and the Houses of Troy and Dardania. Homer adds the epithet Dardanidi (Δαρδανίδη) to Priam and to other prominent characters denoting that they are members of the house of the Dardanoi.
- According to Johann Georg von Hahn in 1854, 19th century historical linguistics concluded that the names Dardanoi and Dardania were derived from a proto-Albanian word, meaning pear tree (dardha in modern Albanian the definite form, dardhë indefinite form < PAlb *dardā)
- In antiquity, Phrygia (/ˈfrɪdʒiə/; Greek: Φρυγία, Ancient Greek: [pʰryɡía], Turkish: Frigya) was a kingdom in the west central part of Anatolia, in what is now Turkey, centered on the Sakarya River. During the heroic age of Greek mythology, several legendary kings were Phrygians: Gordiaswhose Gordian Knot would later be cut by Alexander the Great, Midas who turned whatever he touched to gold, and Mygdon who warred with the Amazons. According to Homer's Iliad, the Phrygians were close allies of the Trojans and participants in the Trojan War against theAchaeans. Phrygian power reached its peak in the late 8th century BC under another, historical, king: Midas, who dominated most of western and central Anatolia and rivaledAssyria and Urartu for power in eastern Anatolia. This later Midas was, however, also the last independent king of Phrygia before its capital Gordium was sacked by Cimmerians around 695 BC. Phrygia then became subject to Lydia, and then successively to Persia, Alexanderand his Hellenistic successors, Pergamon, Rome and Byzantium. Phrygians were gradually assimilated into other cultures by the early medieval era, and after the Turkish conquest of Anatolia the name Phrygia passed out of usage as a territorial designation.
- Phrygians, having been defeated on a 10th cBC expeditionary to conquer Assyria turned NE, attacked and subdued the Hurrians (Igor Diakonov). The descendants of the victorious Phrygians and the conquered Hurrians eventually formed a new nation the Armenians. Herodotus calls the Armenians “Phrygian colonists”, are therefore distantly in time but still closely related to the Greeks since both Greeks and Phrygians (Claude Brixe), along with Paeonians (Irwin L. Merker) were closely related to each other, all three being descended from the Proto-Hellenes. The Proto-Hellenenic people he ad first appeared in Epirus (Middle and Southern Albania and NW Greece) 4000 years ago (NGLHammond). The early Hellenes moved south, mixed with the local Pelasgian ethne becoming Mycenaesn Greeks and then they spread throughout the Mediterranean. The Paeonians moved East/NE in Macedonia and Southern Yugoslavia (later to be Hellenized by the Macedonians. The Phrygians left Macedonia (Herodotus mentioned that they were originally called Brygians) and the Phrygian city Wedessa became the Greek city Edessa, they kept moving east until they crossed the Dardanelles into Asia, settling first into Minor Phrygia, then Major Phrygia (Ancyra, now Turkish capital Ankara and Gordium were Phrygian cities), and later, part of their population moved to Hurria/Armenia. Despite being totaly inter-uninteligible, today, Greek and Armenian are the closest related (Eric P. Hamp speaks of a Grevoarmenian branch in IE) to each other and each to Phrygian (Igor Diakonov-Armenian) (Vladimir Orel, Claude Brixe -Greek), from all other Indoeuropean languages.https://www.quora.com/Are-Armenians-and-Greeks-related-with-Phrygians
- people of phrygia typically went into a period of deep mourning during the wintertime when the cold weather brought about the death of vegetation. In springtime many religious celebrations took place. After engaging in orgies and wild dancing, many of the phrygian participants would voluntarily injure themselveds and sprinkle their own blood upon the altar of god. While in a state of frenzy, some male worshippers would castrate themselves in order to become "galli" or priests of cybele
- Cybele (/ˈsɪbᵻliː/; Phrygian: Matar Kubileya/Kubeleya"Kubeleyan Mother", perhaps "Mountain Mother"; LydianKuvava; Greek: Κυβέλη Kybele, Κυβήβη Kybebe, ΚύβελιςKybelis) is an Anatolian mother goddess; she has a possible precursor in the earliest neolithic at Çatalhöyük, where the statue of a pregnant, seated goddess was found in a granary. She is Phrygia's only known goddess, and was probably its state deity. Her Phrygian cult was adopted and adapted by Greek colonists of Asia Minor and spread to mainland Greece and its more distant western colonies around the 6th century BCE.
