Southeast Asia (S E Asia)

east china sea

- The sea is called the East Sea in Chinese (東海; Dōng Hǎi), being one of the Four Seas of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for each of the four cardinal directions.Until World War II, the sea was referred to as 東支那海 (Higashi Shina Kai; "East Shina Sea") in Japanese. In 2004, official documents of the Japanese Foreign Ministry and other departments switched to the name 東シナ海 (pronounced the same), which has become the standard usage in Japan. Common usage in Indonesia refers to the sea as Laut Cina Timur (East China Sea). This name was used officially by the Indonesian government until 2014, when Indonesia switched usage from the word Cina to Tiongkok instead; since then, the name Laut Tiongkok Timur become standard usage in Indonesia. Despite this, many Indonesian media outlets and publications continue to use the former sea name.

- Rescue crews were forced to retreat from a stricken Iranian oil tanker in the East China Sea on Wednesday following an explosion on the ship as a fire raged for a fourth day after a dramatic collision.The blast happened on board the tanker in the afternoon after rescue crews were dousing the ship with foam in an attempt to put out the fire, China’s Transport Ministry (MOT) said in a statement on Wednesday.The cause and damage to the tanker from the incident were not clear. The ship was carrying condensate, a highly flammable ultra-light crude, to deliver to South Korea when it collided with a Chinese freight ship on Saturday.Dozens of rescue boats from China and South Korea have been battling strong winds, high waves and poisonous fumes to comb a 900-square-nautical-mile (3,100-square-kilometre) area for 31 missing sailors and tame the fire, amid growing concerns the listing ship may explode or sink.Iran’s Navy joined the effort on Wednesday, a government official said, according to the Iranian Students’ News Agency (ISNA).The lashing winds are expected to ease on Thursday, the MOT said.The tanker Sanchi (IMO:9356608), run by Iran’s top oil shipping operator, National Iranian Tanker Co, collided on Saturday with the CF Crystal (IMO:9497050), carrying grain from the United States, about 160 nautical miles (300 km) off China’s coast near Shanghai. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-shipping-accident-oil/explosion-on-iranian-oil-tanker-forces-rescue-team-to-retreat-idUSKBN1EZ03L

• An oil tanker burning in the East China Sea for more than a week has finally sunk, Chinese media say. The Sanchi and a cargo ship collided 260km (160 miles) off Shanghai on 6 January, with the tanker then drifting south-east towards Japan. Iranian officials now say all 32 crew members - 30 Iranians and two Bangladeshis - on the tanker are dead.http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-42680945
• 日本官房長官菅義偉周五稱，近日發現疑有中國開採船在東海的「中日中間線」附近，單方面開採油氣田。他指日方對事件極其遺憾，已透過外交渠道向中方抗議。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190323/00178_020.html

The Hong River (紅河;pinyin: Hóng Hé; Vietnamese: Sông Hồng), also known as the Red River, the Hồng Hà and Sông Cái(lit. "Mother River") in Vietnamese,^{[citation needed]} and the Yuan River (元江, Yuán Jiāng Nguyên Giang) in Chinese

红河，又称元江（越南语：Sông Hồng 或 Hồng Hà）为中国云南省——越南跨境水系， 是唯一发源于云南境内的一条重要国际性河流（边界在河口镇—越南老街），也是越南北部最大河流；由于流域多红色沙页岩地层，水呈红色，故称“红河”。红河呈西北-东南流向。红河源头位于大理州巍山县永建镇红河源村密驴摩彝族村北面哀牢山脉起始段—龙虎山，流经中国云南的大理、楚雄、玉溪、红河四个地州的17个县市和越南北部的12个省，全长1280公里。红河发源于中国云南省中部[别名元河·珈河[Yuen Chiang]]，河源海拔2650米。上游礼社河出巍山彝族回族自治县北在三江口接纳东侧支流绿汁江后始称元江，流至到我国红河哈尼族彝族自治州境内后称红河，东南流至河口入越南，到河内分支流入太平洋的北部湾。红河是唯一发源于云南境内的一条重要国际性河流（边界在河口瑶族自治县—越南老街）。河谷深切，流域分水岭高程一般2000～3000米，河口附近河床高程-76.4米，全河总落差为2574米，平均比降3.9 ‰，多峡谷。李仙江是元江西岸的最大支流，上游称把边江，东南流和阿墨江汇合后称李仙江，流入越南后称黑水河.红河三角洲是越南北部的主要经济区域。

