weapons - military and civilian

ancient
- explosive ingredients used in ancient alchemical practice e.g sulphur, realgar, orpiment and saltpetre

• 雄黄，又称作石黄、黄金石、鸡冠石，是一种含硫和砷的矿石，质软、性脆，通常为粒状、紧密状块，或者粉末，条痕呈浅桔红色。Realgar, α-As₄S₄, is an arsenic sulfide mineral, also known as "ruby sulphur" or "ruby of arsenic". Realgar was used by firework manufacturers to create the color white in fireworks prior to the availability of powdered metals such as aluminium, magnesium and titanium. It is still used in combination with potassium chlorate to make a contact explosive known as "red explosive" for some types of torpedoes and other novelty exploding fireworks branded as 'cracker balls', as well in the cores of some types of crackling stars. Realgar is toxic. The ancient Greeks, who called it sandaracha, understood it is poisonous. It was used to poison rats in medieval Spain and in 16th-century England. It is still sometimes used to kill weeds, insects, and rodents, even though more effective arsenic-based agents are available. The Chinese name for realgar is xionghuang 雄黃, literally 'masculine yellow', as opposed to orpiment which was 'feminine yellow'. Its toxicity was also well known to them, and it was frequently sprinkled around houses to repel snakes and insects, as well as being used in Chinese medicine. Realgar is mixed with rice liquor to make realgar wine, which is consumed during the Dragon Boat Festival in order to ward off evil, alluding to its repellent properties. (This practice has become rarer in modern times, with the awareness that realgar is a toxic arsenic compound.) Realgar was commonly applied in leather manufacturing to remove the hair from animal pelts. Because realgar is a known carcinogen, and an arsenic poison, and because competitive substitutes are available, it is rarely used today for this purpose. Realgar was, along with orpiment, a significant item of trade in the ancient Roman Empire and was used as a red paint pigment. Early occurrences of realgar as a red painting pigment are known for works of art from China, India, Central Asia, and Egypt. It was used in European fine-art painting during the Renaissance era, a use which died out by the 18th century.^[10] It was also used as medicine. Other traditional uses include manufacturing lead shot, printing and dyeing calico cloth.
• 雌黄Orpiment was traded in the Roman Empire and was used as a medicine in China, even though it is very toxic. It has been used as fly poison and to tip arrows with poison.^{[citation needed]} Because of its striking color, it was of interest to alchemists, both in China and the West, searching for a way to make gold. For centuries, orpiment was ground down and used as a pigment in painting and for sealing wax, and was even used in ancient China as a correction fluid. It was one of the few clear, bright-yellow pigments available to artists until the 19th century. However, its extreme toxicity and incompatibility with other common pigments, including lead and copper-based substances such as verdigris and azurite,^[5] meant that its use as a pigment ended when cadmium yellows, chromium yellows and organic dye-based colors were introduced during the 19th century.
• Potassium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula KNO₃. It is an ionic salt of potassium ions K⁺ and nitrate ions NO₃⁻, and is therefore an alkali metal nitrate. It occurs in nature as a mineral, niter. It is a source of nitrogen, from which it derives its name. Potassium nitrate is one of several nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as saltpeter or saltpetre.Major uses of potassium nitrate are in fertilizers, tree stump removal, rocket propellants and fireworks. It is one of the major constituents of gunpowder (black powder). In processed meats, potassium nitrate reacts with hemoglobin and generates a pink color.硝酸钾俗称火硝或土硝。主要用于焰火、黑色火药、火柴、导火索、烛芯、烟草、彩电显像管、药物、化学试剂、催化剂、陶瓷釉彩、玻璃、复合肥料、及花卉、蔬菜、果树等经济作物的叶面喷施肥料等。對敏感牙齒有舒緩作用，所以有很多牙膏也有硝酸钾。硝酸鉀也是天氣瓶內的一種鹽類。 在医学上，硝酸钾用于治疗肾结石，目前发现人类泌尿结石有26种成分，其中没有硝酸钾，因为硝酸钾非常活泼，不易形成结石，反而能够与其它结石中的钙结合并且排出体外。是治疗含钙结石的主要药物，为了防止硝酸钾在大肠杆菌作用下形成有致癌性的亚硝酸盐，一般都与硫酸铝钾一起服用。

- greek fire

• https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Byzantines-manage-to-survive-the-Arab-conquests
• the Eastern Romans deployed Greek fire. It was a flammable liquid similar to napalm. It was used in defense of Constantinople against the Arabs, Bulgars, and other invaders. It was delivered by a one-man syringe or an adapted water pump.https://www.quora.com/In-what-ways-was-early-medieval-society-more-advanced-than-Ancient-Rome

- chariots

• https://www.quora.com/How-effective-would-chariots-have-been-in-medieval-warfare-pre-gunpowder

- ballistae

• https://www.quora.com/How-were-Roman-ballistae-used-I-cant-imagine-one-huge-arrow-being-more-effective-than-50-small-arrows-Was-it-purely-a-psychological-weapon