- [john stephens] worshippers of ancient anatolian religion gathered together on mountaintops covered with trees for their religious celebrations as they believed that cybele lived at the top of mt ida and mt berecyntus
- [collins spanish dictionary] spanish word goro frigio means phrygian cap, revolutionary cap
- The Gordian Knot is a legend of Phrygian Gordium associated with Alexander the Great. It is often used as a metaphor for an intractable problem (untying an impossibly tangled knot) solved easily by finding an approach to the problem that renders the perceived constraints of the problem moot ("cutting the Gordian knot"):The knot may have been a religious knot-cipher guarded by Gordian/Midas' priests and priestesses. Robert Graves suggested that it may have symbolised the ineffable name of Dionysus that, knotted like a cipher, would have been passed on through generations of priests and revealed only to the kings of Phrygia.Unlike popular fable, genuine mythology has few completely arbitrary elements. This myth taken as a whole seems designed to confer legitimacy to dynastic change in this central Anatolian kingdom: thus Alexander's "brutal cutting of the knot ... ended an ancient dispensation."Alexander later went on to conquer Asia as far as the Indus and the Oxus, thus fulfilling the prophecy.
- special reverence was given to trees, especially the pine tree and the almond tree
- other animate and inanimate objects (stones, rocks, lions) were also venerated.
- sac tava is stir fry
- https://www.quora.com/When-will-the-Kurds-be-allowed-an-independent-state
- Anatolians could not have been ‘Turks’ the way we mean it today, because the latter did not exist at the time in the area - and wouldn’t still for thousands of years. Then again, Turks today are genetically very diverse, fitting the large size of the country, and many of them are actually also descendants of these Anatolians. That’s partly why Western Turks and Greece are genetically close.we are all a mix of many different peoples, which happened LONG, LONG ago. The Ancient Greeks themselves were a mix, just as those before them and those before those were. This is represented by the diversity of haplo-groups all over the world.https://www.quora.com/Are-Modern-Greeks-descended-from-a-mixture-of-Ancient-Greeks-and-Anatolians-Turks
- various Anatolian peoples prior to Hellenization in the 3rd Century B.C.E. https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Turkification-of-Byzantine-empire-take-place
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-oldest-known-city-in-Asia-Minor
water supply system
- https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/what-caused-the-water-crisis-in-the-middle-east-jg0mp0090, also ft 5jul18 "a divisive dam"
trees flowers native to eurasia
- 王不留行又稱西班牙王不留行 Vaccaria is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the pink family containing the single species Vaccaria hispanica. It is known by several common names including cowherb, cowcockle, cow basil, cow soapwort, and prairie carnation. Its subspecies were previously treated as separate species.It is an annual herb with blue-gray, waxy herbage and pale pink flowers. It is native to Eurasia but can be found in many other regions as an introduced species and a common weed. The seeds of Vaccaria are used in Chinese medicine. This medicinal ingredient is known as Wang Bu Liu Xing. It is supposed to promote diuresis and milk secretion, activate blood circulation and relieve swelling.中國宮廷花園常種植，在中國用於調經、催乳及促進分娩。為上乘飼料，可提高乳牛產奶量，因此又名乳牛草，常在牧場種植。種子混在鳥食中有助其繁衍。
- 莪蒿，多年生草本植物。叶像针，花黄绿色，生在水边。嫩茎叶可作蔬菜。也叫萝、萝蒿、廪蒿，俗称抱娘蒿[cowherb; artemisia]。莪，萝莪蒿属，从草，我声。——《说文》菁菁者莪，在彼中阿。——《诗经·小雅·菁菁者莪》
language
- The Cyrillic script /sᵻˈrɪlɪk/ is a writing system used for various alphabets across eastern Europe and north and central Asia. It is based on the Early Cyrillic, which was developed in the First Bulgarian Empire during the 9th century AD at the Preslav Literary School. It is the basis of alphabetsused in various languages, past and present, in parts of southeastern Europe and northern Eurasia, especially those of Slavic origin, and non-Slavic languages influenced by Russian. In the early 18th century the Cyrillic script used in Russia was heavily reformed by Peter the Great, who had recently returned from his Grand Embassy in western Europe. The new form of letters became closer to the Latin alphabet, several archaic letters were removed and several letters were personally designed by Peter the Great (such as Я which was inspired by Latin R). West European typography culture was also adopted.
