拘薩羅Kingdom of Kosala (Sanskrit: कोसल राज्य) was an ancient Indian kingdom, corresponding roughly in area with the region of Awadh[2] in present-day Uttar Pradesh. It emerged as a small state during the late Vedic period, with connections to the neighboring realm of Videha.[3][4] Kosala belonged to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture (c. 700-300 BCE),[1]and the Kosala region gave rise to the Sramana movements, including Jainism and Buddhism.[5] It was culturally distinct from the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Vedic Aryans of Kuru-Pancala west of it, following independent development toward urbanisation and the use of iron.
摩揭陀（梵语：मगध，Magádha，或译为摩揭、摩竭陀、摩羯陀） Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom in southern Bihar, and was counted as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Countries") of ancient India. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated in Magadha.
The existence of Magadha is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600 BCE. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharvaveda, where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and Mujavats. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern day Rajgir), then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Rajagriha was initially known as 'Girivrijja' and later came to be known as so during the reign of Ajatashatru. Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Vajji confederation and Anga, respectively.[1] The kingdom of Magadha eventually came to encompass Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh, and the areas that are today the nations of Bangladesh and Nepal.
摩揭陀（梵语：मगध，Magádha，或译为摩揭、摩竭陀、摩羯陀） Magadha was an ancient Indian kingdom in southern Bihar, and was counted as one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Countries") of ancient India. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the Maurya Empire and Gupta Empire, originated in Magadha.
The existence of Magadha is recorded in Vedic texts much earlier in time than 600 BCE. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharvaveda, where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis and Mujavats. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern day Rajgir), then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Rajagriha was initially known as 'Girivrijja' and later came to be known as so during the reign of Ajatashatru. Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Vajji confederation and Anga, respectively.[1] The kingdom of Magadha eventually came to encompass Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal, eastern Uttar Pradesh, and the areas that are today the nations of Bangladesh and Nepal.
-The Haryanka dynasty is believed to have been the second ruling dynasty of Magadha, an empire of ancient India, which succeeded the mythological Barhadratha dynasty. The reign of this dynasty probably began in the middle of 6th century BCE. Initially, the capital was Rajagriha. Later, it was shifted to Pataliputra, near the present day Patna in India. Brihadaratha founded the dynasty around 566 BCE, although Bimbisara, his grandson, significantly expanded the dynasty's boundaries during his rule from 544 BCE to 492 BCE. Thus Bimbisara is considered as the main founder of the dynasty. According to the Buddhist text, the Mahavamsa, Bimbisara was anointed king by his father, Bhattiya, at the age of fifteen.This dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty. 诃黎王朝（Haryanka dynasty），亦被译为“曷利昂伽王朝”，是古印度摩揭陀国在前7世纪至约前413年的王朝，由统治者为诃黎族人而得名。建立之初定都于王舍城，优陀夷时期迁都至华氏城。这一时期的摩揭陀国吞并了鸯伽、跋耆、拘萨罗、迦尸等国，为后来统一印度奠定了基础。
The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical powerfounded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322and 185 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna). The empire was the largest to have ever existed in the Indian subcontinent, spanning over 5 million square kilometres at its zenith under Ashoka. 孔雀帝國（梵语：मौर्य राजवंश，约前324年至约前185年），即古印度摩揭陀国的孔雀王朝擴張所形成的帝國。前325年，馬其頓國王亞歷山大大帝從印度河流域撤走，在旁遮普設立了總督，留下了一支軍隊。這時，月護王（旃陀羅笈多）率領當地人民揭竿而起，組織了一支軍隊，趕走了馬其頓人。隨後，他又推翻了難陀王朝，建了新的王朝，定都华氏城。由於他出身於一個養孔雀的家族，因此，後來人們把月護王建立的王朝叫孔雀王朝。也有一說孔雀一词来源于其梵语发音（mayūra）与月護王的母亲的名字发音相近。
- 阿阇世王 Ajatashatru (IAST: Ajātaśatru; Pali: Ajātasattu; Kunika; r. c. 492 – c. 460 BCE– [6] or early 4th century BCE[7]) was a king of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha in East India. He was the son of King Bimbisara and was a contemporary of both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. He forcefully took over the kingdom of Magadha from his father and imprisoned him. He fought a war against Vajji, ruled by the Lichchhavis, and conquered the republic of Vaishali.Ajatashatru followed policies of conquest and expansion. He defeated his neighbours including the king of Kosala; his brothers, when at odds with him, went to Kashi, which had been given to Bimbisara as dowry. This led to a war between Magadha and Kosala. Ajatashatru occupied Kashi and captured the smaller kingdoms. Magadha under Ajatashatru became the most powerful kingdom in North India.He is the inventor of two weapons used in war called rathamusala (blade chariot) and mahshilakantaka (engine for ejecting big stones).
The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical powerfounded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated ancient India between c. 322and 185 BCE. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic Plain in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna). The empire was the largest to have ever existed in the Indian subcontinent, spanning over 5 million square kilometres at its zenith under Ashoka. 孔雀帝國（梵语：मौर्य राजवंश，约前324年至约前185年），即古印度摩揭陀国的孔雀王朝擴張所形成的帝國。前325年，馬其頓國王亞歷山大大帝從印度河流域撤走，在旁遮普設立了總督，留下了一支軍隊。這時，月護王（旃陀羅笈多）率領當地人民揭竿而起，組織了一支軍隊，趕走了馬其頓人。隨後，他又推翻了難陀王朝，建了新的王朝，定都华氏城。由於他出身於一個養孔雀的家族，因此，後來人們把月護王建立的王朝叫孔雀王朝。也有一說孔雀一词来源于其梵语发音（mayūra）与月護王的母亲的名字发音相近。
- Ashoka (IAST: Aśoka;English pronunciation: /əˈʃoʊkə/; died 232 BCE) was an Indian emperor of theMaurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from c. 268 to 232 BCE. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over a realm that stretched from the Hindu Kush mountains inAfghanistan to the modern state ofBangladesh in the east. It covered the entire Indian subcontinent except parts of present-day Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The empire's capital was Pataliputra (inMagadha, present-day Patna), with provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain.
- The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the Indian subcontinent, erected or at least inscribed with edicts by the Mauryan king Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BC. Originally, there must have been many pillars but only nineteen survive with inscriptions, and only six with animal capitals, which were a target for Muslim iconoclasm. Many are preserved in a fragmentary state.
- Vaishali - note the lion statue
- 玄奘記載的阿育王石柱已 然被毀，現在世界各地有阿 育王石柱的仿製品，圖為 無錫靈山阿育王石柱http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190331/PDF/a15_screen.pdf
- Kushinagar was an important centre under Mauryan King Ashoka, a great Buddhist follower. Most of the religious structures here were constructed between 3rd century BC and 5th century AD. For a long time Kushinagar remained lost in the jungles and was unknown to the world till 19th century when the British rediscovered it in 1880. Extensive excavations have indicated the presence of a large number monks here as late as 11th century AD. A majority of tourists come to Kushinagar during Buddha Purnima to celebrate the birthday of Lord Buddha. The place has a tropical climate with extreme temperatures during summers and winters. Winter days are pleasant with dry weather and clear sky. Kushinagar One of the four major centres of Buddhism along with Lumbini, Bodhgaya and Sarnath.
- ashoka built 84,000 stupas throughout india. The spineat the top of stupa is often perceived as a nail which physically enables the ruler to keep his land stable and peaceful
百乘王朝 The Satavahanas (IAST: Sātavāhana), also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas, were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region. Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana rule began in the first century BCE and lasted until the second century CE, although some assign the beginning of their rule to as early as the 3rd century BCE. The Satavahana kingdom mainly comprised the present-day Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. At different times, their rule extended to parts of modern Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Karnataka. The dynasty had different capital cities at different times, including Pratishthana(Paithan) and Amaravati (Dharanikota). The origin of the dynasty is uncertain, but according to the Puranas, their first king overthrew the Kanva dynasty. In the post-Maurya era, the Satavahanas established peace in the Deccan region, and resisted the onslaught of foreign invaders. In particular their struggles with the Saka Western Satraps went on for a long time. The dynasty reached its zenith under the rule of Gautamiputra Satakarni and his successor Vasisthiputra Pulamavi. The kingdom fragmented into smaller states by the early 3rd century CE. The Satavahanas were early issuers of Indian state coinage struck with images of their rulers. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade and the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India. They supported Brahmanism as well as Buddhism, and patronised Prakrit literature.
- 阿马拉瓦蒂 Amaravati is the capital city of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh.[5] The planned city is located on the southern banks of the Krishna river in Guntur district, within the Andhra Pradesh Capital Region.[6] It is being built on a 217 sq km riverfront designed to have 51% of green spaces and 10% of water bodies.[1][7] The word "Amaravati" derives from the historical Amaravathi village, the ancient capital of the Satavahana dynasty. The word Amaravati translates as the place for immortals . It was formerly called Dhanyakataka(Where Shakyamuni Buddha taught the Heart Essence form of the Kalachakra Dharma to the Shambala kings.).- The Amarāvatī Stupa, popularly known as the great stūpa at Amarāvathī, is a ruined Buddhist monument, probably built in phases between the third century BCE and about 250 CE, at Amaravathi village, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh, India.
The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indianempire, founded by Sri Gupta, which existed at its zenith from approximately 320 to 550 CE and covered much of theIndian subcontinent. The peace and prosperity created under the leadership of the Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours. This period is called the Golden Age of India and was marked by extensiveinventions and discoveries in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectic,literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy,religion, and philosophy that crystallized the elements of what is generally known asHindu culture.[4][unreliable source?]Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, andChandragupta II were the most notable rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The 4th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, theKinnaras, Kiratasetc.[5][non-primary source needed] The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculptures and paintings.[6] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa,Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharmaand Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.[7][unreliable source?][8] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.[9][unreliable source?] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural center and set the region up as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.[10][unreliable source?] The earliest available Indian epics are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period. The empire gradually declined because of many factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories and the invasion by the Huna peoples (Ephthalite Huns) from Central Asia. After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms. A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule Magadha after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by Vardhana ruler Harsha, who established his empirein the first half of the 7th century.
遮婁其王朝 The Chalukya dynasty ([tʃaːɭukjə]) was an Indian royal dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadambakingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from Vengi until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the Rashtrakutas in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century.The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the Jain and Veerashaiva traditions. The 11th century saw the birth of Telugu literature under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas.