- stone throwing machine

• catapult
• The mangonel, also called the traction trebuchet, was a type of trebuchet or siege engine used in Ancient China starting from the Warring States period, and later across Eurasia in the 6th century AD. Unlike the earlier torsion engines and later counterweight trebuchet, the mangonel operated on manpower pulling cords attached to a lever and sling to launch projectiles. Although the mangonel required more men to function, it was also less complex and faster to reload than the torsion powered ballista and onager which it replaced in early Medieval Europe.Mangonel is derived from the Greek mágganon, meaning "engine of war", but mangonel may also be indirectly referring to the mangon, a French hard stone found in the south of France. It may have been a name for counterweight artillery (trebuchets), possibly either a men-assisted fixed-counterweight type, or one with a particular type of frame.The mangonel is called al-manjanīq in Arabic. In China the traction trebuchet was called the pào (砲).

roman times
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-strangest-weapons-the-Romans-created
- https://www.quora.com/What-weapon-in-Roman-times-terrified-the-enemy-when-it-was-first-encountered When the romans amphibiously besieged Syracuse on the second punic war they encountered this incredible engines, the most notorius ones were cranes that hooked the roman ships, then a pulley system powered by oxen will pull it up with great strength, breaking the roman ships.

gunpowder
- https://www.quora.com/Why-couldnt-Spain-conquer-the-Ottoman-Empire-and-the-Mughal-Empire-or-Sur-Empire-in-the-16th-century-like-the-Inca-Empire-and-the-Aztec-Empire note the map on The ‘gunpowder empires’ of the Early Modern Era, mid-17th century

火炮
- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/01/28/a23-0128.pdf

凝固汽油彈（napalm），亦稱燒夷彈is an incendiary mixture of a gelling agent and a volatile petrochemical (usually gasoline (petrol) or diesel fuel). The title is a portmanteau of the names of two of the constituents of the original thickening and gelling agents: co-precipitated aluminium salts of naphthenic acid and palmitic acid.Use of fire in warfare has a long history. Greek fire, also described as "sticky fire" (πῦρ κολλητικόν, pýr kolletikón), is believed to have had a petroleum base. The development of napalm was precipitated by the use of jellied gasoline mixtures by the Allied forces during World War II.^[2] Latex, used in these early forms of incendiary devices, became scarce, since natural rubber was almost impossible to obtain after the Japanese army captured the rubber plantations in Malaya, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Thailand. This shortage of natural rubber prompted chemists at US companies such as DuPont and Standard Oil, and researchers at Harvard University, to develop factory-made alternatives—artificial rubber for all uses, including vehicle tires, tank tracks, gaskets, hoses, medical supplies and rain clothing. A team of chemists led by Louis Fieser at Harvard University was the first to develop synthetic napalm, during 1942.^[6] "The production of napalm was first entrusted to Nuodex Products, and by the middle of April 1942 they had developed a brown, dry powder that was not sticky by itself, but when mixed with gasoline turned into an extremely sticky and inflammable substance."

狼牙棒，為古代兵器的一種，用堅重的木頭製成，長四五尺，上端長圓作棗子形，形如狼牙^[1]。在宋朝時是金國士兵所用武器，紹興年間有戲劇反映了當時宋人對該武器威力的無奈。狼牙棒（ろうげぼう^[1]）は、主に中国の戦国時代後期と宋代において用いられた、打撃武器の一種。狼の牙に譬えられる棘状の突起物を柄頭に数多く取り付けた棒状の武器である。 中国語では狼牙棒（拼音[lángyábàng]［ランヤーパン］）、英語（実質的国際通用語）では wolf's teeth mace、もしくは、wolf teeth mace と呼ぶ。設計思想上近似の武器として日本の金砕棒がある、ヨーロッパのモーニングスターやホーリーウォータースプリンクラーなども挙げることができるが、それらはむしろ片手用や歩兵用の蒺藜骨朶と類似する。起源は春秋時代の武器・殳（しゅ）であるとされる。殳は刺すための穂先と、鋭利な突起の付いた2つの打撃部を持つ武器（cf. 殳部、wikt:殳）であったが、戦国時代には鋭利な青銅製突起物を付けた錘と呼ばれる紡錘形のおもりを柄の先端に一つ持つ形になった。宋代に使用された物は軽量化のために堅木と30から40センチメートル程度の鉄製で突起を備えた比較的長い中空の頭部から成り、刀や薙刀のような鍛錬の工程が不要な事から重騎兵用の兵器として作られた。主として両手用の長柄で150から200センチメートルの長さを持ち、錘による打撃効果と棘の貫通能力は金属鎧を着用した相手に効果的であり、重装騎兵の装備として採用されていた^[2]。『水滸伝』の好漢・秦明（架空の人物）が愛用したことで有名。長さは騎兵用や歩兵用など様々であるが、約80-190センチメートル、重量は0.5-3キログラム程度といわれている^[3]。