- In Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, the use of Cyrillic to represent local languages has often been a politically controversial issue since the collapse of the Soviet Union, as it evokes the era of Soviet rule and Russification. Some of Russia's peoples such as the Tatars have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law. A number of languages have switched from Cyrillic to other orthographies—either Roman‐based or returning to a former script.
- Cyrillic alphabet is used in present day Croatia among the Serb minority. In Croatian schools the Cyrillic alphabet was taught during the time Croatia was part of Yugoslavia.
- Altaic (/ælˈteɪ.ɪk/) is a Sprachbund and proposed language family that would include the Turkic, Mongolian and Tungusic language families and possibly also the Japonic and Koreanic languages.[1]:73 Speakers of these languages are currently scattered over most of Asia north of 35 °N and in some eastern parts of Europe, extending in longitude from Turkey to Japan. The group is named after the Altai mountain range in the center of Asia. The Altaic family was first proposed in the 18th century. It was widely accepted until the 1960s and is still listed in many encyclopedias and handbooks. Since the 1950s, many comparative linguists have rejected the proposal, after supposed cognates were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over the centuries. Opponents of the theory proposed that the similarities are due to mutual linguistic influences between the groups concerned.
- https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-relationship-between-the-Indo-European-and-Altaic-language-families
people
- The Rouran Khaganate (柔然), Ruanruan (蠕蠕; pinyin: Ruǎnruǎn/Rúrú; Wade–Giles: Juan-juan/Ju-ju), Ruru (茹茹; pinyin: Rúrú; Wade–Giles: Ju-ju), or Tantan (檀檀) was the name of a state of uncertain origin (Proto-Mongols, Turkic, or non-Altaic), from the late 4th century until the middle 6th century.Rouran is a Classical Chinese transcription of the endonym of the confederacy. Ruanruanand Ruru remained in usage despite being derogatory. They derived from orders given by the Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei, who waged war against the Rouran and intended to intimidate the confederacy. According to René Grousset, Ju-juan – an alternate Chinese name for the Rouran – was a "disparaging pun" derived from Juan-Juan: "unpleasantly wriggling insects". The power of the Rouran was broken in 555 by an alliance of Göktürks, the states of Northern Qi and Northern Zhou, and tribes in Central Asia. It has sometimes been hypothesized that the Rouran are synonymous with the Pannonian Avars – also known by names such as Varchonites and "Pseudo Avars" – who settled in Eastern Europe during the 6th century.
- The Rouran were a confederation led by Xianbei people who remained in the Mongolian steppes after most Xianbei migrated south to Northern China and set up various kingdoms. They considered the Tuoba and Rourans to be descended from common ancestors.
- The Avars were a confederation of heterogeneous (diverse or varied) people consisting of Rouran, Hephthalites, and Turkic-Oghuric races who migrated to the region of the Pontic Grass Steppe (an area corresponding to modern-day Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan) from Central Asia after the fall of the Asiatic RouranEmpire in 552 CE. They are considered by many historians to be the successors of the Huns in their way of life and, especially, mounted warfare. They settled in the Huns' former territory and almost instantly set upon a course of conquest. After they were hired by the Byzantine Empire to subdue other tribes, their kingBayan I (reigned 562/565-602 CE) allied with the Lombardsunder Alboin (reigned 560-572 CE) to defeat the Gepids of Pannonia and then took over the region, forcing the Lombards to migrate to Italy. The Avars eventually succeeded in establishing the Avar Khaganate, which encompassed a territory corresponding roughly to modern-day Austria, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria down to and including parts of Turkey. The departure of the Lombards for Italy in 568 CE removed another hostile people from Pannonia, enabling Bayan I to expand his territories with relative ease and found the empire which lasted until 796 CE, when the Avars were conquered by the Franks under Charlemagne. http://www.ancient.eu/Avars/
- The Avars (Avar: аварал / магIарулал, avaral / maⱨarulal; "mountaineers") constitute a Caucasus native ethnic group, the most predominant of several ethnic groups living in the Russian republic of Dagestan. The Avars reside in a region known as the North Caucasus between theBlack and Caspian Seas. Alongside other ethnic groups in the North Caucasus region, the Caucasian Avars live in ancient villages located approximately 2,000 m above sea level.[7] The Avar language spoken by the Caucasian Avars belongs to the family of Northeast Caucasian languages and is also known as Nakh–Dagestanian. Sunni Islam has been the prevailing religion of the Avars since the 13th century due to the Arab colonization of Dagestan.