羅濕陀羅拘陀王朝 Rashtrakuta (IAST: rāṣṭrakūṭa) was a royal dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapura, a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings of Achalapur (modern Elichpur in Maharashtra) and the rulers of Kannauj. Several controversies exist regarding the origin of these early Rashtrakutas, their native home and their language. The Elichpur clan was a feudatory of the Badami Chalukyas, and during the rule of Dantidurga, it overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II and went on to build an empire with the Gulbarga region in modern Karnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, rising to power in South India in 753. At the same time the Pala dynasty of Bengal and the Prathihara dynasty of Malwa were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. An Arabic text, Silsilat al-Tawarikh (851), called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world. This period, between the eighth and the 10th centuries, saw a tripartite struggle for the resources of the rich Gangetic plains, each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. The early kings of this dynasty were influenced by Hinduism and the later kings by Jainism. During their rule, Jain mathematicians and scholars contributed important works in Kannada and Sanskrit. Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wrote Kavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language.
- 浦那（印地語：पुणे，原为Poona）也譯作蒲內 Pune (Marathi pronunciation: [puɳe]; English: /ˈpuːnə/; also called Poona, the official name until 1978),[20][21][22] is the second largest city in the Indian state of Maharashtra, after Mumbai. The earliest reference to Pune is an inscription on a Rashtrakuta Dynasty copper plate dated 937 CE, which refers to the town as Punya-Vishaya, meaning "sacred news".[36] By the 13th century, it had come to be known as Punawadi (पुनवडी).
- china daily 29apr19 haier assembly line there
チャウルキヤ朝 The Chaulukya dynasty (IAST: Caulukya), also known as the Chalukyas of Gujarat, ruled parts of what are now Gujarat and Rajasthan in north-western India, between c. 940 CE and c. 1244 CE. Their capital was located at Anahilavada (modern Patan). At times, their rule extended to the Malwa region in present-day Madhya Pradesh. The medieval legends describe them as Agnivanshi Rajputs, and they are also known as the Solanki dynasty in the vernacular literature. Mularaja, the founder of the dynasty, supplanted the last ruler of the Chapotkata dynasty (Chavda) around 940 CE. His successors fought several battles with the neighbouring rulers such as the Chudasamas, the Paramaras and the Chahamanas of Shakambhari. During the reign of Bhima I, the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud invaded the kingdom and raided the Somnath temple during 1024-1025 CE. The Chaulukyas soon recovered, and the kingdom reached its zenith under the rule of Jayasimha Siddharaja and Kumarapala in the 12th century. Several minor dynasties, such as the Chahamanas of Jalor and the Chahamanas of Naddula, served as Chaulukya vassals during this period. After Kumarapala's death, the kingdom was gradually weakened by internal rebellions; uprisings by feudatories; and invasions by the Paramaras, the Ghurids, the Yadavas and others. Taking advantage of this, the Vaghelas, who had earlier served as Chaulukya generals, usurped the power and established a new dynasty in the 1240s.Several princely state rulers of the Solanki clan claimed descent from the Chaulukyas.
- Modhera is a town in Mehsana district of Gujarat, India. The town is well known for the Sun Temple of Chaulukya era.
Karauli State[1] was a princely state in India from 1348 to 1949. It is located in the Braj region. Karauli city was the capital while Mandrayal or Mandrail was another important town.Millets, the staple food of the people,[2] was the main agricultural produce. The Maharaja of Karauli is considered as the head of the Jadaun clan of Rajputs . The Jadauns remained insignificant until they gained patronage under the Mughal emperor Akbar, the Jadaun ruler Gopaldas was made the Maharaja of Karauli and was made the commander of 2000, he also played an important role in the foundation of Agra fort on the orders of the Mughal emperor.Earlier, Karauli, along with Alwar, was part of the Matsya kingdom, according to the legend of Mahabharata. The modern princely state Karauli was founded in about 995 by Raja Bijai Pal, who was a Jadon Ahir ruler.
The Delhi Sultanate was a Muslim kingdom based mostly in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for 320 years (1206–1526). Five dynasties ruled over Delhi Sultanate sequentially: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–90), the Khilji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414),[6] the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51), and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). The first four dynasties (Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq and Sayyid) were of Turkic origin, and the last dynasty (Lodi) was of Afghan origin. The sultanate is noted for being one of the few states to repel an attack by the Mongol Empire,[7] and enthroned one of the few female rulers in Islamic history, Razia Sultana, who reigned from 1236 to 1240. Qutb al-Din Aibak, a former slave of Muhammad Ghori, was the first sultan of Delhi and his dynasty conquered large areas of northern India. Afterwards, the Khilji dynasty was also able to conquer most of central India, but both failed to unite the Indian subcontinent. The sultanate reached the peak of its geographical reach during the Tughlaq dynasty, occupying most of the Indian subcontinent.[9] This was followed by decline due to continuing Hindu resistance, states such as the Vijayanagara Empire asserting independence, and new Muslim sultanates such as the Bengal Sultanate breaking off. The Delhi Sultanate caused destruction and desecration of politically important temples of South Asia,[12] but the time of their rule also included the earliest forms of Indo-Islamic architecture.[13][14] In 1526 the Sultanate was conquered and succeeded by the Mughal Empire.
- The Tughlaq dynasty (Persian: سلسلہ تغلق),[10] also referred to as Tughluq or Tughluk dynasty, was a Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin which ruled over the Delhi sultanate in medieval India. Its reign started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq. The dynasty ended in 1413. The dynasty expanded its territorial reach through a military campaign led by Muhammad ibn Tughluq, and reached its zenith between 1330 and 1335.[3] Its rule was marked with torture, cruelty and rebellions, resulting in the rapid disintegration of the dynasty's territorial reach after 1335 AD.
- In 1327, Tughluq passed an order to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad (in present-day Maharashtra) in the Deccan region of south India. Tughluq said that it would help him to establish control over the fertile land of the Deccan plateau. He also felt that it would make him safe from the Mongol invasions which were mainly aimed at Delhi and regions in north India.While most of the Medieval historians, including Barani and Ibn Batuta, tend to have implied that Delhi was entirely emptied (as is famously mentioned by Barani that not a dog or cat was left), it is generally believed that this is just an exaggeration. Such exaggerated accounts simply imply that Delhi suffered a downfall in its stature and trade. Besides, it is believed that only the powerful and nobility suffered hardships, if any. Two Sanskrit inscriptions dated 1327 and 1328 A.D. confirm this view and establish the prosperity of the Hindus of Delhi and its vicinity at that time.
- built khirki fort in mid 14th c
The Muzaffarid dynasty, sometimes referred as Ahmedabad dynasty, were sultans of Gujarat in western India from 1391 to 1583. The founder of the dynasty was Zafar Khan (later Muzaffar Shah I) who was governor of Gujarat under the Delhi Sultanate. Zafar Khan's father Sadharan, was a Tanka Rajput convert to Islam, adopted the name Wajih-ul-Mulk, and had given his sister in marriage to Firuz Shah Tughlaq. When the Sultanate was weakened by the sacking of Delhi by Timur in 1398, and Zafar Khan took the opportunity to establish himself as sultan of an independent Gujarat. His son, Ahmed Shah I established the capital at Ahmedabad.[1] The dynasty ruled for almost 200 years, until the conquest of Gujarat by the Mughal Empire in 1572.[2] The sultanate reached its peak of expansion under Mahmud Begada, reaching east into Malwa and west to the Gulf of Kutch.
- Qutb-ud-Din Bahadur Shah, born Bahadur Khan was a sultan of the Muzaffarid dynasty who reigned over the Gujarat Sultanate, a late medieval kingdom in India from 1526 to 1535 and again from 1536 to 1537.[1][2] He ascended to throne after competing with his brothers. He expanded his kingdom and made expeditions to help neighbouring kingdoms. In 1532, Gujarat came under attack of the Mughal EmperorHumayun and fell. Bahadur Shah regained the kingdom in 1536 but he was killed by the Portuguese on board the ship when making a deal with them.
While, Bahadur was engaged in the siege of Mandu against the Mughal, a strong Portuguese fleet sailed from Bombaim (now Mumbai), led by Nuno da Cunha. On February 7, 1531 the fleet reached near Shiyal Bet island, which they captured overcoming in spite of strong resistance. On February 16, 1531 they started bombarding Diu but could not succeed to inflict any appreciable damage to its fortification. On March 1, 1531 Nuno da Cunha left for Goa, leaving a subordinate officer, who systematically destroyed Mahuva, Ghogha, Valsad, Mahim, Kelva, Agashi and Surat.
- not concerned with profits of merchant class, reputed to have told a group of merchants seeking protectino from portuguese
- engagement with portuguese
- As Gujarat fell to the Mughal Empire, Bahadur Shah was forced to court the Portuguese. On 23 December 1534 while on board the galleon St. Mattheus he signed the Treaty of Bassein. Based on the terms of the agreement, the Portuguese Empire gained control of the city of Bassein (Vasai), as well as its territories, islands, and seas which included Daman and Bombay islands too. He had granted them leave to erect a factory in Diu. Instead of a factory the Portuguese built a Diu Fort. When he recovered his kingdom, Bahádur, repenting of his alliance with the Portuguese, went to Sorath to persuade an army of Portuguese, whom he had asked to come to his assistance, to return to Goa. In February 1537, when the Portuguese arrived at Diu, five or six thousand strong, the Sultán hoping to get rid of them by stratagem, went to Diu and endeavored to get the viceroy into his power. The viceroy excused himself, and in return invited the king to visit his ship anchored off the coast of Gujarat. Bahádur agreed, and on his way back was attacked and killed the Portuguese and his body was dumped into the Arabian Sea.[3][5][6] He was then thirty one years old and in the eleventh year of his reign. According to the author of the Mirăt-i-Sikandari the reason of Bahádur’s assassination was that a paper from him to the kings of the Deccan, inviting them to join him in an alliance against the Portuguese, had fallen into the hands of the Portuguese viceroy. Whatever may have been the provocation or the intention, the result seems to show that while both sides had treacherous designs neither party was able to carry out his original plan, and the end was unpremeditated, hurried on by mutual suspicions.[3] These events were followed by the 1538 Siege of Diu.
Rajput (from Sanskrit raja-putra, "son of a king") is a member of the patrilineal clans of the Indian subcontinent. They rose to prominence from the late 6th century AD and had a significant role in many regions of central and northern India until the 20th century. The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread across India where they are spread in north, west and central India. In Pakistan they are found on the eastern parts of the country. These areas include Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, and Sindh.