- similar weapons

• A macuahuitl ([maːˈkʷawit͡ɬ]) is a wooden club with obsidian blades. The name is derived from the Nahuatl language and means "hand-wood".^[2] Its sides are embedded with prismatic blades traditionally made from obsidian; obsidian is capable of producing an edge sharper than high quality steel razor blades. The macuahuitl was a standard close combat weapon. Use of the maquahuitl as a weapon is attested from the first millennium CE. By the time of the Spanish conquest the macuahuitl was widely distributed in Mesoamerica. The weapon was used by different civilisations including the Aztec (Mexicas), Mayan, Mixtec and Toltec.One example of this weapon survived the Conquest of Mexico; it was part of the Royal Armoury of Madrid until it was destroyed by a fire in 1884. Images of the original designs survive in diverse catalogues. The oldest replica is the macuahuitl created by the medievalist Achille Jubinal in the 19th century.

urumi (whip blade)
- https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-weirdest-weapon-ever-created-by-humanity

The naginata (なぎなた, 薙刀) is a pole weapon and one of several varieties of traditionally made Japanese blades (nihonto). Naginata were originally used by the samuraiclass of feudal Japan, as well as by ashigaru (foot soldiers) and sōhei (warrior monks).^[3] The naginata is the iconic weapon of the onna-bugeisha, a type of female warrior belonging to the Japanese nobility. Naginata for fighting men and warrior monks were ō-naginata. The kind used by women was called ko-naginataThe naginata was developed from an earlier weapon type of the later 1st millennium AD, the hoko yari.^[6][7] It's difficult to tell when the naginata itself first appeared. Though often claimed as being invented by the sōhei during the Nara period, physical evidence of their existence dates only from the mid-Kamakura period, and earlier literary sources are ambiguous. The earliest clear references to naginata date from 1146 in the late Heian period, with one suggesting that the weapon may have been recent.^[8] Earlier 10th through 12th century sources refer to "long swords" that while a common medieval term or orthography for naginata, could also simply be referring to conventional swords; one source describes a naginata being drawn with the verb nuku, commonly associated with swords, rather than hazusu, the verb otherwise used in medieval texts for unsheathing naginata.其形狀與中國的眉尖刀比較相似（此處原文為偃月刀，但偃月刀刀背另有刀尖，而眉尖刀窄﹑長﹑彎刀形與之更相近）。又稱長刀。

armour
- https://www.quora.com/Did-knights-actually-wear-those-stereotypical-and-bulky-suits-of-armor
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Middle-Eastern-empires-never-wear-metal-armor

鐵甲騎兵  A cataphract was a form of armored heavy cavalry used in ancient warfare by a number of peoples in Europe, East Asia, Middle East and North Africa.The English word is derived from the Greek κατάφρακτος Kataphraktos (plural: κατάφρακτοι Kataphraktoi), literally meaning "armored" or "completely enclosed" (the prefix kata-/cata- implying intense or completely). Historically, the cataphract was a very heavily armored horseman, with both the rider and mount draped from head to toe in scale armor, while typically wielding a kontos or lance as their weapon.Cataphracts served as either the elite cavalry or assault force for most empires and nations that fielded them, primarily used for impetuous charges to break through infantry formations. Chronicled by many historians from the earliest days of antiquity up until the High Middle Ages, they are believed to have influenced the later European knights, through contact with the Byzantine Empire.Peoples and states deploying cataphracts at some point in their history include: the Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Parthians, Achaemenids, Sakas, Armenians, Seleucids, Pergamenes, Kingdom of Pontus, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, the Sassanids, the Romans, the Goths and the Byzantines in Europe and the Mongols, Chinese, and Koreans in East Asia.The origin of the word is Greek. Κατάφρακτος (kataphraktos, cataphraktos, cataphractos, or katafraktos) is composed of the Greek root words, κατά, a preposition, and φρακτός ("covered, protected"), which is interpreted along the lines of "fully armored" or "closed from all sides". The term first appears substantively in Latin, in the writings of Sisennus: "loricatos, quos cataphractos vocant", meaning "the armored, whom they call cataphract".