- Alania was a medieval kingdom of the Iranian Alans (proto-Ossetians)[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12] that flourished in the Northern Caucasus, roughly in the location of latter-day Circassia and modern North Ossetia–Alania, from its independence from the Khazars in the late 9th century until its destruction by the Mongol invasion in 1238–39. Its capital was Maghas, and it controlled a vital trade route through the Darial Pass. The kingdom reached its peak in the 11th century, under the rule of king Durgulel.阿蘭是古代的奄蔡，他們被匈人打敗後分為二支，一支去了歐洲，另一支留在高加索。
- ossetian language
- The Circassians (Russian: Черкесы Čerkesy), also known by their endonym Adyghe (Circassian: Адыгэхэр Adygekher, Russian: Ады́ги Adýgi), are a Northwest Caucasian ethnic group native to Circassia, many of whom were displaced in the course of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in the 19th century, especially after the Russo-Circassian War in 1864. The Circassians mainly speak the Circassian languages, a Northwest Caucasian dialect continuum with three main dialects and numerous sub-dialects. Many Circassians also speak Turkish, Russian, English, Arabic and Hebrew, having been exiled by Russia to lands of the Ottoman Empire, where the majority of them today live.[24][better source needed] Most Circassians are Sunni Muslim. In its narrowest sense, the term "Circassian" includes the twelve historic Adyghe (Circassian: Адыгэ, Adyge) princedoms of Circassia (three democratic and nine aristocratic); Abdzakh, Besleney, Bzhedug, Hatuqwai, Kabardian, Mamkhegh, Natukhai, Shapsug, Temirgoy, Ubykh, Yegeruqwai and Zhaney,[26] each star on the Circassian flag representing each princedom. The Circassians refer to themselves as Adyghe (also transliterated as Adyga, Adyge, Adygei, Adyghe, Attéghéi). The name is believed to derive from atté "height" to signify a mountaineer or a highlander, and ghéi "sea", signifying "a people dwelling and inhabiting a mountainous country near the sea coast", or "between two seas".
- =new sycthian https://www.quora.com/How-many-languages-do-you-speak-apart-from-your-mother-tongue (see comments)
- Adighebze language
- https://www.quora.com/How-does-it-feel-to-be-the-native-speaker-of-a-minority-language
eurasians?
- 牧瀬 里穂（まきせ りほ、1971年12月17日 - ）は、日本の女優である。結婚前の本名同じ。福岡県福岡市博多区生まれ[1]。ブルーミングエージェンシー所属。夫はファッションプロデューサーのNIGO。1989年、武田薬品工業主催の「ミスビタミンCハイシーガールコンテスト」で2100人の中からグランプリに選ばれ芸能界デビュー。同年12月、JR東海「クリスマス・エクスプレス」のテレビCMで一躍脚光を浴び、トップスターの仲間入りを果たした。また、宮沢りえ・観月ありさと共に3人に共通する苗字のローマ字表記の頭文字を取って「3M」と呼ばれた。
- Nigo (ニゴー Nigō, born Tomoaki Nagao (長尾 智明) on December 23, 1970) is a Japanese fashion designer, DJ, record producer and entrepreneur best known as the creator of the urban clothing line A Bathing Ape (Bape).
christianity
- According to the Church Tradition, Christianity was first brought to the territory of modern Belarus, Russia and Ukraine by Saint Andrew, the first Apostle of Jesus Christ. He traveled over the Black Sea to the Greek colony of Chersonesus Taurica in Crimea, where he converted several thousand men to the new faith. Allegedly Saint Andrew traveled also north along the Dnieper River, where Kiev would be founded around the 5th century, and as far north as the future location of Veliky Novgorod. The legendary account of the Rus'ian Primary Chronicle tells that Saint Andrew was amused by the Slavic customs of washing in hot steam bath, banya, on his way. North Pontic Greek colonies, both in Crimea and on the modern Ukrainian shores of the Sea of Azov and the Black Sea, remained the main centers of Christianity in Eastern Europe for almost a thousand years. Notable Christian locations there include the Inkerman Cave Monastery, a medieval Byzantine monastery where the relics of St. Clement, the fourth Bishop of Rome, were supposedly kept before their removal to San Clemente by Saints Cyril and Methodius. Saints Cyril and Methodius were the missionaries of Christianity among the Slavic peoples of Bulgaria, Great Moravia and Pannonia. Through their work they influenced the cultural development of all Slavs, for which they received the title "Apostles to the Slavs". They are credited with devising the Glagolitic alphabet, the first alphabet used to transcribe Old Church Slavonic, Later on their students created the Cyrillic script in the First Bulgarian Empire used now in many Slavic countries, including Russia. After their deaths, their pupils continued their missionary work among other Slavs. Both brothers are venerated in the Ukrainian Catholic and Byzantine Catholic Churches as well as the Orthodox Church as saints with the title of "equal-to-apostles".