-全國政協常委、香港新華集團主席蔡冠深在2021年全國兩會期間建議，要充分發揮中國（雲南）自由貿易試驗區紅河片區的區位優勢，充分發揮「沿邊」和「跨境」兩大優勢，解放思想，大膽嘗試，設立「境內關外」特殊監管區，為全力打造面向東盟的加工製造基地、商貿物流中心和中越經濟走廊創新合作示範區創造更廣闊空間，使紅河片區成為「一帶一路」戰略和「雙循環」的重要節點、輻射中心的門戶前沿，成為沿邊開放發展的新高地。http://hk.hkcd.com/pdf/202103/0307/HA05307CHAA_HKCD.pdf

-《紅河》是一部2009年中國上映的一部電影，由章家瑞導演。故事講述發生在中越邊境上的愛情故事，由張靜初、張家輝主演。

The Golden Triangle^[1] is the area where the borders of Thailand, Laos, and Myanmar meet at the confluence of the Ruak and Mekong rivers.^[2] The name "Golden Triangle"—coined by the CIA^[3]—is commonly used more broadly to refer to an area of approximately 950,000 square kilometres (367,000 sq mi) that overlaps the mountains of the three adjacent countries.Along with Afghanistan in the Golden Crescent, it has been one of the largest opium-producing areas of the world since the 1950s. Most of the world's heroin came from the Golden Triangle until the early 21st century when Afghanistan became the world's largest producer.As the Chinese Communist Party gained power, they ordered ten million addicts into compulsory treatment, had dealers executed, and opium-producing regions planted with new crops.^[when?] Consequently, opium production shifted south of the Chinese border into the Golden Triangle region.The Chinese troops of the Kuomintang (KMT) in Myanmar were, in effect, the forebears of the private narcotic armies operating in the Golden Triangle. Almost all the KMT opium was sent south to Thailand.^[6] Prior to the arrival of the KMT, the opium trade had already developed as a local opium economy under British colonial rule. The KMT-controlled territories made up Burma's major opium-producing region, and the shift in KMT policy allowed them to expand their control over the region's opium trade. Furthermore, Communist China's eradication of illicit opium cultivation in Yunnan by the early 1950s effectively handed the opium monopoly to the KMT army in the Shan states. The main consumers of the drug were the local ethnic Chinese and those across the border in Yunnan and the rest of Southeast Asia. The KMT coerced the local villagers for recruits, food and money, and exacted a heavy tax on the opium farmers. This forced the farmers to increase their production to make ends meet. One American missionary to the Lahu tribesmen of Kengtung State testified that the KMT tortured the Lahu for failing to comply with their regulations.^{[citation needed]}Annual production increased twenty-fold, from 30 tons at the time of Burmese independence to 600 tons in the mid-1950s.Tam giác Vàng in viet

- The Golden Triangle is now one of the world's leading areas for the production of synthetic drugs and particularly methamphetamine as production has scaled up of Yaba tablets and crystalline methamphetamine, including for export to Australia, New Zealand, and across East and Southeast Asia.^[17] With respect to the accelerating synthetic drug production in the region, and specifically in Shan State, Myanmar, Sam Gor, also known as "The Company", is understood to be one of the main international crime syndicates responsible for this shift.^[18] Made up of members of five different triads and understood to be headed by Tse Chi Lop, a gangster born in Guangzhou, China, the Cantonese Chinese syndicate is primarily involved in drug trafficking, potentially earning up to $8 billion per year.^[19] Sam Gor is alleged to control 40% of the Asia-Pacific methamphetamine market, while also trafficking heroin and ketamine. The organization is active in a variety of countries in addition to Myanmar, including Thailand, Lao PDR, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, China and Taiwan.The Chinese Muslim Panthay are the same ethnic group as the Muslims among the Chinese Chin Haw.^[21] Both are descendants of Chinese Hui Muslim immigrants from Yunnan province in China. They often work with each other in the Golden Triangle Drug Trade. Both Chinese Muslim and non-Muslim Jeen Haw and Panthay are known to be members of Triad secret societies, working with other Chinese groups in Thailand like the TeoChiew and Hakka and the 14K Triad. They engaged in the heroin trade. Ma Hseuh-fu, from Yunnan province, was one of the most prominent Jeen Haw heroin drug lords.A Panthay from Burma, Ma Zhengwen, assisted the Han Chinese drug lord Khun Sa in selling his heroin in north Thailand.^[22]:306 The Panthay monopolized opium trafficking in Burma.^[22]:57 They also created secret drug routes to reach the international market with contacts to smuggle drugs from Burma via south China.