- https://www.quora.com/How-did-ancient-armies-defeat-cataphracts

 dōu móu 兜鍪，古代战士戴的头盔。秦汉以前称胄，后叫兜鍪。种类多以形象设定，有虎头兜鍪、凤翅兜鍪，狻猊兜鍪，等。 兜是一种形同口袋，非整盔塑造，有一定可变性的头盔，大多数兜鍪除了能保护头部的防护外更能护全头、颈、喉、而且兼护部分面部及肩部。战国之前头盔都称之为胄，战国后随着技术革新，也给头盔赋予了新的名称“兜鍪（doumou）”。 而到了隋朝，世界各国之间有了初步的联系，这个时期便出现了以野兽为造型的兽头兜鍪，主要是以狮头为造型的狮头兜鍪，融入中国后狮头逐渐被更具中国色彩的虎头取代。这种虎头兜鍪对民俗的影响也很大，以至于之后民间盛行给男童戴虎头帽以求健康平安的意愿。唐朝后，处于中国历史巅峰的封建大帝国，无论政治、经济、文化、军事各项都空前强盛繁荣，在技术上积极汲取了国外先 进技术融入汉文化，逐渐发展出具备中国特色的兜鍪。在兜鍪的盔饰上多以鸟翅最为常见凤栖兜鍪。至五代后，兜鍪的风格进一步发育成熟，装饰本身也富于实用性，盔饰上凤翅已与后世相近，不再像盛唐那样为满足视觉欲望而做的纯粹艺术造型。同时也出现的兽角獠牙等形象的兜鍪，并且对日式兜鍪产生了深远的影响。 宋朝兜鍪发展已经定型，主要有凤翅兜鍪、狻猊兜鍪、陷阵兜鍪。自宋以后，除了个别朝代，兜鍪的形式基本保持不变，没有较大的发展和改变。辽、西夏、金时期拥有丰富的铁矿和更好的冶铁技术，锻炼出质量较高的铁兜鍪。开始流行在完整的铁笠帽的帽檐边缀铁帘的笠状重檐兜鍪。至清朝后，在列强入侵中，火器大量出现，甲胄兜鍪如戏袍一样毫无作用，至此兜鍪逐渐的退出了历史的舞台。


shield
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Roman-Army-transition-from-rectangular-shields-to-round-shields-in-the-later-years-of-the-Empire

axe
- The ono (斧) (historically wono, をの) or masakari^[1] is the Japanese word for an "axe" or a "hatchet", and is used to describe various tools of similar structure. As with axes in other cultures, ono are sometimes employed as weapons. Many existing examples of this particular weapon are associated with the sōhei (warrior monks) or yamabushi,^[1] who also adapt other agricultural tools as weapons, although samurai are also pictured as using ono in woodblock prints. Ono that were specifically designed for military use are of extreme rarity. The weapon version of the ono is described as having "a very large head with a very convex cutting edge and a large scroll-shaped peen opposite it. It has a sheath covering only the edge of the blade. The entire length is nearly six feet".鉞ㄩㄝˋ，本字為戉，又稱作揚^[1]。是大型化的斧，中國先秦時代武器。《集韻》載：「戉，威斧也。」《周禮・大司馬》注載：「戉，所以為將威也。」鉞的外型為一長柄斧頭，重量更重於斧。早在新石器時代良渚文化遺址中，已發現玉製的鉞，在當時具有神聖的象徵作用。盛行於商和西周，但因形制沉重，靈活不足，終退為儀仗用途，常作為持有者表現威儀與權力之用，在後代也往往是君主大權的象徵。

• Masakari in deutsch and italian

- A tomahawk is a type of single-handed axe from North America, traditionally resembling a hatchet with a straight shaft. The name came into the English language in the 17th century as an adaptation of the Powhatan (Virginian Algonquian) word. Tomahawks were general-purpose tools used by Native Americans and later the European colonials with whom they traded, and often employed as a hand-to-hand or a thrown weapon. The metal tomahawk heads were originally based on a Royal Navy boarding axe and used as a trade-item with Native Americans for food and other provisions.トマホーク (tomahawk) は、北アメリカのインディアンが使う斧。北米大陸への入植・開発のために白人がヨーロッパから大量輸入した斧を現地の入植者やネイティブアメリカンが改良したもの。印第安戰斧手柄長度通常都不會超過0.61米，傳統上以山胡桃木、梣木或槭木製造。印第安戰斧的重量約在260-570克，斧鋒通常不會長過4英寸^[2]。印第安戰斧可以是錘形的、尖銳的或球形的^[2]。石製印第安戰斧的上端通常以磨光的塊滑石所製的，在印第安人的儀式上則會用華麗雕飾過的印第安戰斧^[1]。這些印第安戰斧的上端中通常都刻有煙碗，以中空手柄來吸食煙草^[2] 。金屬製印第安戰斧亦有相類似的情況^[2]。煙斗形印第安戰斧是北美洲特有的手工製品，過去經常作為與歐洲人交換的外交禮物^[1]。當印第安人面對歐洲人時，便會以印第安戰斧來展示力量，印第安戰斧的兩端分別是和平的煙斗，以及戰爭的斧頭。在法國殖民地，有一種非常不同設計的印第安戰斧，那種戰斧與古時的弗朗奇斯卡很接近，由法國殖民者和當地土著所使用^[3]。在18世紀後期，英國軍隊在美國獨立戰爭時將印第安戰斧發配給殖民地正規兵作為武器和工具^[4]。
- https://www.marchance-auctioneers.com/en/past/detail/13033 yuan dynasty bronze cross vajra tomahawk