history
- reference
- maps
- https://www.quora.com/Why-do-Greek-Cypriots-call-themselves-Greek-if-they-do-not-want-to-be-a-part-of-Greece-Arent-people-from-Greece-called-Greeks
EU
- https://eeas.europa.eu/headquarters/headquarters-homepage_en/50708/Connecting%20Europe%20and%20Asia:%20Building%20blocks%20for%20an%20EU%20Strategy
- https://eeas.europa.eu/sites/eeas/files/joint_communication_-_connecting_europe_and_asia_-_building_blocks_for_an_eu_strategy_2018-09-19.pdf Connecting Europe and Asia Building blocks for an EU Strategy
greece
- ancient Greeks themselves originally used the word Εὐρώπη (Eurṓpē) to refer to all lands located north and west of the Bosphoros, including Greece itself.
The ancient Greeks also applied the word Ἀσία (Asía) to the lands east of the Bosphoros. Originally, the name Ἀσία was only applied to what is now known as “Asia Minor,” but, eventually, as the Greeks expanded their knowledge of the Asian continent, the name came to be applied to the entire continent of Asia. The reason why Europe and Asia are considered separate continents is because the continents are completely separate until you get north of the Black Sea and, at the time when they first started using the names “Εὐρώπη” and “Ἀσία,” the ancient Greeks didn’t know much about the lands north of the Black Sea. The entire distinction between “Europe” and “Asia,” then, is a Greek invention. Honestly, if you want to question why certain countries are part of Europe, then you should be asking why places like Britain and Scandinavia are considered parts of Europe, since the ancient Greeks did not know about these lands at the time when they first started using the word “Εὐρώπη.”https://www.quora.com/Why-is-Greece-considered-part-of-Europe
southeast asia
- [The eurasian face by kirsteen zimmern] There was a proliferation of eurasians in the straits settlements - penang, malacca and singapore. Historically, these eurasians were portuguese, dutch and british. I suppose the ethnic basis for the asian side was largely malay, chinese, indian and ceylonese. In singapore, the british colonial govt actually created the eurasian community. They needed us for many governmental and administrative jobs on account of our language skills and westernised educated outlook, but at the same time they did not really want to mix with us. We weren't able to go into the singapore cricket club, which was the preserve of the british. This gave rise to the establishment of the singapore recreation club, a sports and social club in around 1830. The same people then established the eurasian association in 1919 to look after the educational and welfare needs of the growing community.
- scmp 19mar2021 three eurasians in entertainment industry
indonesia
- The Indo people or Indos, are Eurasian people living in or connected with Indonesia. In its narrowest sense, the term refers to people in the former Dutch East Indies who held European legal status but were of mixed Dutch and Indigenous Indonesian descent as well as their descendants today.In the broadest sense, an Indo is anyone of mixed European and Indonesian descent. Indos are associated with colonial culture of the former Dutch East Indies, a Dutch colony in Southeast Asia and a predecessor to modern Indonesia after its proclamation of independence shortly after World War II.[9][10][11][12] The term was used to describe people acknowledged to be of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent, or it was a term used in the Dutch East Indies to apply to Europeans who had partial Asian ancestry.[12][13][14][15][16] The European ancestry of these people was predominantly Dutch, but also included Portuguese, British, French, Belgian, German and others.The term "Indo" is first recorded from 1898,[18] as an abbreviation of the Dutch term Indo-Europeaan. Other terms used at various times are 'Dutch Indonesians', 'Eurasians',[19] 'Indo-Europeans', 'Indo-Dutch'[12] and 'Dutch-Indos'.In the Indonesian language, common synonymous terms are Sinjo (for males), Belanda-Indo, Indo-Belanda,[24] and Indo means Eurasian: a person with European and Indonesian parentage.[25] Indo is an abbreviation of the term Indo-Europeaan which originated in the Dutch East Indies of the 19th century as an informal term to describe the Eurasians. Indische is an abbreviation of the Dutch term Indische Nederlander. Indische was a term that could be applied to everything connected with the Dutch East Indies.[16] In the Netherlands, the term Indische Nederlander includes all Dutch nationals who lived in the Dutch East Indies, either Dutch or mixed ancestry. To distinguish between the two, Eurasians are called Indo and native Dutch are called Totok.[21] In the Dutch East Indies (today's Indonesia), these families formed "a racially, culturally and socially homogenous community between the Totoks (European newcomers) and the indigenous population". They were historically Christians and spoke Dutch, Portuguese, English and Indonesian. They were compared to Afrikaners from South Africa, who also share Dutch ancestry and culture, but are not mixed-race.In the 16th-18th centuries, Eurasians were referred to by a Portuguese term mestiço (Dutch: Mesties) or as coloured (Dutch: Kleurling). Additionally, a wide range of more contumelious terms, such as liplap, can be found in the literature.