该地区在20世纪出现了许多臭名昭著的大毒枭，例如昆沙、羅星漢、彭家聲等。

• Khun Sa (Burmese: ခွန်ဆာ, pronounced [kʰʊ̀ɰ̃ sʰà]; 17 February 1934 – 26 October 2007) was a Shan drug lord. He was born in Hpa Hpeung village, in the Loi Maw ward of Mongyai, Northern Shan State, Burma.In his early life Khun Sa received military equipment and training from both the Kuomintang and Burmese Army before claiming to fight for the independence of Shan State and going on to establish his own independent territory. He was dubbed the "Opium King" in Myanmar due to his massive opium smuggling operations in the Golden Triangle, where he was the dominant opium warlord from approximately 1976–1996. Although the American ambassador to Thailand called him "the worst enemy the world has", he successfully co-opted the support of both the Thai and Burmese governments at various times. After the American Drug Enforcement Administration uncovered and broke the link between Khun Sa and his foreign brokers, he "surrendered" to the Burmese government in 1996, disbanding his army and moving to Yangon with his wealth and mistresses. After his retirement some of his forces refused to surrender and continued fighting the government, but he engaged in "legitimate" business projects, especially mining and construction. He died in 2007 at the age of 73. Today, his children are prominent business people in Myanmar.Khun Sa was born to a Chinese father and a Shan mother. For the first forty years of his life he was primarily known by his Chinese name, Zhang Qifu. When he was three years old, his father died. His mother married a local tax collector, but two years later she died as well.^[2] He was raised largely by his Chinese grandfather, who was the headman of the village in which he was born, Loi Maw.^[3] The Chinese side of his family had been living in Shan State since the 18th century.He received no formal education but had military training as a soldier with Chinese Nationalist forces that had fled into Burma after the victory of Mao’s Communists in 1949.「昆沙」這個名字，昆是撣族土司的称谓，沙是名字。但在掸邦、佤邦、果敢等缅甸华人较多的地方，当地人还是称其为「张奇夫」，在泰国美斯乐，雲南人民反共志願軍总指揮兼第五軍軍長段希文将军的墓上，捐建者名录的第一行就刻着“张奇夫”。
• [新闻淘宝] flag of khun sa - tricolor (red, yellow, green) background and white disc

- 老挝金三角经济特区是经老挝中央政府批准（《总理府第090号政令》），于2010年2月4日正式成立的国家级经济特区，其前身是始建于2007年的老挝金三角东盟经济旅游开发区。开发商是老挝金木棉集团有限公司（金木棉国际（香港）有限公司控股子公司）。特区被老挝政府视为施行改革开放政策的样板，开发商在特区经济管理方面被赋予了很高的权限，老挝金木棉集团董事长赵伟任老挝金三角经济特区经济管理委员会主席。开发商在数年内投入数亿美元资金用于修建基础设施，如今根据旅游者的资料可知，老挝金三角经济特区面貌已经有了很大改观。按照当地的发展计划，金三角经济特区未来将成为可容纳20万人的大城市，豪华赌场、酒店、高尔夫球场等高档娱乐设施将成为该地区的重要利润增长点。其中，赌场主要吸引来自中国和泰国的赌客，因为赌博在这两个国家是非法的，而老挝政府为杜绝罂粟种植、促进当地经济发展，将博彩牌照特许授予特区。“外交学者”网站称，金三角特区整体设施预计2020年能基本建成，总耗资超过22.5亿美元。