The Udaipur State, also known as Mewar Kingdom, was a princely state in northern India at the time of the British Raj. The state of Mewar was founded around 530; the first capital was at Chittorgarh. Later the kingdom would also, and ultimately predominantly, be called Udaipur after the name of its new capital. When Udaipur State joined the Indian Union in 1949 it had been ruled by the Chattari Rajputs of Mori Guhilot Parihar and Sisodia dynasties for over 1,400 years.
Mewar or Mewāḍ (Hindi: मेवाड़) is a region of south-central Rajasthan state in western India. It includes the present-day districts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand, Udaipur of Rajasthan and Neemuch, Mandsaur of Madhya Pradesh and some parts of Gujarat. The region was for centuries a Rajput kingdom, the Mewar Kingdom or Udaipur Kingdom, that later became a princely state under the British.
The Kakatiya dynasty was a South Indian dynasty whose capital was Orugallu, now known as Warangal. It was eventually conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. The demise of Kakatiya dynasty resulted in confusion and anarchy under alien rulers for sometime. Three new fledgling kingdoms arose out of the ruins of the Kakatiya empire namely the Reddy kingdom, Padma Nayaka Velama kingdom and the great Vijayanagara Empire.
- The Koh-i-Noor (Persian for Mountain of Light; also spelled Kohinoor and Koh-i-nur) is a large, colourless diamond that was found near Guntur in Andhra Pradesh, India, possibly in the 13th century. According to legend, it first weighed 793 carats (158.6 g) uncut, although the earliest well-attested weight is 186 carats (37.2 g); it was first owned by the Kakatiya dynasty. The stone changed hands several times between various factions in South Asia over the next few hundred years, before being possessed by Queen Victoria after the British conquest of the Punjab in 1849. In 1852, Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria, unhappy with its dull and irregular appearance, ordered it cut down from 186 carats (37.2 g). It emerged 42 percent lighter as a dazzling oval-cut brilliant weighing 105.6 carats (21.12 g) and measuring 3.6 cm x 3.2 cm x 1.3 cm.[3] By modern standards, the cut is far from perfect, in that the culet is unusually broad, giving the impression of a black hole when the stone is viewed head-on; it is nevertheless regarded by gemmologists as being full of life.[4] As the diamond's history involves a great deal of fighting between men, the Koh-i-Noor acquired a reputation within the British royal family for bringing bad luck to any man who wears it. Since arriving in the country, it has only ever been worn by female members of the family. Today, the diamond is set in the front of the Queen Mother's Crown, part of the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom, and is seen by millions of visitors to the Tower of London each year. The governments of India, Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan all claim ownership of the Koh-i-Noor and have demanded its return at various times in recent decades. The British government insists the gem was obtained legally under the terms of the Treaty of Lahore.
- https://www.ft.com/content/0f17f436-5089-11e7-bfb8-997009366969Until the discovery of diamond mines in Brazil in 1725, all the world’s diamonds came from India (with the sole exception of a few black diamond crystals found in Borneo). Ancient Indian diamonds were alluvial: they were not mined so much as sieved and extracted as natural crystals from the soft sands and gravels of ancient riverbeds. Originally ejected from host rocks by primeval volcanoes, they were swept up by water and transported along rivers, until at last they came to rest when the river died, many millions of years ago. Most such alluvial diamonds are tiny, natural octahedral crystals. Rarely, however, a diamond as large as a hen’s egg would be found. One such was the Koh-i-Noor. As to when it was mined, or exactly where, it is impossible to tell, though the most likely source is the Golconda diamond fields between Hyderabad and the Carnatic coast.
拉达克王国 The Namgyal dynasty was a line of rulers of a kingdom in modern-day Ladakh that lasted from 1460 to 1842. The Namgyal dynasty succeeded the first dynasty of Maryul and had several conflicts with the neighboring Mughal Empire and various dynasties of Tibet, including the Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal War. The dynasty eventually fell to the Sikh Empire and Dogras of Jammu and Kashmir. Most of its known history is written in the Ladakh Chronicles.According to the Ladakh Chronicles, the Namgyal dynasty was founded by Bhagan, the son of Bhara in the kingdom of Maryul. Bhagan was described as warlike, and established the Namgyal dynasty in 1460 after he formed an alliance with the people of Leh and dethroned the Maryul king Blo-gros-mc-og-ldan and his brothers drun-pa A-li and Slab-bstan-dar-rgyas.[1]:25,171He took the surname Namgyal (meaning victorious) and founded a new dynasty which still survives today. King Tashi Namgyal (1555-1575) managed to repel most Central Asian raiders, and built a royal fort on the top of the Namgyal Peak. Tsewang Namgyal temporarily extended his kingdom as far as Nepal.Sengge Namgyal (r. 1616-1642), known as the "Lion" King, made efforts to restore Ladakh to its old glory by an ambitious and energetic building program including the Leh Palace and the rebuilding of several gompas, the most famous of which are Hemis and Hanle.He expanded the kingdom into Zanskar and Spiti, but was defeated by the Mughals, who had already occupied Kashmir and Baltistan. His son Deldan Namgyal (1642-1694) had to placate the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb by building a mosque in Leh. However, he defeated the Mughal army in Baltistan. His son Delek sided with Bhutan in a religious dispute between Tibet and Bhutan, which resulted in an attempted invasion by the fifth Dalai Lama. The Moghuls withdrew after being paid off by the 5th Dalai Lama.[3] With the help of reinforcements from Galdan Boshugtu Khan, Khan of the Zungar Empire, the Tibetans attacked again in 1684. The Tibetans were victorious and concluded a treaty with Ladakh then they retreated back to Lhasa on December 1684. The Treaty of Temisgam in 1684 settled the dispute between Tibet and Ladakh, but its independence was seriously restricted.The Namgyal dynasty ended in 1842 after a surprise invasion of Ladakh from the Maharaja ranjit singh of punjab.By the beginning of the 19th century, the Mughal empire had collapsed and Sikh rule had been established in Punjab and Kashmir. However the Dogra region of Jammu remained under its Rajput rulers (whon ruled under the maharaja ranjit singh ) Rajput ruler were given the control of their states but under the name of Punjab and they were part of khalsa empire , Under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1792-1857)——his General Zorawar Singh invaded Ladakh in 1834. King Tshespal Namgyal was dethroned and exiled to Stok.
- 列城 Leh (Hindi: लेह; Ladakhi/Tibetan script: གླེ་ or སླེ་, Wylie: Gle or sle) is the joint capital and largest town of the union territory of Ladakh in India. Leh, located in the Leh district, was also the historical capital of the Himalayan kingdom of Ladakh, the seat of which was in the Leh Palace, the former residence of the royal family of Ladakh, built in the same style and about the same time as the Potala Palace in Tibet. Leh is at an altitude of 3,524 metres (11,562 ft), and is connected via National Highway 1 to Srinagar in the southwest and to Manali in the south via the Leh-Manali Highway.
- Leh was an important stopover on trade routes along the Indus Valley between Tibet to the east, Kashmir to the west and also between India and China for centuries. The main goods carried were salt, grain, pashm or cashmere wool, charas or cannabis resin from the Tarim Basin, indigo, silk yarn and Banaras brocade.Although there are a few indications that the Chinese knew of a trade route through Ladakh to India as early as the Kushan period (1st to 3rd centuries CE),[2] and certainly by Tang dynasty,[3] little is actually known of the history of the region before the formation of the kingdom towards the end of the 10th century by the Tibetan prince, Skyid lde nyima gon (or Nyima gon), a grandson of the anti-Buddhist Tibetan king, Langdarma (r. c. 838 to 841). He conquered Western Tibet although his army originally numbered only 300 men. Several towns and castles are said to have been founded by Nyima gon and he apparently ordered the construction of the main sculptures at Shey. "In an inscription, he says he had them made for the religious benefit of the Tsanpo (the dynastical name of his father and ancestors), and of all the people of Ngaris (Western Tibet). This shows that already in this generation Langdarma's opposition to Buddhism had disappeared."[4] Shey, just 15 km east of modern Leh, was the ancient seat of the Ladakhi kings.During the reign of Delegs Namgyal (1660–1685),[5] the Nawab of Kashmir, which was then a province in the Mughal Empire, arranged for the Mongol army to temporarily leave Ladakh, though it returned later. As payment for assisting Delegs Namgyal in the Tibet-Ladakh-Mughal war of 1679–1684, the Nawab made a number of onerous demands. One of the least was to build a large Sunni Muslim mosque in Leh at the upper end of the bazaar in Leh, below the Leh Palace. The mosque reflects a mixture of Islamic and Tibetan architecture and can accommodate more than 500 people. This was apparently not the first mosque in Leh; there are two smaller ones which are said to be older.Certaines traces démontrent que ce lieu était une route d'échange connue des Chinois vers l'Inde, à travers le Ladakh, dès l'Empire kouchan (ier siècle — iiie siècle)1, et probablement sous la dynastie Tang (618 – 907)2.
De par son emplacement sur la Route de la soie, la ville de Leh a connu la prospérité d'un grand centre caravanier, mais aussi les guerres d'influence et de contrôle que se livrèrent, sur le sol du Ladakh, les Chinois et les Tibétains au cours du viie siècle.[réf. nécessaire]La ville disposait jusqu'à l'indépendance de l'Inde et les guerres sino-indienne d'une route permettant d'accéder à la célèbre cité de Yarkand. L'Empire du Tibet s'effondre au ixe siècle, après l'assassinat de Langdarma par un moine bouddhiste en 842 et les querelles de succession. on date la fin de la dynastie Yarlung en 877. L'Ère de la fragmentation du Tibet dure du ixe siècle au xe siècle.Cette ère se termine vers la fin du xe siècle, avec la fondation du royaume par le prince tibétain Skyid lde nyima gon (ou Nyima gon), petit-fils du roi anti-bouddhiste Langdarma (il règne des environs de 838 à 841). Il conquiert le Tibet occidental, bien que son armée ne soit que de 300 hommes à ses débuts. Différentes villes et châteaux ont la réputation d'avoir été fondés par Nyima gon, lequel aurait visiblement demandé la construction des principales sculptures de Shey. Dans une des inscriptions, il déclare les avoir faites pour le bénéfice religieux du Tsanpo (Le nom dynastique de son père et de ses ancêtres), et tout le peuple du Ngari (Tibet occidental). Cela démontre que déjà, durant cette génération, l'opposition de Langdarma au bouddhisme avait disparu3. Shey, situé à 15 km à l'Est de la Leh moderne, était l'ancien siège des rois du Ladakh.