- Over 10% of the "Indo-Europeans" took Indonesian citizenship after Indonesian independence.[80] Most retained full Dutch citizenship after the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia in 1949.In 1949, 300,000 Eurasians who had been socialized into many Dutch customs were repatriated.[42] The Dutch established a repatriation program which lasted until 1967.[77] Over a 15-year period after the Republic of Indonesia became an independent state, virtually the entire Dutch population, Indische Nederlanders (Dutch Indonesians), estimated at between 250,000 and 300,000, left the former Dutch East Indies.Most of them moved to the Netherlands. Many had never been there before.[12][82] Some of them went to Australia, the United States or Canada. 18.5% departed for the United States.[84][85] In 1959, Dutch people who did not embrace Indonesian citizenship were expelled.[5] An estimated 60,000 immigrated to the United States in the 1960s.Musicians Eddie Van Halen and Alex Van Halen,[95][96][97] actor Mark-Paul Gosselaar,[98][99][100] and video game designer Henk Rogers[101][102] are notable people whose families came from the Dutch East Indies.During the 1950s and 1960s an estimated 60,000 Indos arrived in the US, where they have integrated into mainstream American society. These Indos were sometimes also referred to as Indo-Europeans and Amerindos.[103] They are a relatively small Eurasian refugee-immigrant group in the USA.Indos who emigrated to the USA following Indonesian independence assimilated into their new country, marrying people outside the community; most never returned to Indonesia.[23] Migration to the USA occurred under legislative refugee measures; these immigrants were sponsored by Christian organizations such as the Church World Service and the Catholic Relief Services.
- Over 10% of the "Indo-Europeans" took Indonesian citizenship after Indonesian independence.[80] Most retained full Dutch citizenship after the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia in 1949.In 1949, 300,000 Eurasians who had been socialized into many Dutch customs were repatriated.[42] The Dutch established a repatriation program which lasted until 1967.[77] Over a 15-year period after the Republic of Indonesia became an independent state, virtually the entire Dutch population, Indische Nederlanders (Dutch Indonesians), estimated at between 250,000 and 300,000, left the former Dutch East Indies.Most of them moved to the Netherlands. Many had never been there before.[12][82] Some of them went to Australia, the United States or Canada. 18.5% departed for the United States.[84][85] In 1959, Dutch people who did not embrace Indonesian citizenship were expelled.[5] An estimated 60,000 immigrated to the United States in the 1960s.Musicians Eddie Van Halen and Alex Van Halen,[95][96][97] actor Mark-Paul Gosselaar,[98][99][100] and video game designer Henk Rogers[101][102] are notable people whose families came from the Dutch East Indies.During the 1950s and 1960s an estimated 60,000 Indos arrived in the US, where they have integrated into mainstream American society. These Indos were sometimes also referred to as Indo-Europeans and Amerindos.[103] They are a relatively small Eurasian refugee-immigrant group in the USA.Indos who emigrated to the USA following Indonesian independence assimilated into their new country, marrying people outside the community; most never returned to Indonesia.[23] Migration to the USA occurred under legislative refugee measures; these immigrants were sponsored by Christian organizations such as the Church World Service and the Catholic Relief Services.