Kedah, also written as Queda, and known in the early days as Qalha, Kalah Bar, Kalah or Kalaha by the Arabs and Persians, Cheh-Cha, Ka-Cha by the Chinese and Kedaram, Kidaram, Kalagam and Kataha by the Tamils is an early kingdom on the Malay Peninsula and an important early trade centre. Early west-coast trade centres are few in number as they were overshadowed by Kedah. Her nearness to the entrances to the Straits of Malacca — and more importantly — being on latitude 6° north of the equator, the same as Ceylon to the south of India, allowed ships sailing the Bay of Bengal in a sea lane heading due east or west between the two, were in little danger of becoming lost. The early transpeninsular routeway is part of the Sea trade route of the Spice Route for Arab, Persian, Tamil Nadu and India-to-China traders, as the route through the Straits does not seem to have been in general use. Early sea traders from the west, upon reaching the coast, engaged porters to transport goods by raft, elephant and man-carry along the rivers (Kelantan River, Pattani River, Pahang River, Muda River, Bernam River, Muar River, and others) to the opposite coast. The Sungai Muda in particular favoured the development of Kedah. After the 7th century, Srivijaya subjugated Kedah, but due to her fame, Indian sources continue to depict Kedah. Early Kedah also supplied its own tin, and jungle products such as rattan, resin, honey, beeswax, elephants, ivory, areca nuts, sepang wood and black woods, as well as profiting from tax collections. The early history of Kedah can be traced from various sources. From the prehistoric period to the archaeological site of Bujang Valley, the early Maritime trade of India, Persia, Arabs to the written works of early Chinese pilgrims and early Chinese records, the Hikayat Merong Mahawangsa (known as Kedah Annals) to Al-Tarikh Salasilah Negeri Kedah.

The Wanshan Archipelago, formerly known as the Ladrones Islands, is a 104-island archipelago that is part of the Xiangzhou District of Zhuhai in Guangdong Province, China.Most of the islands of the archipelago are in the Wanshan Marine Development Experimental Zone (万山海洋开发试验区) which consist of three towns: Guishan Town (桂山镇), Dan'gan Town (担杆镇) and Wanshan Town (万山镇).The islands are situated in the South China Sea, to the south of the opening of the Pearl River estuary and Hong Kong. The Wanshan Islands also include some islands in Hong Kong and Macau, such as Hong Kong Island and Lantau Island in Hong Kong, Taipa-Coloane Island in Macau.^{[citation needed]} The archipelago includes several groups of islands. The western group, located south of the Pearl River estuary and Lantau Island, was formerly known to Europeans as the Ladrones from the Spanish for "Thieves" ( similar to Ladrões in Portuguese ). It comprises Greater Wanshan, Guishan, and Wai Dangling Islands and the Zhizhou, Sanmen, and Aizhou groups. The eastern group, located south of Hong Kong Island, was known as the Lema Islands. Today, they are known as the Jiapeng Liedao and Dan'gan Liedao, respectively. The largest island, Dangan, features mountainous terrain similar to Hong Kong.萬山群島自古以來一直都是一個人煙稀少的地方，16世紀葡萄牙人發現群島後，將其命名為Ladrones，即盜賊之意思。在清朝時由於珠江口海上交通頻繁，這些島嶼便成為海盜藏身之處。1898年，大英帝國與大清帝國簽署《展拓香港界址專條》，當中包括將香港島鄰近的萬山群島島嶼租借予英國，惟因為英國認為萬山群島（中國部分）距離香港島比較遠，既不會直接威脅香港，管治這些島嶼也是鞭長莫及，故此萬山群島仍然由中國管治。隨著中華民國成立，萬山群島（中國部分）也先後改由廣州軍政府和國民政府管治。1949年底隨著廣東省被中国人民解放军攻佔，中華民國國軍節節敗退。中共建政後，中華民國國軍在萬山群島等沿海島嶼集中兵力。1950年5月25日，解放軍展開對萬山群島的攻擊，強行搶灘登陸，史稱萬山群島海戰。戰事初段国军報捷，擊沉桂山號等軍艦，隨著解放军不斷增援，国军兵力不繼，終於在同年6月27日，解放军成功取得萬山群島（中國部分）主要島嶼。