The Mughal Empire (Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت,Mug̱ẖliyah Salṭanat) or Mogul Empire, self-designated as Gurkani (Persian:گورکانیان, Gūrkāniyān, meaning "son-in-law"),[8] was an empire based in the Indian Subcontinent, established and ruled by aMuslim Persianate dynasty of ChagataiTurco-Mongol origin that extended over large parts of the Indian subcontinentand Afghanistan. The beginning of the empire is conventionally dated to the founderBabur's victory over Ibrahim Lodi, the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate in the First Battle of Panipat (1526). The Mughal emperors were Central Asian Turco-Mongols belonging to the Timurid dynasty, who claimed direct descent from bothGenghis Khan (founder of the Mongol Empire, through his son Chagatai Khan) and Timur (Turco-Mongol conqueror who founded the Timurid Empire). During the reign of Humayun, the successor of Babur, the empire was briefly interrupted by theSur Empire. The "classic period" of the Mughal Empire started in 1556 with the ascension of Akbar the Great to the throne. Under the rule of Akbar and his sonJahangir, the region enjoyed economic progress as well as religious harmony, and the monarchs were interested in local religious and cultural traditions. Akbar was a successful warrior. He also forged alliances with several Hindu Rajputkingdoms. Some Rajput kingdoms continued to pose a significant threat to the Mughal dominance of northwestern India, but most of them were subdued by Akbar. All Mughal emperors were Muslims; while Akbar was Muslim most of this life, he followed a new religion in the latter part of his life called Deen-i-Ilahi, as recorded in historical books like Ain-e-Akbari andDabestan-e Mazaheb. The Mughal Empire did not try to intervene in the local societies during most of its existence, but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices[14][15] and diverse and inclusive ruling elites,[16] leading to more systematic, centralised, and uniform rule.[17] Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, theRajputs, the Pashtuns, the Hindu Jats and the Sikhs, gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule, which, through collaboration or adversity, gave them both recognition and military experience.[18][19][20][21] The reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, between 1628–58 was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the best known of which is the Taj Mahalat Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the Jama Masjid, Delhi, and the Lahore Fort. The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign ofAurangzeb and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under Shivaji Bhosale. During his lifetime, victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles), ruling over more than 150 million subjects, nearly one quarter of the world's population at the time, with a combined GDP of over $90 billion.[22][23] By the mid-18th century, the Marathas had routed Mughal armies, and won over several Mughal provinces from the Punjab to Bengal,[24] and internal dissatisfaction arose due to the weakness of the Mughal Empire's administrative and economic systems, leading to the break-up of the empire and declaration of independence of its former provinces by theNawab of Bengal, the Nawab of Awadh, the Nizam of Hyderabad and other small states. In 1739, the Mughals were crushingly defeated in the Battle of Karnal by the forces of Nader Shah, the founder of the Afsharid dynasty in Persia, and Delhi was sacked and looted, drastically accelerating their decline. During the following century Mughal power had become severely limited and the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, had authority over only the city ofShahjahanabad. He issued a firman supporting the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and following the defeat was therefore tried by the British East India Company for treason, imprisoned and exiled to Rangoon.[25] The last remnants of the empire were formally taken over by the British, and the Government of India Act 1858 let the British Crown formally assume direct control of India in the form of the new British Raj.
- compared with european rulers, the mughals were wealthy, so rulers and elites were not reliant on mercentile-financial elites for their protection - providing services.
- afghanistan
- Akbar sent an expeditionary force to subdue rebellious afghan chiefs in bihar and bengal in 1572, no need to raise loan
- http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21695034-chinese-style-modernisation-draws-perilously-close-brilliant-17th-century-landmarks-short-cuts For centuries Lahore was the heart of Mughal Hindustan, known to visitors as the City of Gardens. Today it has a greater profusion of treasures from the Mughal period (the peak of which was in the 17th century) than India’s Delhi or Agra, even if Lahore’s are less photographed. The walled old city is anchored at one end by the red sandstone and white marble bulbs of the huge Badshahi mosque, and fixed at the centre by the polychrome mosque (pictured) of the great Mughal vizier, the Wazir Khan. Hidden jewels are strewn throughout, such as the royal hammam. Farther afield is the “house of wonders” (ie, colonial museum) where Kipling’s “Kim” began. Tucked down a cobblers’ lane is an exquisite shrine built for the wet nurse of Shahjahan, the fifth Mughal emperor.Conservationists claim law on their side. In January the Lahore High Court granted a stay against the government’s plans, ordering it to stop felling trees and otherwise preparing the ground for the metro. It was argued that building beside at least 11 sites would violate antiquities laws, which forbid construction within 200 metres of a protected area. This week the court gave the advocate-general a deadline of March 21st to make his case against the stay. UNESCO has joined the fray, albeit gently, by asking the government to draw up an assessment of possible damage. It is worried especially about the fate of the Shalimar gardens, built in 1641 by Shahjahan as the Taj Mahal was going up in Agra. The gardens’ foundations will be undercut if track is laid too close. The Punjab government wants to avoid any more delay. Late last year its director of archaeology, who refused to approve the Orange line, was sacked and replaced with a more supple archaeologist. Mr Sharif is keen that Chinese style and efficiency be brought to the line. Indeed the construction is powered by loans from China’s Exim Bank, with rolling stock from China’s Norinco, a diversified arms-trading company. Some grouse that Exim’s loan was accepted in preference to even cheaper money offered by the Asian Development Bank for an underground metro. But that would have taken years more to install, while Mr Sharif says his metro should be running by the end of 2017. He faces provincial elections the following year.
- Bharatiya Janata Party leader Subramanian Swamy on Wednesday said he has access to documents that suggest the property where Taj Mahal was built was stolen by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan from kings of Jaipur."There is evidence on record that Shah Jahan forced the Raja-Maharajas of Jaipur to sell the land on which Taj Mahal is standing, and he gave them a compensation of forty villages, which is nothing compared to the property's value," Swamy told reporters. He further said that the BJP has no intention of demolishing Taj Mahal, but only want three temples out of thousands demolished under the Muslim rule. "We want only three, which are Ayodhya's Ram, Krishna's Mathura and Kashi Vishwanath in Varanasi. These three, once they are restored, we won't be concerned about the remaining forty thousand," said Swamy.https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/swamy-taj-mahal-sits-on-stolen-property/articleshow/61147096.cms
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- Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad[3] (Persian: محي الدين محمد) (3 November 1618 – 3 March 1707),[1]commonly known by the sobriquet Aurangzeb (Urdu: اَورنگزیب ), (Persian: اورنگزیب "Ornament of the Throne")[3] or by his regnal title Alamgir (Urdu: عالمگِیر ), (Persian: عالمگير "Conqueror of the World"),[4] was the sixth Mughal emperor. Widely considered the last effective Mughal emperor, his reign lasted for 49 years from 1658 until his death in 1707.Under his reign, the Mughal Empire surpassed China to become the world's largest economy, worth over $90 billion, nearly a quarter of world GDP in 1700.Aurangzeb has been subject to controversy and criticism for his policies that abandoned his predecessors' legacy of pluralism and religious tolerance, citing his introduction of the Jizya tax, destruction of Hindu temples, execution or forced conversion of his non-Muslim subjects to Islam, and the executions of Maratha Kingdom ruler Sambhaji and the ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur.
- very detailed japanese wiki version
- [illustrated dictionary of muslim world by marshall cavendish] in 1685, on the orders of aurangzeb, the english east india company is expelled from its base at surat, western india; in 1686, the muslim sultanate of bijapur in the northwestern deccan falls to aurangzeb; in 1687, aurangzeb takes golconda, a sultanate in southern india famous for its diamonds; in 1689, the hindu ruler sambhaji (son of shivaji) is captured by mughal forces and taken to aurangzeb and executed; in 1690, sambhaji's brother and successor rajaram is besieged in the great fortress of senji in southern india by a mughal army. The siege continues until 1698.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar (Persian: بهادرشاه ظفر) (born as Mirza Abu Zafar Siraj-ud-din Muhammad) (24 October 1775–7 November 1862) was the last Mughal emperor. He was the second son[2] of and became the successor to his father, Akbar II, upon his death on 28 September 1837. He was a nominal Emperor, as the Mughal Empire existed in name only and his authority was limited only to the walled city of Old Delhi (Shahjahanbad). Following his involvement in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British exiled him to Rangoon in British-controlled Burma (now in Myanmar), after convicting him on several charges. Zafar's father, Akbar II had been imprisoned by the British and he was not his father's preferred choice as his successor. One of Akbar Shah's queens, Mumtaz Begum, pressured him to declare her son, Mirza Jahangir, as his successor. However, The East India Company exiled Jahangir after he attacked their resident, in the Red Fort,paving the way for Zafar to assume the throne.
- Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ (Ottoman Turkish: معمار سينان, "Sinan Agha the Grand Architect"; Modern Turkish: Mimar Sinan, pronounced [miːˈmaːɾ siˈnan], "Sinan the Architect") (c. 1489/1490 – July 17, 1588) was the chief Ottoman architect (Turkish: mimar) and civil engineer for sultans Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III. He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures and other more modest projects, such as schools. His apprentices would later design the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Stari Most in Mostar, and help design the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire.
- prescent day descendants?
- Prince Yakub Habeebuddin Tucy, a sixth-generation descendant of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar, has sent a legal notice to Syed Waseem Rizvi the chairman of Shia Central Wakf Board requesting him not to release the movie ‘Ram Janam Bhoomi’. The self-proclaimed descendant of the Mughals believes that the movie defames Emperor Babur and presents a distorting version of the history of Mughal kings. https://www.timesnownews.com/india/article/mughal-prince-yakub-habeebuddin-tucy-ram-janmabhoomi-syed-waseem-rizvi-shia-central-wakf-board-ayodhya-dispute-ayodhya-sunni-wakf-board/319696
- Prince Habeebuddin Tucy, who claims to be a descendant of last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar, has offered to donate a gold brick to build the Ram temple at Ayodhya. He, however, wants the Babri Masjid-Ram Janmabhoomi land to be handed over to him saying he is the rightful owner of the land as a descendant of first Mughal emperor Babar, who constructed Babri Masjid in 1529. Tucy said on Sunday that if the Supreme Court hands him over the land, he will donate the entire land for building the Ram temple as he respects their sentiments and the belief that a Ram temple stood at the place where Babri Masjid was built. The mosque was demolished on December 6, 1992 by hundreds of ‘kar sevaks’.https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/mughal-descendant-offers-gold-brick-for-ram-temple/story-QgSoeoRtskmfsHKICRfLdL.html
The Maratha Empire or the Maratha Confederacy was an Indian power that existed from 1674 to 1818 and ruled over much of the Indian sub-continent. TheMarathas are credited to a large extent for ending the Mughal rule in India. The Marathas are the Hindu warrior group from the western Deccan Plateau (present day Maharashtra) that rose to prominence by establishing a Hindavi Swarajya. The Marathas became prominent in the 17th century under the leadership of Shivaji who revolted against the Adil Shahi dynasty and the Mughal Empire and carved out a rebel territory with Raigad as his capital. Known for their mobility, the Marathas were able to consolidate their territory during theMughal–Maratha Wars and later controlled a large part of India.