swords
- https://www.quora.com/In-ancient-sword-fights-how-common-were-instant-amputations-of-limps-legs-or-decapitations-by-a-sword-blow-Which-swords-were-capable-of-such
- https://www.quora.com/Were-ancient-Roman-soldiers-actually-forbidden-to-sharpen-the-edges-of-their-swords-and-ordered-only-to-thrust-with-the-tip
- Gladius (/ˈɡleɪdiəs/; Classical Latin: [ˈɡladiʊs]) was one Latin word for sword, and is used to represent the primary sword of Ancient Roman foot soldiers. Early ancient Roman swords were similar to those of the Greeks, called xiphos. From the 3rd century BC, however, the Romans adopted swords similar to those used by the Celtiberians and others during the early part of the conquest of Hispania. This sword was known as the gladius hispaniensis, or "Hispanic sword". A fully equipped Roman legionary after the reforms of Gaius Marius was armed with a shield (scutum), one or two javelins (pila), a sword (gladius), often a dagger (pugio), and, perhaps in the later empire period, darts (plumbatae). Conventionally, soldiers threw pilae to disable the enemy's shields and disrupt enemy formations before engaging in close combat, for which they drew the gladius. A soldier generally led with the shield and thrust with the sword.Several different designs were used; among collectors and historical reenactors, the three primary kinds are known as the Mainz gladius, the Fulham gladius, and the Pompeii gladius (these names refer to where or how the canonical example was found). More recent archaeological finds have uncovered an earlier version, the gladius Hispaniensis. The differences between these varieties are subtle. The original Hispanic sword, which was used during the republic, had a slight "wasp-waist" or "leaf-blade" curvature. The Mainz variety came into use on the frontier in the early empire. It kept the curvature, but shortened and widened the blade and made the point triangular. At home, the less battle-effective Pompeii version came into use. It eliminated the curvature, lengthened the blade, and diminished the point. The Fulham was a compromise, with straight edges and a long point.
- Chape has had various meanings in English, but the predominant one is a protective fitting at the bottom of a scabbard or sheath for a sword or dagger (10 in the diagram).^[1]Historic blade weapons often had leather scabbards with metal fittings at either end, sometimes decorated.^[2] These are generally either in some sort of U shape, protecting the edges only, or a pocket shape covering the sides of the scabbard as well. The reinforced end of a single-piece metal scabbard can also be called the chape. The scabbard chape is not to be confused with the chappe, a French term - rain-guard in English - on the sword itself, a fitting at the top of the blade in late medieval weapons, just below the crossguard of the hilt. The chappe fitted outside the scabbard, presumably helping to hold the sword snugly and preventing rain coming in (4 in the diagram). This would typically have been of leather, though everything about these is uncertain as no original examples have survived, and they are mainly known from art.珌，刀鞘、剑鞘下端的饰物。珌1.古代刀鞘末端的装饰。《诗·小雅·瞻彼洛矣》:"鞸琫有珌。"毛传:"鞸，容刀鞸也。琫，上饰;珌，下饰。"《汉书·王莽传上》:"于是莽稽首再拜，受绿韨衮冕衣裳，玚琫玚珌。"一说指剑柄与身相接处的玉饰。
- europe

• https://www.quora.com/How-common-was-sword-ownership-in-the-Middle-Ages-Did-the-average-citizen-own-a-sword-or-blade-of-some-sort

- japan

• https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-ancient-Japanese-Samurai-not-want-cross-guards-on-their-swords

- china

•  大約二千八百多年前，東周末、春秋時期，開始重視鑄劍，用以保家衛國和防身；但只准貴族、將軍和皇室人士才能佩帶，百姓平民則不准，故腰間懸劍，亦屬特殊身份地位的標誌。戰國時代至西漢，老百姓也可佩劍，故佩劍之風甚盛；不只作為武器，同時講求劍飾；尤其是上乘寶劍各部位的裝飾，喜歡以美玉雕琢而成。《漢書．匈奴傳》載：「單于朝，天子賜以玉具劍。」孟康註釋：「標、首、鐔、衛，盡以玉為之。」標，就是劍珌，指劍鞘下端的飾玉，又稱為「㻫」。首，即劍首，是劍柄頂端的飾玉。鐔，通常叫作劍琫，俗稱劍格，指劍柄與劍身之間的飾玉，鑲劍柄之近劍口處橫出；陳大年解釋：「其稱琫者，謂當舉劍之時，即以手捧此器之謂。」至於衛，後來名為劍璏或璲；「璏」字與「衛」字相通，鑲劍鞘中間部位偏上方，原意是保衛劍鞘，間接地也保衛了劍。這些古玉劍飾有一定的形制，部位分明；現今收藏者必須詳細認清楚，免被後仿者混淆。例如附圖，是一九八三年時，我國考古學家在廣州象岡山上發現的西漢初年南越王墓中玉劍飾之一，就是劍琫（劍格），帶天然石灰沁、鐵沁和朱砂沁，深埋岡頂之下二十米深處，經歷逾二千年的水侵土蝕，但這種透閃石類軟玉的結構堅結溫潤，可從「室溫紅外吸收光譜」、X射線粉晶照相和顯微放大等科學分析證明。曾侯乙墓出土的戰國早期銅人腰掛之短劍，劍鞘上鑄有銎孔的突起物，應屬我國最早的劍飾─璲；其後江蘇六合縣發掘出的春秋晚期銅劍，就鑲了玉劍首和玉劍琫各一，可說是玉具劍的雛形。西漢南越王身佩的五把玉具劍，也只有兩把齊備了上述四種玉劍飾；另一把的劍琫，並非玉質，卻是硬質木料。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190524/PDF/b13_screen.pdf