• 去年十一月啟動的萬山無人船海上測試場是國內最大的，測試場可供不同企業進行科研測試。繼無人汽車、無人飛機之後，無人船會是今後發展的一個重要行業。技術是相通的，也總合中國傳統的造船技術，但加添了數碼化、訊息化，特別是衞星定位，一如無人飛機、無人船也是軍民兩用。深圳的無人飛機產業出口世界，無人船亦應有相類的機會。測試場是一個起點，相信會聚集眾多無人船的生產研發機構與企業在珠海一帶，對香港從科研而言也大有參加的機會。深圳一帶以大疆為首聚集了上千的無人飛機行業的企業，無人船也可成為另一個大產業的聚合點。萬山群島也有波浪發電的科研項目。此外，在漁業與旅遊方面，萬山群島也有大的進展，例如深海大型網箱養殖業、大型人工漁礁的建設。區內列有一千平方公里的港澳遊艇垂釣區，近年有國際海釣比賽。外伶仃島、東澳島為國家4A級旅遊景區，相關的基礎設施和餐飲建設旅店也有大的更新。二○一八年萬山區的旅遊人數達數十萬人次。這還是在發展的初始階段，香港差不多無人知曉，少有參與底下的成就。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20190213/00184_001.html
• An archipelago to the east of Hong Kong and Macao has attracted the attention of a European real estate investment company planning to build a luxury resort project there. The resort development project is called Crystal Waters on Wanshan islands, which belongs to Zhuhai. The total amount to be invested could range from $150 million to $200 million, Pantazis Therianos, chief executive of Euroterra Capital, told China Daily in Hong Kong. "The breathtaking sea views and the improving infrastructure are the two major reasons why we have a bullish view on Wanshan, "Therianos said. The land for the resort will be covered by a 40-year lease. It is the first time the London-based property investment firm will invest heavily in the Asia market. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201906/25/WS5d1193fca3103dbf1432a13b.html
• 內地海域近珠海的萬山區一帶是海釣熱點，港人只需向內地辦理釣魚證，便可於該海域釣魚。不過，該海域卻出現「海盜」，有內地漁民會向釣魚人士收取五十元人民幣，令船家及釣魚人士不勝其煩，要求有關部門正視問題。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20200701/00176_088.html

- 桂山島，前稱垃圾尾島，曱甴尾，是中國萬山群島的島嶼之一，鄰近香港大嶼山分流，行政區劃為廣東省珠海市香洲區桂山鎮，並由珠海萬山海洋開發試驗區管轄。現時，該島已與牛頭島和中心洲相連，面積為10平方公里，並以發展旅遊業為主。該地盛產鱲魚。桂山島原稱垃圾尾島，該處於1950年發生萬山群島海戰，海戰中的中国人民解放军江防司令部戰艦桂山號在該處成功搶灘登陸並取得勝利。為此，當時珠海縣人民政府於1954年把該處命名為桂山島^[4]。广东省化学危害应急检测技术重点实验室副研究员郭鹏然博士的研究结果显示，桂山岛附近海底表层沉积物中，铜、铅、锌三种重金属含量均不同程度地超过河口背景值。评价结果是“该海水养殖基地中，表层沉积物中重金属对底栖生物有潜在或慢性毒性作用。”2013年8月14日，珠海市在全市海洋經濟工作會議上透露，珠海擬大力發展海洋經濟，同時擴大萬山群島海域對外開放，包括爭取簡化港澳居民來海島觀光旅遊和垂釣的通關手續，對港澳居民免簽。並在桂山島建設廣東省首批粵港澳遊艇對外開放碼頭，加快研究出台港澳遊艇管理辦法，實現港澳籍遊艇在萬山區指定水域活動及停泊。遊艇碼頭預算在2013年底建成。