- The Marathas under Shivaji came into conflict with the Siddis, Muslims of Abyssinian descent settled in India, over the control of the Konkan coast. Shivaji was able to reduce their presence to the fortified island of Janjira. Sambhaji continued the Maratha campaign against them, while at that time the Siddis formed an alliance with the Mughals.[23] At the start of 1682, a Maratha army later joined by Sambhaji personally, attacked the island for thirty days, doing heavy damage but failing to breach its defenses. Sambhaji then attempted a ruse, sending a party of his people to the Siddis, claiming to be defectors. They were allowed into the fort and planned to detonate the gunpowder magazine during a coming Maratha attack. However, one of the female defectors became involved with a Siddi man and he uncovered the plot, and the infiltrators were executed. The Maratha then attempted to build a stone causeway from the shore to the island, but were interrupted halfway through when the Mughal army moved to menace Raigad. Sambhaji returned to counter them and his remaining troops were unable to overcome the Janjira garrison and the Siddi fleet protecting it.Having failed to take Janjira in 1682, Sambhaji sent a commander to seize the Portuguese coastal fort of Anjadiva instead. The Marathas seized the fort, seeking to turn it into a naval base, but in April 1682 were ejected from the fort by a detachment of 200 Portuguese. This incident led to a larger conflict between the two regional powers.[24]:171 The Portuguese colony of Goa at that time provided supplies to the Mughals, allowed them to use the Portuguese ports in India and pass through their territory. In order to deny this support to the Mughals, Sambhaji undertook a campaign against Portuguese Goa in late 1683, storming the colony and taking its forts.[25] The situation for the colonists became so dire that the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco de Távora, conde de Alvor went with his remaining supporters to the cathedral where the crypt of Saint Francis Xavier was kept, where they prayed for deliverance. The viceroy had the casket opened and gave the saint's body his baton, royal credentials and a letter asking the saint's support. Sambhaji's Goa campaign was checked by the arrival of the Mughal army and navy in January 1684, forcing him to withdraw.Meanwhile, in 1684 Sambhaji signed a defensive treaty with the English at Bombay, realising his need for English arms and gunpowder, particularly as their lack of artillery and explosives impeded the Maratha's ability to lay siege to fortifications. Thus reinforced, Sambhaji proceeded to take Pratapgad and a series of forts along the Ghats.
- The Marathas under Shivaji came into conflict with the Siddis, Muslims of Abyssinian descent settled in India, over the control of the Konkan coast. Shivaji was able to reduce their presence to the fortified island of Janjira. Sambhaji continued the Maratha campaign against them, while at that time the Siddis formed an alliance with the Mughals.[23] At the start of 1682, a Maratha army later joined by Sambhaji personally, attacked the island for thirty days, doing heavy damage but failing to breach its defenses. Sambhaji then attempted a ruse, sending a party of his people to the Siddis, claiming to be defectors. They were allowed into the fort and planned to detonate the gunpowder magazine during a coming Maratha attack. However, one of the female defectors became involved with a Siddi man and he uncovered the plot, and the infiltrators were executed. The Maratha then attempted to build a stone causeway from the shore to the island, but were interrupted halfway through when the Mughal army moved to menace Raigad. Sambhaji returned to counter them and his remaining troops were unable to overcome the Janjira garrison and the Siddi fleet protecting it.Having failed to take Janjira in 1682, Sambhaji sent a commander to seize the Portuguese coastal fort of Anjadiva instead. The Marathas seized the fort, seeking to turn it into a naval base, but in April 1682 were ejected from the fort by a detachment of 200 Portuguese. This incident led to a larger conflict between the two regional powers.[24]:171 The Portuguese colony of Goa at that time provided supplies to the Mughals, allowed them to use the Portuguese ports in India and pass through their territory. In order to deny this support to the Mughals, Sambhaji undertook a campaign against Portuguese Goa in late 1683, storming the colony and taking its forts.[25] The situation for the colonists became so dire that the Portuguese viceroy, Francisco de Távora, conde de Alvor went with his remaining supporters to the cathedral where the crypt of Saint Francis Xavier was kept, where they prayed for deliverance. The viceroy had the casket opened and gave the saint's body his baton, royal credentials and a letter asking the saint's support. Sambhaji's Goa campaign was checked by the arrival of the Mughal army and navy in January 1684, forcing him to withdraw.Meanwhile, in 1684 Sambhaji signed a defensive treaty with the English at Bombay, realising his need for English arms and gunpowder, particularly as their lack of artillery and explosives impeded the Maratha's ability to lay siege to fortifications. Thus reinforced, Sambhaji proceeded to take Pratapgad and a series of forts along the Ghats.
- The Laxmi Vilas Palace in Vadodara, Gujarat, India, was constructed by the Gaekwad family, a prominent Maratha family, who ruled the Baroda State. Major Charles Mant was credited to be the main architect of the palace. Laxmi Vilas Palace was styled on the Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, built by Maharaja Sayajirao Gaekwad III in 1890 at a cost of £180,000 (₹27,00,000).
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- https://www.quora.com/How-good-a-general-was-the-Duke-of-Wellington/answer/Oliver-Groom-1 in one of the pictures
The Hoysala empire was a prominentSouthern Indian Kannadiga empire that ruled most of the modern-day state ofKarnataka between the 10th and the 14th centuries. The capital of the Hoysalas was initially located at Belur but was later moved to Halebidu. The Hoysala rulers were originally fromMalnad Karnataka, an elevated region in the Western Ghats range. In the 12th century, taking advantage of the internecine warfare between the then ruling Western Chalukyas and Kalachurikingdoms, they annexed areas of present-day Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri River delta in present-dayTamil Nadu. By the 13th century, they governed most of present-day Karnataka, minor parts of Tamil Nadu and parts of western Andhra Pradesh and Telangana inDeccan India. The Hoysala era was an important period in the development of art, architecture, and religion in South India. The empire is remembered today primarily for its templearchitecture.
- people
- Gali Janardhana Reddy(Kannada: ಗಾಲಿ ಜನಾರ್ಧನ್ ರೆಡ್ಡಿ ), born on 11 January 1967 is an Indian politician with the Bharatiya Janata Party party and one of the richest politicians of Karnataka. He obtained his first iron ore mining license in Karnataka in 2004, when the Congress party led the state government. Janardhana Reddy and his brothers G. Karunakara Reddy and G. Somashekara Reddy were born into the Telugu speaking family of police constable Chenga Reddy,in Chittoor district Andhra Pradesh and grown up in Bellary. He and his brothers transformed themselves in less than a decade from industrialists into political bosses who dominated local government in the Bellary district, which holds the state's richest iron ore deposits. Janardhana never had a college education. He came into the limelight during the Lok Sabha elections in 1999, when the Reddy brothers worked in the campaign for Sushma Swarajafter she stood as a long-shot candidate in Bellary, against Sonia Gandhi. Though Swaraj lost, she remained a patron of the Reddys, and was known to visit Bellary frequently. However, after the mining scandal broke out and the Reddy brothers were indicted, chargesheeted and sent to judicial custody, Swaraj distanced herself from them, and all three Reddy brothers were expelled from the BJP's state government in Karnataka as well as from the party itself.
The Madurai Nayaks were Telugu rulers[1] from around 1529 until 1736, of a region comprising most of modern-day Tamil Nadu, India, with Madurai as their capital.[2] The Nayak reign was an era noted for its achievement in arts, cultural and administrative reforms, revitalization of temples previously ransacked by the Delhi Sultans, and inauguration of a unique architectural style. The dynasty consisted of 13 rulers, of whom 9 were kings, 2 were queens, and 2 were joint-kings. The most notable of these were the king, Tirumala Nayaka, and the queen, Rani Mangammal. Foreign trade was conducted mainly with the Dutch and the Portuguese, as the British and the French had not yet made inroads in the region.
Nawanagar was an Indian princely state in the historical Halar region of Kathiawar, located on the southern shores of the Gulf of Kutch. It was ruled by the Jadeja dynasty from its formation in c 1540 until 1948 when it became a part of newly formed India. The district is now known as Jamnagar. It had an area of 3,791 square miles (9,820 km2) and a population estimated at 336,779 in 1901. Its rulers, who used the title of "Jam Saheb" were Hindu Rajput of the same clan as the Rao of Cutch. They were entitled to a 13-gun salute. The state flag was a rectangular red flag with a white elephant, near and facing the hoist. During the British Raj, the state was part of the Kathiawar Agency, within the Gujarat Division of Bombay Presidency.[1] The state had a pearl fishery and much of its wealth came from this. Nawanagar is also famous for its former ruler Jam SahebRanjitsinhji (died 1933), who was a famous cricketplayer at Cambridge in England before his accession to the throne.The Maharaja Jamsahib of Nawanagar were also known for their Jewellery collection; especially Ranjithsinhji, whose Emerald collection according toJacques Cartier was "unequaled in the world, if not it quantity, then certainly in quality".