- Notwithstanding Australia’s ‘White Australia policy’ during the 1950s and 1960s, approximately 10,000 Indos migrated to Australia, mostly via the Netherlands. With regard to mixed-race Eurasians, who were called NPEO (Non Pure European Origine) by the Australian Ministries, subjective decision-making became the norm of the policy until the 1970s.During WWII a large refugee community from the Dutch East Indies existed in Australia of which 1,000 chose to stay in Australia after the War.[93] The Dutch-Australian agreement (1951), to stimulate immigration to Australia did not bypass Australia’s overall ‘White Australia Policy’, which considerably hampered the immigration of Indos.
China
- 6月24日至25日，中國外交部長王毅應邀穿梭訪問阿富汗和巴基斯坦。訪問期間，三方對近日發生在阿、巴兩國的恐怖襲擊表示強烈譴責，並就阿富汗局勢、阿巴關係和中阿巴三方合作等深入交換意見，形成共同立場，並發表了《中阿巴聯合新聞公報》（以下簡稱《公報》）。根據《公報》，阿巴雙方同意建立危機管控機制，三方同意建立中阿巴外長對話機制，在共同感興趣的領域開展合作，可考慮從經濟合作開始。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/06/27/a17-0627.pdf- zhongguo zhongya cooperation forum in chengdu http://www.hkcd.com.hk/pdf/201610/1020/HZ23A20CHAA.pdf
- 欧亚经济综合园区发展论坛昨日在西安举行。论坛上，由“一带一路”产业园区发展联盟、光大银行等机构共同发起，拟募资规模500亿元的“一带一路”产业园区投资联合体正式签约成立。据悉，该产业联合体将通过发展基金的投资方式，促进和推动中国“一带一路”产业园区的产业升级与创新发展。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170921/PDF/a8_screen.pdf
- china daily article on 12jun18 "vital for EU to make china part of eurasian plan" by Fu Jing, deputy chief of china daily european bureau
- 歐亞經濟論壇
- 中國-亞歐博覽會
- security
Hong Kong
- association
maps, reference
- https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Oriente_Medio_600_adC.svg/250px-Oriente_Medio_600_adC.svg.png Ближний Восток в 600 году до н. э. note imperio medo!
China
- 6月24日至25日，中國外交部長王毅應邀穿梭訪問阿富汗和巴基斯坦。訪問期間，三方對近日發生在阿、巴兩國的恐怖襲擊表示強烈譴責，並就阿富汗局勢、阿巴關係和中阿巴三方合作等深入交換意見，形成共同立場，並發表了《中阿巴聯合新聞公報》（以下簡稱《公報》）。根據《公報》，阿巴雙方同意建立危機管控機制，三方同意建立中阿巴外長對話機制，在共同感興趣的領域開展合作，可考慮從經濟合作開始。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/06/27/a17-0627.pdf- zhongguo zhongya cooperation forum in chengdu http://www.hkcd.com.hk/pdf/201610/1020/HZ23A20CHAA.pdf
- 欧亚经济综合园区发展论坛昨日在西安举行。论坛上，由“一带一路”产业园区发展联盟、光大银行等机构共同发起，拟募资规模500亿元的“一带一路”产业园区投资联合体正式签约成立。据悉，该产业联合体将通过发展基金的投资方式，促进和推动中国“一带一路”产业园区的产业升级与创新发展。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170921/PDF/a8_screen.pdf
- china daily article on 12jun18 "vital for EU to make china part of eurasian plan" by Fu Jing, deputy chief of china daily european bureau
- 歐亞經濟論壇
- 日 前 ， 以 「 共 建 『 一 帶 一 路』 ：高水平合作，高質量發展」 為主題的2019歐亞經濟論壇在陝西 省西安市舉行，來自美國、俄羅 斯、德國、法國、意大利等58個國 家和地區的政商嘉賓出席論壇，共 商 「一帶一路」 合作與發展。本屆論壇由外交部指導，商務部等9個國家部委、國 際組織和陝西省政府共同主辦，西安市政府承辦。論 壇採用 「1+10+14」的內容架構，期間共計舉辦各類會 議活動25項。http://hk.hkcd.com/pdf/201909/0913/HZ14913CHAA_HKCD.pdf
- 中國-亞歐博覽會
- 6th edition hkcd 4sep18 a14
- security