• http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20180722/00184_001.html朋友說，香港可發展周邊的島嶼，例如桂山島，雖不屬香港，卻可由特區政府向內地政府租借，一如澳門利用珠海橫琴部分土地那樣。桂山島離大嶼山不遠，有十平方公里土地，現為珠海的旅遊觀光地。香港大可把現有懲教署屬下的監獄和其他設施搬往，並把紀律部隊的訓練基地遷往。在海島之內有利管理，形成一個大的特殊社區。只要規劃得宜，管理制度有所創新，與當地漁民村落不會構成矛盾。特區政府每年支付租金，也可幫助當地居民改善生活，提升基建設施，租借後還可常設與香港、內地的輪渡班次，加強連接。
• http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20190213/00184_001.html桂山海上風電項目，第一期已完工，連同升壓站，已經發電並經聯網輸送往珠海。第一期裝機容量為十二萬千瓦，每年可供二點六六億千瓦清潔電力。第二期為八萬千瓦，已經於去年開工。這個風電項目是廣東省首個示範工程，桂山島項目的重要性是打破了附近海島的孤島狀態，海上風電項目提供了整個萬山群島的電力，有助海島發展，且有餘力供應珠海市內，今後廣東省將進一步大力擴展風電生產。桂山島風電設備產自中山市企業，該市據此並規劃建立整個風電產業鏈的生產研發基地。去年超強颱風山竹並沒有為風電場帶來破壞，反因超強颱風而產生更多的電力，中國製造的風電體系在桂山島顯示了實力。
• 中銀香港經濟與政策研究主管、前中央政策組 首席研究主任王春新及全國政協委員凌友詩，早於2018年提出桂山島 填海借地倡議，將桂山島打造成為集宜居社區、深水貨櫃港、會展商 貿中心於一身的 「大灣區明珠」 。王春新接受《大公報》訪問，詳述 其最新桂山島發展藍圖倡議，重申若桂山島填海借地能成事，不但有 助解決香港房屋土地問題，更有助提升整個大灣區發展競爭力。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200903/PDF/a10_screen.pdf
• 香港房地產協會由地產發展 商、工程承建商等地產業專才組 成，早在2018年9月已提出粵港 澳聯合開發桂山島建議。協會經 深入研究後，昨日發表 「桂山島 『創世新城』 2021-2049計劃」 ，提出詳細的發展可能性。協會建議，桂山島發展分三 階段進行，各為期10年，料最終 可提供70平方公里發展用地，是 「明日大嶼」 的四倍，規模與香 港島相若。計劃首階段擬運用桂 山島現有10平方公里土地，及其 西岸填海而得的10平方公里土地 ，興建八萬個住宅單位，料可容 納20萬人。相關用地將率先發展 安老、醫療及物流行業，包括興 建懲教設施群、現代化貨櫃碼頭 及智能物流園區等，從而騰空本 港葵青碼櫃碼頭等市區用地。 計劃第二階段會在桂山島以 東的大、小蛛洲附近填海20平方 公里，建屋八萬伙，並以 「教育 ─文創」 產業為核心，提供16萬 個就業職位。第三階段工程則是 在桂山島以西的青洲、三角山島 等，填海30平方公里，建屋12萬 伙，以 「未來城市」 產業為核心 ，創造24萬個就業職位。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200922/PDF/a8_screen.pdf

- 零丁洋又稱伶仃洋，位於珠江口外， 域內島嶼稱萬山群島，其中與伶仃洋同名 的有內伶仃島（屬深圳管轄）、外伶仃島 （屬珠海管轄），傳說該島因伶仃孤懸滄海 ，且位於外伶仃洋，故得此名。外伶仃島 距珠海27海里，距香港長洲6海里，距香 港九龍11海里，是內地唯一能看到香港市 區的海島。晴天時眺望香港方向，可將香 港青馬大橋與九龍的車水馬龍盡收眼底。

• http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190215/PDF/b8_screen.pdf