A machete (/məˈʃɛti/; Spanish pronunciation: [maˈtʃete]) is a broad blade used either as an implement like an axe, or in combat like a short sword.  In the Spanish language, the word is a diminutive form of the word macho, which was used to refer to sledgehammers. In the English language, an equivalent term is matchet, though it is less commonly known.^{[citation needed]} In the English-speaking Caribbean, such as Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, and Grenada and in Trinidad and Tobago, the term cutlass is used for these agricultural tools.

- note different cultural variations and similar tools, in particular:

• The kukri is a Nepalese curved blade used for many purposes similar to the machete.

- The flag of Angola features a machete, along with a cog-wheel. 

- Traditional forms of fencing with machetes include Colombian grima in Colombia, Juego del garrote in Venezuela, and tire machèt in Haiti.
- brasseur noted from his journey in guatemala that indians rely heavily on their machetes 

cutlass
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-pirates-use-the-cutlass-instead-of-another-sword-for-fighting

knife
- in katakana - na-i-fou; in french - le couteau (de coutel, coltel en ancien francais vers 1130)
- https://www.quora.com/Is-the-Jagdkommando-knife-really-banned-by-the-Geneva-convention

The kris (ngoko Javanese: ꦏꦼꦫꦶꦱ꧀ ; krama inggil Javanese: ꦮꦁꦏꦶꦔꦤ꧀;^[2] ngoko: keris; krama; dhuwung; krama inggil: wangkingan, lit. "to slice"; Jawi: کريس, Thai: กริช krit, Minangkabau: karih, Tagalog: kalis; Bugis and Makassarese: sele) is an asymmetrical dagger with distinctive blade-patterning achieved through alternating laminations of iron and nickelous iron (pamor).^[3] While most strongly associated with the culture of Indonesia the kris is also indigenous to Malaysia, Thailand, Brunei, Singapore and the Philippines where it is known as kalis with variants existing as a sword rather than a dagger. The kris is famous for its distinctive wavy blade, although many have straight blades as well. Kris have been produced in many regions of Indonesia for centuries, but nowhere—although the island of Bali comes close—is the kris so embedded in a mutually-connected whole of ritual prescriptions and acts, ceremonies, mythical backgrounds and epic poetry as in Central Java.^[4] As a result, in Indonesia the kris is commonly associated with Javanese culture, although other ethnicities are familiar with the weapon as part of their culture, such as the Balinese, Malays, Sundanese, Madurese, Banjar, Thais, Bugis, Makassar, and Filipinos.

- The word kris derives from the Old Javanese term ngiris (Javanese: ꦔꦶꦫꦶꦱ꧀) which means to slice, wedge or sliver. "Kris" is the more frequently used spelling in the West, but "keris" is more popular in the dagger's native lands,^[6] as exemplified by the late Bambang Harsrinuksmo's popular book entitled Ensiklopedi Keris (Kris Encyclopedia). Two notable exceptions are the Philippines where it is usually called kalis or kris, and Thailand where it is always spelled kris and pronounced either as kris or krit. In the Yala dialect the word is kareh. Other spellings used by European colonists include "cryse", "crise", "criss", "kriss" and "creese."

Seax (Old English pronunciation: [ˈsæɑks]; also sax, sæx, sex; invariant in plural, latinized sachsum) is an Old English word for "knife".^[1] In modern archaeology, the term seax is used specifically for a type of sword or dagger typical of the Germanic peoples of the Migration period and the Early Middle Ages, especially the Saxons, whose name derives from the weapon. In heraldry, the seax is a charge consisting of a curved sword with a notched blade, appearing, for example, in the coats of arms of Essex and the former Middlesex. Old English seax, sax and Old Frisian sax are identical with Old Saxon and Old High German saks, all from a Common Germanic *sahsą from a root *sah, *sag- "to cut" (also in saw, from a PIE root *sek-). In Scandinavia, the words sax, saks or sakset all refer to scissors, which are used for cutting various materials. The term scramaseax or scramsax (lit. "wounding-knife") is sometimes used for disambiguation, even though it is not attested in Old English, but taken from an occurrence of scramasaxi in Gregory of Tours' History of the Franks. The name of the roofer's tool, the zax, is a development from this word.