Battle of haldighati
- The Rajasthan Board of Secondary Education has approved a change in the history section of the Class X social science books. The revised books will now teach students Maharana Pratap conclusively defeated Mughal emperor Akbar in the 16th-century Battle of Haldighati. Until now, students in Rajasthan learnt that the Battle of Haldighati, which took place on June 18, 1576, was inconclusive. However, the rewritten history now says that that the battle did not end in a truce and that Maharana Pratap, along with his army, valiantly fought to protect his motherland Mewar. Maharana Pratap's army fought a heroic battle and forced Akbar's army to retreat from the battlefield, history books in Rajasthan schools will now teach http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/maharana-pratap-not-akbar-won-battle-of-haldighati-rajasthan-history-book/1/1010616.html
- The Rajasthan Board of Secondary Education has approved a change in the history section of the Class X social science books. The revised books will now teach students Maharana Pratap conclusively defeated Mughal emperor Akbar in the 16th-century Battle of Haldighati. Until now, students in Rajasthan learnt that the Battle of Haldighati, which took place on June 18, 1576, was inconclusive. However, the rewritten history now says that that the battle did not end in a truce and that Maharana Pratap, along with his army, valiantly fought to protect his motherland Mewar. Maharana Pratap's army fought a heroic battle and forced Akbar's army to retreat from the battlefield, history books in Rajasthan schools will now teach http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/maharana-pratap-not-akbar-won-battle-of-haldighati-rajasthan-history-book/1/1010616.html
Marthanda Varma (Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma) (1705 – 7 July 1758) was ruler of the southern Indian state ofTravancore (Malayalam: Tiruvitamkur) from 1729 until his death in 1758. He is most celebrated for crushing the Dutchexpansionist designs at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. Varma then adopted a European mode of martial discipline and expanded his domain to encompass what became the modern state of Travancore. Varma built a substantial standing army of about 50,000, reduced the power of theNair aristocracy (on which rulers of Kerala had earlier been dependent militarily), and fortified the northern limits of his kingdom at the so-called Travancore Lines. His alliance in 1757 with the ruler of Cochin, against Kingdom of Calicut, enabled Cochin to survive.[3] Travancore under Varma did make a determined bid to consolidate its power by the use of maritime outlets. At his accession to the throne in early 18th century, the only route remaining was Travancore to build an elaborate and well-organized war machine while keeping external supply lines open. The control of trade was also seen as crucial in the statecraft of the period. These principles were put into practice by Varma.[3] It was also the policy of Varma to extend patronage to the Syrian Christians, a large trading community in Travancore, as a means of limiting European involvement in trade. The key commodity was pepper, but other goods also came to be defined as Royal Monopoly Items, requiring a license for trade.[3] Trivandrum(Malayalam:Thiruvananthapuram) became a prominent city in Kerala under Marthanda Varma.[4] Prime ministers under Marthanda Varma - Arumukham Pillai (1729 – 36), Thanu Pillai (1736 – 37) and Ramayyan Dalawa (1737 – 56) - played a significant role in the raise of the Travancore state. Marthanda Varma's policies were continued in large measure by his successor and nephew,Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma ("Dharma Raja") (1758–98), who went on to successfully defend Travancore against the Kingdom of Mysore.
Kingdom of mysore
- The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom ofsouthern India, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399 in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyarfamily, initially served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire. With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire (c. 1565), the kingdom became independent. The 17th century saw a steady expansion of its territory and during the rule of Narasaraja Wodeyar I and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the kingdom annexed large expanses of what is now southern Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu to become a powerful state in the southern Deccan. The kingdom reached the height of its military power and dominion in the latter half of the 18th century under the de facto ruler Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. During this time, it came into conflict with the Marathas, the Nizam of Hyderabad, theKingdom of Travancore and the Britishwhich culminated in the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. Success in the first two Anglo-Mysore wars was followed by defeat in the third and fourth. Following Tipu's death in the fourth war of 1799, large parts of his kingdom were annexed by the British, which signalled the end of a period of Mysorean hegemony over southern Deccan. The British restored the Wodeyars to their throne by way of a subsidiary alliance and the diminished Mysore was transformed into a Princely state. The Wodeyars continued to rule the state untilIndian independence in 1947, when Mysore acceded to the Union of India.
- Tipu Sultan ( Urdu:ٹیپو سلطان, Kannada : ಟಿಪ್ಪು ಸುಲ್ತಾನ್ ) (20 November 1750 – 4 May 1799), (Sayyid walShareef Sultan Fateh Ali Khan Sahab Tipu[2]) also known as theTiger of Mysore, and Tipu Sahib,[3] was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore. He was the eldest son of Sultan Hyder Ali of Mysore.[4] Tipu introduced a number of administrative innovations during his rule, including his coinage, a new Mauludilunisolar calendar, and a new land revenue system which initiated the growth of Mysore silk industry.[6] Tipu expanded the iron-cased Mysorean rockets and commissioned the military manual Fathul Mujahidin. He is considered a pioneer in the use of rocket artillery.[7] Tipu Sultan deployed the rockets against advances of British forces and their allies in their 1792and 1799 Siege of Srirangapatna. Napoleon, the French commander-in-chief who later became emperor, sought an alliance with Tipu. In alliance with the French in their struggle with the British, and in Mysore's struggles with other surrounding powers, both Tipu and his father used their French trained army against the Marathas, Sira, and rulers ofMalabar, Kodagu, Bednore, Carnatic, andTravancore. The Carnatic Wars (also spelled Karnatic Wars) were a series of military conflicts in the middle of the 18th century in India. The conflicts involved numerous nominally independent rulers and their vassals, struggles for succession and territory, and included a diplomatic and military struggle between the French East India Company and the British East India Company. They were mainly fought within the territories of Mughal India with the assistance of various fragmented polities loyal to the "Great Moghul". As a result of these military contests, the British East India Company established its dominance among the European trading companies within India. The French company was pushed to a corner and was confined primarily to Pondichéry. The East India Company's dominance eventually led to control by the British Company over most of India and eventually to the establishment of the British Raj.In the 18th century, the coastal Carnatic region was a dependency of Hyderabad. Three Carnatic Wars were fought between 1746 and 1763.
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 refers to a rebellion in India against the rule of the British East India Company, that ran from May 1857 to June 1858. The rebellion began as a mutiny ofsepoys of the East India Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the cantonment of the town ofMeerut, and soon escalated into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, with the major hostilities confined to present-day Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, northern Madhya Pradesh, and the Delhi region. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to East India Company power in that region, and was contained only with the fall of Gwalior on 20 June 1858. The rebellion has been known by many names, including India's First War of Independence, the Great Rebellion, the Indian Rebellion, theIndian Mutiny, the Revolt of 1857, the Rebellion of 1857, the Uprising of 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion, the Indian Insurrection and the Sepoy Mutiny. Other regions of Company-controlled India, such as Bengal, the Bombay Presidency, and theMadras Presidency, remained largely calm.[2] In Punjab, the Sikh princes backed the Company by providing soldiers and support.[2] The large princely states of Hyderabad,Mysore, Travancore, and Kashmir, as well as the smaller ones of Rajputana, did not join the rebellion.[4] In some regions, such as Oudh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against European presence.[5] Maratha leaders, such as Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, became folk heroes in the nationalist movement in India half a century later. The rebellion led to the dissolution of the East India Company in 1858. It also led the British to reorganise the army, the financial system and the administration in India. The country was thereafter directly governed by the crown as the new British Raj.
- massacre at kanpur (cawnpore) in june 1857
The British Raj (/rɑːdʒ/; from rāj, literally, "rule" inHindustani) was the rule of the British Crown in theIndian subcontinentbetween 1858 and 1947.[3][4][5][6] The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India. The region under British control was commonly called India in contemporaneous usage, and included areas directly administered by the United Kingdom, which were collectively calledBritish India, and those ruled by indigenous rulers, but under British tutelage or paramountcy, and called the princely states. The resulting political union was also called theIndian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name.
- Indore State, also known as Holkar State,[1] was a Maratha princely state in India during the British Raj. Its rulers belonged to the Holkar dynasty and the state was under the Central India Agency.[2] Indore was a 19 gun salute (21 locally) princely state (a rare high rank). Indore princely state was located in the present-day Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. The capital of the state was the city of Indore. By 1720, the headquarters of the local pargana (an Indian local administrative unit) was transferred from Kampel to Indore due to the increasing commercial activity in the city. On 18 May 1724, the Nizam accepted the rights of the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao I to collect chauth (taxes) from the area. In 1733, the Peshwa assumed full control of Malwa and appointed his commander Malhar Rao Holkar as the Subhedar (Governor) of the province.[citation needed]On 29 July 1732, Bajirao Peshwa-I granted Holkar State by merging 28 and a half parganas to Malhar Rao Holkar, the founding ruler of the Holkar dynasty. His daughter-in-law Ahilyabai Holkar moved the state's capital to Maheshwar in 1767, but Indore remained an important commercial and military centre.[citation needed]After the defeat of the Holkar rulers in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, an agreement was signed on 6 January 1818 with the British and the Indore State became a British protectorate. The Holkar dynasty was able to continue to rule Indore as a princely state mainly owing to the efforts of Dewan (chief minister) Tatya Jog.The capital was moved from Maheshwar to Indore on 3 November 1818 and the Indore Residency, a political residency with a British resident, was established in the city. Later, Indore would be established as the headquarters of the British Central India Agency. In 1906, electrical infrastructure was installed in the city while a fire brigade was established in 1909. By 1918, the first master plan of the city was drawn by architect and town planner Patrick Geddes.During the period of Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar II (1852–86), efforts were made for the planned development and industrial development of Indore. During the reigns of Maharaja Shivaji Rao Holkar, Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar III, and Maharaja Yeshwant Rao Holkar, business flourished thanks to the railways that had been introduced in the state in 1875.In 1926, Maharaja Tukoji Rao III Holkar XIII abdicated after being implicated in a murder case involving a court dancer and her lover. After the independence of India in 1947, Indore State, along with a number of neighbouring princely states, acceded to India. Yashwant Rao Holkar II, the last ruler of the state, signed the instrument of accession to the Indian Union on 1 January 1950. The territories of the state became part of the new Indian state of Madhya Bharat.- https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/two-modernist-masterpieces-for-the-maharaja-of-indore The Chaise Longue “aux Skis” was originally designed by Ruhlmann in 1929 as part of a suite for the heir to the Indor Kingdom of India, Yashwant Rao Holkar II. The suite was presented that same year at the Salon des Artistes Décorateurs in Paris as a “studio-chambre pour un prince hériter,” maintaining the confidentiality of the Maharaja's name while he selected works for his future palace.
The Swadeshi movement, part of the Indian independence movement and the developing Indian nationalism, was an economic strategy aimed at removing the British Empire from power and improving economic conditions in India by following the principles of swadeshi and which had some success. Strategies of the Swadeshi movement involved boycotting British products and the revival of domestic products and production processes. L. M. Bhole identifies five phases of the Swadeshi movement.[1]
- 1850 to 1904: developed by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, Gokhale, Ranade, Tilak, G.V. Joshi and Bhaswat.K.Nigoni. This was also known as First Swadeshi Movement.