扶南（高棉语：នគរភ្នំ，罗马化：Nokor Phnom 发音：[nɔ.ˈkɔː pʰnum]）也称夫南、跋南，是中南半岛的一个印度化古国，位於東南亞大陸，其統治中心位於湄公河三角洲一帶，存在時間大約是1世紀至6世紀期間。扶南奉印度教為國教。其国都位于毗耶陀补罗（梵語：Vyadha-pura，直译：猎人-城），可能在波羅勉省巴布農縣，^[1][2]有湄公河西北流东入海。扶南是這個國家在古代漢文文獻中的稱呼。今日柬埔寨將此國稱為「នគរភ្នំ」（Nokor Phnom）或「វ្នំ」（发音：[ʋnum] vnom）。「នគរភ្នំ」意為「山城」，「វ្នំ」在古高棉語中意思是「山」。然而，扶南之名不見於任何同時期的高棉文獻，因此扶南人對自己政權的稱呼仍然不明。一些學者根據漢文文獻中扶南国王叫“山帝”，认为“帝”即高棉语“Kurung”，“山”即高棉语“bnam”。3世紀中葉時期，東吳派遣中郎康泰、宣化從朱應奉命訪問扶南，並留下了對扶南的文字記載。《梁书》：“扶南国，在日南郡之南海西大湾中，去日南可七千里，在林邑西南三千余里。城去海五百里。有大江广十里，西北流，东入于海。其国轮广三千余里，土地洿下而平博，气候风俗大较与林邑同。出金、银、铜、锡、沉木香、象牙、孔翠、五色鹦鹉。其南其南界三千余里有顿逊国，……羁属扶南。顿逊之外，大海洲中，又有毘骞国，去扶南八千里。……扶南王数遣使与书相报答，常遗扶南王纯金五十人食器，形如圆盘，又如瓦塸，名为多罗，受五升，又如碗者，受一升。……扶南东界即大涨海，海中有大洲，洲上有诸薄国。……扶南国俗本裸体，文身被髮，不制衣裳。”纪元前，扶南国有开国女王，名柳叶。扶南国之南，有徼国，有人名混填（或許就是扶南開國君主憍陳如一世），有一天夜里，梦见天神赐弓，混填早晨起来，便到庙中神树下，果然得到一把神弓，随即按照梦中指示，乘船入海，入扶南外邑。扶南国女王柳叶部众，见混填船到，立刻派出船舶，图谋夺取，混填张弓射柳叶船，飞箭贯穿船面，射中柳叶侍从，柳叶大惊失色，举众投降混填。混填成为扶南国王，纳柳叶为妻，生七子，各分封王，治理七邑。后来其中一位邑王混盘况，运用阴谋手段，离间其余六位邑王，让他互相猜疑，然后起兵将六个邑王消灭，派遣自己的几个子孙，分治各邑，称为小王。在古代漢文史籍中，扶南國王名字多以「范」字開頭。「范」即高棉語វ្រះ（vraḥ），源於梵文वर（vara），意為「神聖的」。Based on the testimony of the Chinese historians, the polity Funan is believed to have been established in the 1st century CE in the Mekong Delta, but archaeological research has shown that extensive human settlement in the region may have gone back as far as the 4th century BCE. Though regarded by Chinese authors as a single unified polity, some modern scholars suspect that Funan may have been a collection of city-states that sometimes were at war with one another and at other times constituted a political unity.^[6] From archaeological evidence, which includes Roman, Chinese, and Indian goods excavated at the ancient mercantile centre of Óc Eo (from the Khmer អូរកែវ Ou Kaeo, meaning "glass canal") in southern Vietnam, it is known that Funan must have been a powerful trading state.^[7] Excavations at Angkor Borei in southern Cambodia have likewise delivered evidence of an important settlement. Since Óc Eo was linked to a port on the coast and to Angkor Borei by a system of canals, it is possible that all of these locations together constituted the heartland of Funan.

- people who came from the coast of Funan are also known to establish Chi Tu (the Red Earth Kingdom) in the Malay Peninsula. The Red Earth Kingdom is thought to be a derivation nation of Funan.

- legacy

• The "King of the mountain" was the monarch of Funan. There was a mountain regarded as holy.^[37][34] Mountain in Khmer sounds similar to Funan.The Java-based Sailendras claimed that the Funan monarchs were their ancestors. Cambodia was taken control of after a sojourn in Java by Jayavarman II.^[41][42][43]The "Mountain Kings" of Funan were claimed as the forebears of the Malacca Sultanate and Brunei Sultanate.

The Melayu Kingdom (also known as Malayu, Dharmasraya Kingdom or the Jambi Kingdom; 末羅瑜國; pinyin: Mòluóyú Guó, reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciation mat-la-yu kwok) was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The primary sources for much of the information on the kingdom are the New History of the Tang, and the memoirs of the ChineseBuddhist monk Yijing who visited in 671, and states was "absorbed" by Srivijaya by 692, but had "broken away" by the end of the eleventh century according to Chao Jukua.^{[4]:79–80,83,142,179,184} The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies among historians. One theory is that the kingdom was established around present-day Jambi on Sumatra, Indonesia, approximately 300 km north of Palembang. According to this theory, it was founded by ethnic groups in the Batanghari river area and gold traders from the Minangkabau hinterland. The theory is disputed as the geographical location of Jambi contradicts the descriptions by Yijing, who explicitly mentioned that the kingdom is located half-way between Ka-Cha (Kedah) and Bogha (Palembang)".