- 由中國公安部主辦的新亞歐大陸橋安全走廊國際執法合作論壇，周三在江蘇連雲港舉行，卅多國和國際組織的執法安全官員參與，探討反恐等安全議題，公安部反恐專員劉躍進警告，包括恐怖主義、難民潮、網絡犯罪、跨國有組織犯罪、新型犯罪等威脅日益嚴重，籲各國團結應對。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20180913/00178_005.html
Hong Kong
- association
- 亞歐經貿促進協會 - Eurasia Economic and Trade Development Association https://www.facebook.com/eetda/
- scmp 9jlu18 stefano mariani's article "an issue of identity"
- 何東
- 當年何世禮到英國學軍事，需要宣誓效忠英 女王，他拒絕！「我是中國人，只能效忠一 個國家——中國，我不是英軍，為什麼要效 忠英女王？」他離開了英國軍事學校後到法 國軍事學校，也曾在美國軍事學校學習。他 通諳英語、法語、粵語、普通話，這樣一位 不可多得，具有國際軍事學習經驗的人才回 到香港，選擇遠赴東北做張學良的副官，啟 蒙他的忠君思想，開始一生報效國家的軍旅 生涯。 何將軍一生對國效忠， 對妻專一，他與妻子伉儷 情深；阮醫生見過何夫人 洪奇芬女士，雖然也是一 位混血兒，但具有中國傳 統婦女賢良淑德的美德， 是一位好妻子，好母親。 何世禮在抗日戰爭中染到 了 斑 疹 傷 寒 病 （Typhus）；據阮醫生說，此 病源頭來自滇緬。何世禮 發高燒不退，連自己的夫 人來看他，都認不出。最 後在何夫人悉心照料，以 及軍隊醫生全力治療下，終於康復。阮醫生曾見過張學良，事緣何世禮請阮 醫生到台灣遊玩，宴客時見過張學良夫婦。 緣分真是奇妙的，不需邏輯的；往往自己親 生子女，未必與自己緣分深厚，反與自己沒 有血緣關係的年輕人，可成為忘年之交。例 如︰蔣中正與張學良，張學良與阮文賓，都 可說情同父子。 收筆之前，筆者想提出，據資料顯示， 1995年何世禮捐資東北大學 50萬美元興建 「何世禮教學樓」，但阮醫生卻認為應該是 「張學良樓」，因1998年阮醫生有份陪同何 世禮一起前往東北大學觀落成 禮。筆者查閱資料，與張作 霖、張學良關係深遠的東北大 學，並沒有張學良樓，只有座 張學良雕像。 何世禮特殊的海外背景，令 蔣介石很感興趣。到台灣後， 蔣介石希望何世禮斡旋中美關 係，做一個「外交將軍」。何 世禮以釋放張學良為條件，蔣 沒有答應，何世禮也就沒接蔣 介石的差事。1959 年，何世 禮以陸軍二級上將的身份退 役，移居香港經營家族產業， 任香港《工商日報》董事長。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/07/16/b02-0716.pdf
- 洪锦城家族，始兴于1890年代，是战前时期的香港欧亚混血儿家族，香港望族之一。洪锦城生父John Graham Anderson由苏格兰来港经商。家族中各人之兴起历程：
- 老校長郭慎墀。郭校長，因其鬍鬚特徵，被學生們暱稱為「蝦餃佬」，他是歐亞混血兒，香港長大，操一口流利地道的粵語。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20200928/00176_072.html
Macau
-Aida Rafaela Rosa de Jesus, endearingly called Dona Aida by her legion of friends and admirers, passed away yesterday at the age of 105.The bereaved family told me last night that she died of natural causes – a weak heart and weak lungs – at the Conde de São Januário Hospital Centre yesterday afternoon. She had been admitted to the public hospital on Monday.I had known Dona Aida since the early 1980s when I began to visit her then still relatively new restaurant, Riquexó, quite frequently. Ever since Macanese cuisine has been one of my favourite fares. I often talked to Dona Aida in English or Portuguese about the Eurasian fusion cuisine’s recipes and also about the Macanese community’s highly endangered Creole – Patuá. Dona Aida was one of the few remaining speakers of the Portuguese-based Creole.Dona Aida was what our Anglo-American friends call a celebrity chef. Of course, she was famous for her Macanese cookery not only in Macau but also in Hong Kong and elsewherehttps://www.macaupostdaily.com/article10565.html- https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Oriente_Medio_600_adC.svg/250px-Oriente_Medio_600_adC.svg.png Ближний Восток в 600 году до н. э. note imperio medo!
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