- according to ice fire documentary by bbc, vikings invaded anglo saxon britain in 793 and introduced sophisticated techniques in metalworks (viking daggers were shown)

bow and arrow
- https://www.quora.com/So-the-English-longbowmen-did-it-but-some-claim-arrows-rain-was-a-rare-strategy-and-that-shooting-arrows-in-an-upwards-angle-weakens-its-force-What-is-the-definite-answer-Did-archers-apart-from-English-longbowmen
- https://www.quora.com/Could-arrows-be-reused-after-being-fired-in-ancient-battles-In-which-case-were-armies-in-effect-giving-each-other-ammo-after-firing

- mongolia

• https://www.quora.com/How-did-Mongol-mounted-archers-as-big-targets-with-small-bows-beat-standing-archers-with-longer-bows-who-can-hit-the-horse-further-away
• [gc pang and h toth] mongolian bow is double-curved, and made if horn, sinew, bark , and wood. Arrowheads are made of bone. The string is drawn back with the aid of a thumb ring made of leather.

A longbow is a type of bow that is tall – roughly equal to the height of the user – allowing the archer a fairly long draw. A longbow is not significantly recurved. Its limbs are relatively narrow so that they are circular or D-shaped in cross section. Flatbows can be just as long; the difference is that, in cross-section, a flatbow has limbs that are approximately rectangular. Longbows for hunting and warfare have been made from many different woods by many cultures; in Europe they date from the Paleolithic, and since the Bronze Age were made mainly from yew, or from wych elm if yew was unavailable. The historical longbow was a self bow made of a single piece of wood, but modern longbows may also be made from modern materials or by gluing different timbers together. Organisations that run archery competitions have set out formal definitions for the various classes; many definitions of the longbow would exclude some medieval examples, materials, and techniques of use.^[1][2] Some archery clubs in the US classify longbows simply as bows with strings that do not come in contact with their limbs. According to the British Longbow Society, the English longbow is made so that its thickness is at least ​⁵⁄₈ (62.5%) of its width, as in Victorian longbows, and is widest at the handle. This differs from the Medieval longbow, which had a thickness between 33% and 75% of the width. Also, the Victorian longbow does not bend throughout the entire length, as does the medieval longbow.

- https://www.quora.com/Why-was-the-longbow-so-much-more-integrated-into-the-English-Welsh-armies-of-Medieval-Britain-than-the-crossbow/answer/Pieter-Buis-1

A javelin is a light spear designed primarily to be thrown, historically as a ranged weapon, but today predominantly for sport. The javelin is almost always thrown by hand, unlike the bow and arrow and slingshot, which shoot projectiles from a mechanism. However, devices do exist to assist the javelin thrower in achieving greater distance, generally called spear-throwers.A warrior or soldier armed primarily with one or more javelins is a javelineer. The word javelin comes from Middle English and it derives from Old French javelin, a diminutive of javelot, which meant spear. The word javelot probably originated from one of the Celtic languages.

- norse mythology

• In Norse mythology, Odin, the chief god, carried a javelin or spear called Gungnir. It was created by a group of dwarves known as the Sons of Ivaldi who also fashioned the ship of Freyrcalled Skidbladnir and the golden hair of Sif.^[18] It had the property of always finding its mark ("the spear never stopped in its thrust").^[19] During the final conflict of Ragnarok between the gods and giants, Odin will use Gungnir to attack the wolf Fenrir before being devoured by him.

- lusitanian mythology

• The god Runesocesius is identified as a "god of the javelin".

- The pilum (plural pila; Classical Latin: [ˈpiːlũː]) was a javelin commonly used by the Roman army in ancient times. 

• Note, the Zulus pretty much copied this, without even knowing that others had done this before, by making their shields much bigger and their spear tips much bigger but their spear handles much shorter and had similar results in many of their battles.https://www.quora.com/What-made-Roman-legions-an-unstoppable-military-force-for-centuries

laser
- 美國海軍太平洋艦 隊22日發表聲明稱，兩棲 運輸船塢艦 「波特蘭號」 16日實測新型高能激光武 器，成功摧毀一架飛行中 的無人機，並公布測試影 片。有媒體分析稱，這是 美國意圖重啟軍備競賽的 又一信號。 太平洋艦隊的聲明表示，這種新型固態 激光武器的全稱為 「激光武器系統演示器」 ，是美國海軍研究辦公室和諾斯洛普．格魯 曼公司合作研製的高能激光武器系統演示器 。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200525/PDF/b14_screen.pdf

- economist 7mar2020 "the rise of the ray gun" laser weapons are almost ready to go to war