- 1905 to 1917: Began with and because of the partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon.
- 1918 to 1947: Swadeshi thought shaped by Gandhi, accompanied by the rise of Indian industrialists.
- 1948 to 1991: Widespread curbs on international and inter-state trade. India became a bastion of obsolete technology during the licence-permit raj.
- 1991 onwards: liberalization and globalization. Foreign capital, foreign technology, and many foreign goods are not excluded and doctrine of export-led growth resulted in modern industrialism.
The Silk Letter Movement (تحریکِ ریشمی رومال) refers to a movement organised by the Deobandi leaders between 1913 and 1920, aimed at freeing India from the British rule by allying with Ottoman Turkey, Imperial Germany, and Afghanistan. The plot was uncovered by Punjab CID with the capture of letters from Ubaidullah Sindhi, one of the Deobandi leaders then in Afghanistan, to Mahmud al Hasan, another leader then in Persia. The letters were written in silk cloth, hence the name. Muhammad Mian Mansoor Ansari went to Hejaz with Mahmood Hasan in September 1915. He returned to India in April 1916 with Ghalib Nama (Silk Letter) which he showed to freedom fighters in India and the autonomous area and then took it to Kabul where he reached in June 1916. With the onset of World War I, Ubaidullah Sindhi and Mehmud Hasan (principal of the Darul Uloom Deoband) had proceeded to Kabul in October 1915 with plans to initiate a Muslim insurrection in the tribal belt of India. For this purpose, Ubaid'Allah was to propose that the Amir of Afghanistan declares war against Britain while Mahmud al Hasan sought German and Turkish help. Hasan proceeded to Hijaz. Ubaid Allah, in the meantime, was able to establish friendly relations with Amir. As the plans unfolded in what came to be called the Silk Letter movement, Ubaid'Allah was able to establish friendly relations with Amir. At Kabul, Ubaid'Allah, along with some students who had preceded him to make way to Turkey to join the Caliph's "Jihad" against Britain, decided that the pan-Islamic cause was to be best served by focussing on the Indian Freedom Movement. The Berlin-Indian committee (which became the Indian Independence Committee after 1915) also resulted in an Indo-German-Turkish mission to the Indo-Iranian border to encourage the tribes to strike against British interests.[5][6] This group met the Deobandis in Kabul in December 1915. The mission, along with bringing members of the Indian movement right to India's border, also brought messages from the Kaiser, Enver Pasha and the displaced Khedive of Egypt, Abbas Hilmi expressing support for Pratap's mission and inviting the Amir to move against India. The mission's immediate aim was to rally the Amir against British India[7] and to obtain from the Afghan Government a right of free passage. But after the leakage of the plan, the top Deobandi leaders were arrested—Mahmudul-Hasan was arrested from Makkah and together with Husayn Ahmad, was exiled to Malta, from where, he was released in his later stages of T.B.In January 2013, The President of India, Pranab Mukherjee released a commemorative postage stamp on the Silk Letter Movement to acknowledge and appreciate the sacrifices of such groups for the Indian independence movement.
The Jallianwala Bagh massacre, also known as the Amritsar massacre, took place on 13 April 1919 when a crowd of nonviolent protesters, along with Baishakhi pilgrims, who had gathered in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, Punjab, were fired upon by troops of the British Indian Army under the command of Colonel Reginald Dyer. The civilians, in the majority Sikhs, had assembled to participate in the annual Baisakhi celebrations, a religious and cultural festival for Punjabi people and also to condemn the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satya Pal and Dr Saifuddin Kitchlew. Coming from outside the city, they may have been unaware of the imposition of martial law.Dyer was initially lauded by conservative forces in the empire, but in July 1920 he was censured and forced to retire by the House of Commons. He became a celebrated hero in the UK among most of the people connected to the British Raj, for example, the House of Lords, but unpopular in the House of Commons, which voted against Dyer[clarification needed]twice. The massacre caused a re-evaluation of the army's role, in which the new policy became minimum force. The army was retrained and developed less violent tactics for crowd control.
- On 13 March 1940, at Caxton Hall in London, Udham Singh, an Indian independence activist from Sunam who had witnessed the events in Amritsar and had himself been wounded, shot and killed Michael O'Dwyer, the British Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab at the time of the massacre, who had approved Dyer's action and was believed to have been the main planner. Dyer himself had died in 1927.Although Queen Elizabeth II had not made any comments on the incident during her state visits in 1961 and 1983, she spoke about the events at a state banquet in India on 13 October 1997. On 14 October 1997, Queen Elizabeth II visited Jallianwala Bagh and paid her respects with a 30‑second moment of silence. During the visit, she wore a dress of a colour described as pink apricot or saffron, which was of religious significance to the Sikhs.[68] She removed her shoes while visiting the monument and laid a wreath at the monument.In February 2013 David Cameron became the first serving British Prime Minister to visit the site, laid a wreath at the memorial, and described the Amritsar massacre as "a deeply shameful event in British history, one that Winston Churchill rightly described at that time as monstrous. We must never forget what happened here and we must ensure that the UK stands up for the right of peaceful protests". Cameron did not deliver an official apology. 2014: The British period drama Downton Abbey makes a reference to the massacre in the eighth episode of season 5. The characters of Lord Grantham, Isobel Crawley and Shrimpy express their disapproval of the massacre when Susan MacClare and Lord Sinderby support it.
Ārzī Hukūmat-e-Āzād Hind (Urdu: عارضی حکومت آزاد ہند, Hindi: आर्ज़ी हुक़ूमत-ए-आज़ाद हिन्द), the Provisional Government of Free India, or, more simply, Free India (Azad Hind), was an Indian provisional government established in occupied Singapore in 1943 and supported by the Empire of Japan, Nazi Germany, the Italian Social Republic, and their allies. It was a part of a political movement originating in the 1940s outside of India with the purpose of allying with Axis powers to free India from British Rule. It was established by Indian nationalists-in-exile during the latter part of the Second World War in Singapore with monetary, military and political assistance from Imperial Japan. Founded on 21 October 1943, the government was inspired by the concepts of Subhas Chandra Bose who was also the leader of the government and the Head of State of this Provisional Indian Government-in-exile. The government proclaimed authority over Indian civilian and military personnel in Southeast Asian British colonial territory and prospective authority over Indian territory to fall to the Japanese forces and the Indian National Army during the Japanese thrust towards India during the Second World War.[4] The government of Azad Hind had its own currency, court and civil code, and in the eyes of some Indians its existence gave a greater legitimacy to the independence struggle against the British. However, while it possessed all the nominal requisites of a legitimate government, it lacked large and definite areas of sovereign territory until Japan gave it nominal authority of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in 1943 and the occupation of parts of Manipur and Nagaland. Japanese officials made all the decisions, and throughout its existence it was entirely dependent on Japanese support.
- hkej 9oct17 shum article
- hkej 9oct17 shum article
The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire that led to the creation of thesovereign states of the Dominion of Pakistan (which later split into Pakistan and Bangladesh) and theUnion of India (later Republic of India) on 15 August 1947. "Partition" here refers not only to the divisionof the Bengal province of British India into East Pakistan and West Bengal (India), and the similar partition of the Punjab Province into West Punjab(West Pakistan) and East Punjab (now Punjab), but also to the respective divisions of other assets, including the British Indian Army, the Indian Civil Service and other administrative services, the railways, and the central treasury. In the riots which preceded the partition in the Punjab Province, it is believed that between 200,000 and 2,000,000 people were killed in the retributive genocide between the religions. UNHCR estimates 14 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims were displaced during the partition; it was the largest mass migration in human history.[7][8][9] The term partition of India does not cover the later secession of Bangladesh from Pakistan in 1971, nor the earlier separation of Burma (now known asMyanmar) from the administration of British India, nor the separation ofCeylon (now Sri Lanka). The coastal area of Ceylon was part of the Madras Presidency of British India from 1795 until 1798, when it became a separateCrown Colony of the Empire. Burma, gradually annexed by the British during 1826–86 and governed as a part of the British Indian administration until 1937, was directly administered thereafter. Burma was granted independence on 4 January 1948 and Ceylon on 4 February 1948. (SeeHistory of Sri Lanka and History of Burma.) Bhutan, Nepal and the Maldives, the remaining present-day countries of South Asia, were unaffected by the partition. The first two, Bhutan and Nepal, although earlier being regarded as de facto princely states, later signed treaties with the British designating them as independent states before partition, and therefore their borders were unaffected by the partition of India. The Maldives, which had become a protectorate of the British crownin 1887 and gained its independence in 1965, was also unaffected by the partition.
The Bombay Plan is the name commonly given to a World War II-era set of proposals for the development of the post-independence economy of India. The plan, published in 1944/1945 by eight leading Indian industrialists, proposed state intervention in the economic development of the nation after independence from the United Kingdom (which took place in 1947). Titled A Brief Memorandum Outlining a Plan of Economic Development for India, the signatories of the Plan were[1] Jehangir Ratanji Dadabhoy Tata, Ghanshyam Das Birla, Ardeshir Dalal, Sri Ram, Kasturbhai Lalbhai, Ardeshir Darabshaw Shroff, Sir Purshottamdas Thakurdas and John Mathai. The Plan went through two editions: the first was published in January 1944. This first edition became "Part I" of the second edition, published in 2 volumes in 1945 under the editorship of Purushottamdas Thakurdas. Although Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, did not officially accept the plan, "the Nehruvian era witnessed [what was effectively] the implementation of the Bombay Plan; a substantially interventionist state and an economy with a sizeable public sector."[2]Its perceived influence has given it iconic status, and "it is no exaggeration to say that the Bombay Plan has come to occupy something of a mythic position in Indian historiography. There is scarcely a study of postwar Indian economic history that does not point to it as an indicator of the developmental and nationalistic aspiration of the domestic capitalist class." The basic objectives were a doubling of the (then current) output of the agricultural sector and a five-fold growth in the industrial sector, both within the framework of a 100 billion Rupee (£72b, $18b) investment (of which 44.8% was slated for industry) over 15 years. A key principle of the Bombay Plan was that the economy could not grow without government intervention and regulation. Under the assumption that the fledgling Indian industries would not be able to compete in a free-market economy, the Plan proposed that the future government protect indigenous industries against foreign competition in local markets. Other salient points[4] of the Bombay plan were an active role by government in deficit financing and planning equitable growth, a transition from an agrarian to an industrialized society, and—in the event that the private sector could not immediately do so—the establishment of critical industries as public sector enterprises while simultaneously ensuring a market for the output through planned purchases. Although the Bombay Plan did not itself propose a socialist agenda, "virtually all" commentators acknowledge "that there is a direct line of continuity from the Bombay Plan of 1944-1945 to the First Five-Year Plan in 1950."