helmet

- A dragoon helmet was an ornate style of metal combat helmet featuring a tall crest; they were initially used by dragoons, but later by other types of heavy cavalry and some other military units. Originating in France in the second half of the 18th century, it was widely imitated by other European armies and was last used in combat in 1914. Some military units continue to wear this style of helmet for parades and other ceremonial duties.18th century European dragoon cavalry generally wore tricorn hats, but in 1762, the French Army introduced a new uniform for their dragoon regiments, featuring a crested helmet, loosely based on classical Ancient Greek and Roman styles.^[1] It was made of steel with a brass crest and featured an imitation panther fur "turban" and a long black horsehair mane or plume.^[2] One distinctive exampleof this kind of headgear used to be the Tarleton helmet. By the end of the century, it had developed a taller, more elegant shape and a removable feather plume at the side, which was only worn on parade.^[3] The dragoon helmet was also adopted by the French cuirassier regiments which were first formed in 1803,^[4] and by French engineers. In 1812, the French engineer corps became responsible for the Paris fire brigade, the Sapeurs-pompiers, who also adopted the dragoon helmet;^[5] this was later copied and adapted by other European fire services, including the London Fire Brigade who introduced the crested Merryweather helmet in 1868 following a visit to Paris by Captain Sir Eyre Massey Shaw.Le casque « à la romaine » - dit aussi casque « à l'antique » ou « à la Minerve » - est un type de casque militaire qui fit son apparition à la Renaissance mais qui fut surtout popularisé à partir de la seconde moitié du xviii^e siècle et au xix^e siècle, en particulier lors des guerres napoléoniennes. La forme de ce type de coiffure était censée évoquer celle des casques de parade à cimier des officiers des légions romaines.Der Raupenhelm ist ein militärischer Helmtyp, bei dem über der Helmglocke (direkt oder auf einem Metallbügel) eine Pelzraupe angebracht ist. Oft, insbesondere bei niedrigeren Rängen, war die Raupe nur aus Wolle gefertigt. Die Helmglocke bestand aus Metall oder Leder und schützte den Träger ausreichend vor Säbelhieben. Hinzu kam ein (in der Regel metallener) Kinnriemen, der zusätzlichen Schutz bot.

- The Pickelhaube (plural Pickelhauben; from the German Pickel, "point" or "pickaxe", and Haube, "bonnet", a general word for "headgear"), also Pickelhelm, is a spiked helmet worn in the 19th and 20th centuries by German military, firefighters, and police. Although typically associated with the Prussian Army, which adopted it in 1842–43,^[1] the helmet was widely imitated by other armies during this period.^[2] It is still worn today as part of ceremonial wear in the militaries of certain countries.  The Pickelhaube was originally designed in 1842 by King Frederick William IV of Prussia,^[3] perhaps as a copy of similar helmets that were adopted at the same time by the Russian military.^[4] It is not clear whether this was a case of imitation, parallel invention, or if both were based on the earlier Napoleonic cuirassier. The early Russian type (known as "The Helmet of Yaroslav Mudry") was also used by cavalry, which had used the spike as a holder for a horsehair plume in full dress, a practice also followed with some Prussian models. The Pickelhaube is still part of the parade/ceremonial uniform of the Life Guards of Sweden, the National Republican Guard (GNR) of Portugal, the military academiesof Chile, Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador, the Military College of Bolivia, the Army Central Band and Army School Bands of Chile, the Chilean Army's 1st Cavalry and 1st Artillery Regiments, and the Presidential Guard Battalion and National Police of Colombia. The Blues and Royals, the Life Guards of the United Kingdom and traffic police in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan also use different forms of the Pickelhaube. The modern Romanian Gendarmerie (Jandarmeria Româna) maintain a mounted detachment who wear a white plumed Pickelhaube of a model dating from the late 19th century, as part of their ceremonial uniform.

private ownership

- greece

• https://www.quora.com/How-strong-is-the-gun-culture-in-Greece-Do-Greeks-have-a-particular-love-of-guns The law that determines weapon ownership and use is 2168/1993—the Greek constitution doesn’t even address the issue, because it was never deemed central to public life and the organization of the state. According to 2168/1993, hunting weapons can be legally owned after the citizen applies to the police for a license, is examined by a psychiatrist and has the weapons registered. Pistols and revolvers are more difficult to get a license for; you have to prove you’re in danger, have been threatened etc. Automatic firearms are allowed in the fewest of cases, mostly VIP security. That being said, illegal weapons do exist and are being bought and sold.The region that can be said to have a “gun culture” above all others is the island of Crete, which is unique in many respects anyway. Gun ownership is very widespread there, with hunting rifles, pistols, firearms and even automatic firearms and heavier weapons possessed legally, semi-legally or completely illegally. Gun ownership in Crete can be traced as back as the Ottoman era. People carried weapons to hunt and defend themselves against wild animals, bandits and even people they had differences with. Note that Crete has had a long-standing tradition of vendettas, which has only recently started to disappear. Gradually, gun ownership became a cultural thing, as in, an element of personal pride and dignity. However, most Cretans agree that it was during the last three or four decades that weapons, including heavier ones, started to come to Crete in so big numbers. This means the whole thing is more about the modern purposeful “amplification” of an older tradition than the tradition itself. A central part of the Cretan “gun culture” are the so-called balothies. At weddings, engagements, childbirths, baptisms, funerals and celebrations of all kind, people take out their weapons and shoot in the air. It’s a custom intended to honor those the celebration is about, bring good luck and underline the importance of the event. Again, over the last decades the custom is used as a chance to show-off and has led to a small but not insignificant number of injuries, even deaths. The police rarely intervene.