The Sino-Indian War (Hindi: भारत-चीन युद्धBhārat-Chīn Yuddh), also known as theSino-Indian Border Conflict (simplified Chinese: 中印边境战争; traditional Chinese:中印邊境戰爭; pinyin: Zhōng-Yìn Biānjìng Zhànzhēng), was a war between China andIndia that occurred in 1962. A disputed Himalayan border was the main pretext for war, but other issues played a role. There had been a series of violent border incidents after the 1959 Tibetan uprising, when India had granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. India initiated a Forward Policy in which it placed outposts along the border, including several north of the McMahon Line, the eastern portion of a Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese PremierZhou Enlai in 1959. Unable to reach political accommodation on disputed territory along the 3,225-kilometre-long Himalayan border, the Chinese launched simultaneous offensives in Ladakh and across the McMahon Line on 20 October 1962. Chinese troops advanced over Indian forces in both theatres, capturing Rezang la in Chushul in the western theatre, as well as Tawang in the eastern theatre. The war ended when the Chinese declared a ceasefire on 20 November 1962, and simultaneously announced its withdrawal from the disputed area. The Sino-Indian War is notable for the harsh mountain conditions under which much of the fighting took place, entailing large-scale combat at altitudes of over 4,000 metres (14,000 feet). The Sino-Indian War was also noted for the non-deployment of the navy or air force by either the Chinese or Indian side.
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- The Mahabharata or Mahābhārata (US/məhɑːˈbɑːrətə/;[1] UK /ˌmɑːhəˈbɑːrətə/;[2]Sanskrit: महाभारतम्, Mahābhāratam,pronounced [məɦaːˈbʱaːrət̪əm]) is one of the two major Sanskrit epics of ancient India, the other being the Ramayana. The Mahabharata is an epic narrative of the Kurukshetra War and the fates of the Kaurava and the Pandavaprinces. It also contains philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four "goals of life" or purusharthas (12.161). Among the principal works and stories in the Mahabharata are theBhagavad Gita, the story of Damayanti, an abbreviated version of the Ramayana, and theRishyasringa, often considered as works in their own right. Traditionally, the authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to Vyasa. There have been many attempts to unravel its historical growth and compositional layers. The oldest preserved parts of the text are thought to be not much older than around 400 BCE, though the origins of the epic probably fall between the 8th and 9th centuries BCE.[4] The text probably reached its final form by the early Gupta period (c. 4th century CE).[5] The title may be translated as "the great tale of the Bhārata dynasty". According to the Mahabharata itself, the tale is extended from a shorter version of 24,000 verses called simply Bhārata. The Mahabharata is the longest known epic poem and has been described as "the longest poem ever written".[7][8] Its longest version consists of over 100,000 shloka or over 200,000 individual verse lines (each shloka is a couplet), and long prose passages. About 1.8 million words in total, the Mahabharata is roughly ten times the length of the Iliad and the Odysseycombined, or about four times the length of the Ramayana. W. J. Johnson has compared the importance of the Mahabharata in the context of world civilization to that of the Bible, the works of Shakespeare, the works of Homer, Greek drama, or the Qur'an.
- Sanjaya (Sanskrit: संजय, meaning "victory") or Sanjaya Gavalgani is a character from the ancient Indian poetic epic Mahābhārata.[1] In Mahabharata—an epic poem of war between the Pandavas and the Kauravas—the blind king Dhritarashtra is the father of the principals of the Kaurava side. Sanjaya, son of charioteer Gavalgana, is Dhritarashtra's advisor and also his charioteer. Sanjaya was a disciple of sage Krishna Dwaipayana Veda Vyasa and was immensely devoted to his master, King Dhritarashtra. Sanjaya — who has the gift of seeing events at a distance (divya-drishti) right in front of him, granted by the sage Vyasa — narrates to Dhritarashtra the action in the climactic battle of Kurukshetra, which includes the Bhagavad Gita. Before this great war broke out, Sanjaya had gone to Yudhishtira as the Ambassador of Kauravas to negotiate on behalf of them.Sanjaya is a virtuous character who “represents intuitive knowledge, which arises from long and arduous spiritual practice, predominance of sattva and inner awakening” (V, “Symbolism in the Bhagavadgita”). Despite him not being as lucky as Arjuna to earn the divine grace, he is still able to receive knowledge from Lord Krishna because he mastered having control over his body and mind (V, “Symbolism in the Bhagavadgita”). He represents having a sense of awareness as he is able to witness all of the details occurring in the battle.
- The Ramayana (/rɑːˈmɑːjənə/; Sanskrit: रामायणम्, Rāmāyaṇam, pronounced [rɑːˈmɑːjəɳəm]) is an ancient Indian epic poem which narrates the struggle of the divine prince Rama to rescue his wife Sita from the demon king Ravana. Along with the Mahabharata, it forms the Sanskrit Itihasa.
- Ravana ( இராவணன் : Tamil; Rāvaṇa; /ˈrɑːvənə/;[1] Sanskrit: रावण; Telugu: రావణ) is a character in the Hindu epic Ramayana where he is depicted as the Rakshasa king of Lanka. Ravana is depicted and described as having been as a follower of Shiva, a great scholar, a capable ruler and a maestro of the veena, but someone who wished to overpower the Devas. His ten heads represent his knowledge of the six shastras and the four Vedas. In the Ramayana, Ravana kidnaps Rama's wife Sita to exact vengeance on Rama and his brother Lakshmana for having cut off the nose of his sister Shurpanakha.Ravana is also worshiped by Hindus in some parts of India, Sri Lanka and Bali (Indonesia) He is considered to be the most revered devotee of Shiva. Images of Ravana are seen associated with Shiva at some places. He also appears in Buddhist Mahayana text Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, and Buddhist Ramayanas and Jatakas, as well as in Jain Ramayanas. The word Rāvaṇa (Sanskrit: रावण) means roaring opposite of Vaiśravaṇa meaning "hear distinctly" (passive).[7][8] Both Ravana and Vaiśravaṇa, who is popularly known as Kubera, are considered to be patronymics derived as sons of Vishrava.[7][8][9][10]
"Rāvana" was a title taken on later by Dashananda, and it means in Sanskrit, "screamer." (Ravana would sing hymns).[11] Further, "roravana" is Sanskrit for "loud roaring."[12] In Abhinava Gupta's Krama Shaiva scripture, "yāsām rāvanam" is used as an expression to mean people who are truly aware in terms of the materialism of their environment. Ravana has many other popular names such as Dasis Ravana, Dasis Sakvithi Maha Ravana, Dashaanan, Ravula, Lankeshwar, Lankeshwaran, Ravanasura, Ravanaeshwaran, Eela Vendhar.Ravana is depicted and described as having ten heads, although sometimes he is shown with only nine heads because he has sacrificed a head to convince Shiva.[citation needed] He is described as a devout follower of Shiva, a great scholar, a capable ruler and a maestro of the Veena. Ravana is also depicted as the author of the Ravana Samhita, a book on Hindu astrology and book Arka Prakasham; book on Siddha medicine and treatment . Ravana possessed a thorough knowledge of Siddha and political science. He is said to have possessed the nectar of immortality, which was stored inside his belly, thanks to a celestial boon by Brahma. - Maricha, or Mareecha (Sanskrit: मारीच, IAST: Mārīca), Indonesian: Marica, Malay: Martanja, Tamil: Marichan, Thai: มารีจ Mareet) is a rakshasa (demon), who is killed by Rama, the hero of the epic and an avatar of God Vishnu. He is mentioned as an uncle of Ravana, the antagonist of the epic. His most notable exploit is his role in the kidnapping of Sita, Rama's wife.
- After the history department of Rajasthan University in June included in its syllabus a book claiming Maharana Pratap defeated emperor Akbar in the Battle of Haldighati, the Maharashtra education board has reduced the Mughal emperor’s reign to just three lines.According to a Mumbai Mirror report, the board has revised history textbooks for classes VII and IX, removing almost all traces of the rule of the Mughals and the monuments they built, instead focusing on the Maratha empire founded by Shivaji.The students, who till last year were told that Akbar was a “liberal and tolerant administrator,” will now be taught that he “tried to bring India under a central authority” and faced opposition from the likes of Pratap.
Shivaji, who was in the earlier textbook referred to as ‘people’s king,’ will now be mentioned as ‘an ideal ruler.’ Shivaji’s role in medieval history, and that of his family and the Maratha generals, have been expanded upon.The new edition for class VII history book has also seen the elimination of Muslim rulers in the country before the Mughal period, including Razia Sultana and Muhammad bin Tughlaq. There is also no trace of the rupaya – first introduced as currency by the Afghan invaders. The revised textbook for class IX, on the other hand, includes the Bofors scam and the Emergency of 1975-1977.Razia Sultana – the first woman to rule Delhi – finds no mention in the revised textbooks. Another notable omission includes the reign of Sher Shah Suri, who had forced Humayun to flee from India. https://thewire.in/165360/maharashtra-education-board-removes-traces-mughals-history-textbooks/
India as a country
- http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21716642-it-more-integrated-european-union-less-unified-united-states-india
People
- Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar ([bʱiːmraːw raːmdʑiː aːmbeːɽkər]; 14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956), popularly known asBabasaheb, was an Indian jurist,economist, politician and social reformerwho inspired the Dalit Buddhist movementand campaigned against social discrimination against Untouchables(Dalits), while also supporting the rights of women and labour.[4][5] He was Independent India's first law minister and the principal architect of the Constitution of India.[
Crown jewel
- http://kohinoordiamond.org/history-of-kohinoor-diamond/
- http://edition.cnn.com/2016/04/20/asia/india-kohinoor-diamond/
The Indian government is making "all possible efforts" to retrieve the Kohinoor diamond contrary to reported comments from the country's Solicitor General that the rare historical stone was given as a gift to the United Kingdom and not stolen. Media reports said Solicitor General Ranjit Kumar told the Indian Supreme Court that the diamond was "neither stolen nor forcibly taken" but had been "gifted" to the East India Company by Punjab rulers.
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