The Khmer Empire (/kəˈmɛər/; Khmer: ចក្រភពខ្មែរ: Chakrphup Khmer or អាណាចក្រខ្មែរ Anachak Khmer), officially the Angkor Empire (Khmer: អាណាចក្រអង្គរ: Anachak Angkor), the predecessor state to modern Cambodia ("Kampuchea" or "Srok Khmer" to the Khmer people), was a Hindu-Buddhist empire in Southeast Asia. The empire, which grew out of the former kingdoms of Funan and Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalised most of mainland Southeast Asia^[3] and parts of Southern China, stretching from the tip of the Indochinese Peninsula northward to modern Yunnan province, China, and from Vietnam westward to Myanmar. Its greatest legacy is Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, which was the site of the capital city during the empire's zenith. The majestic monuments of Angkor, such as Angkor Wat and Bayon, bear testimony to the Khmer Empire's immense power and wealth, impressive art and culture, architectural technique, aesthetics achievements, and the variety of belief systems that it patronised over time. Satellite imaging has revealed that Angkor, during its peak in the 11th to 13th centuries, was the largest pre-industrial urban centre in the world.The beginning of the era of the Khmer Empire is conventionally dated to 802 CE when King Jayavarman II declared himself chakravartin ("king of the world", or "king of kings") on Phnom Kulen. The empire ended with the fall of Angkor in the 15th century.
- legacy

• thailand

•  Chaloem Phra Kiat (Thai: เฉลิมพระเกียรติ, pronounced [t͡ɕʰā.lɤ̌ːm pʰráʔ kìa̯t]) is a district (amphoe) of Buriram Province, northeastern Thailand.古くはクメール王朝の地方都市であった。パノムルン遺跡やムアンタム遺跡 (Phanom Rung (Thai: พนมรุ้ง, pronounced [pʰānōm rúŋ]), or full name, Prasat Hin Phanom Rung (Thai: ปราสาทหินพนมรุ้ง – Phanom Rung Stone Castle) - hindu temple)などが郡内には位置する。 The district was created on 5 December 1996, together with four other districts and renamed Chaloem Phra Kiat in celebration of the 50th anniversary of King Bhumibol Adulyadej's ascension to the throne.

• china daily 8apr19 "thai town celebrates its ancient khmer heritage"

 滿者伯夷 The Majapahit Empire (Javanese: ꦏꦫꦠꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀, Karaton Majapahit, Indonesian: Kerajaan Majapahit) was a vast thalassocracy based on the island of Java (part of modern-day Indonesia) from 1293 to around 1500. Majapahit reached its peak of glory during the era of Hayam Wuruk, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 was marked by conquest which extended through Southeast Asia. His achievement is also credited to his prime minister, Gajah Mada. According to the Nagarakretagama (Desawarñana) written in 1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea; consisting of present-day Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, southern Thailand, Sulu Archipelago, Philippines, and East Timor, although the true nature of Majapahit sphere of influence is still the subject of studies among historians.
- 爪哇史頌  The Nagarakretagama or Nagarakrtagama, also known as Desawarnana, is an Old Javanese eulogy to Hayam Wuruk, a Javanese king of the Majapahit Empire. It was written on lontar as a kakawin by Mpu Prapanca in 1365 (1287 Saka year). The Nagarakretagama contains detailed descriptions of the Majapahit Empire during its greatest extent. The poem affirms the importance of Hindu–Buddhism in the Majapahit empire by describing temples and palaces and several ceremonial observances.

• referred to a settlement on the island called Tumasik (possibly meaning "Sea Town" or "Sea Port"). The name Temasek is also given in Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals), which contains a tale of the founding of Temasek by a prince of Srivijaya, Sri Tri Buana (also known as Sang Nila Utama) in the 13th century. Sri Tri Buana landed on Temasek on a hunting trip, and saw a strange beast said to be a lion. The prince took this as an auspicious sign and founded a settlement called Singapura, which means "Lion City" in Sanskrit. The actual origin of the name Singapurahowever is unclear according to scholars.
• In 1894, the Dutch East Indies launched a military expedition against the Cakranegara royal house of Lombok. That year, the Dutch took the manuscript as part of the valuable Lombok treasure, war-booty from the destroyed palace of Mataram-Cakranagara in Lombok. The first western scholar to study the manuscript was J.L.A. Brandes (nl), a Dutch philologist. He accompanied the KNIL expedition to Lombok in 1894, and is credited with saving the valuable manuscripts collection of the Lombok royal library from being burnt in the chaos of the battle. A generation of Dutch scholars participated in translating the poem. Much of its historical value was due to its having been the product of priestly activities directed at enhancing the magical powers of the ruler at the time.^[5] The manuscript is written on lontar leaves. It was held in the library of Leiden University in the Netherlands, with inventory code number L Or 5.023. After its translation in the early 20th century, the Nagarakretagama became an inspiration and foundation of the Indonesian independence movement. In 1973 during the state visit of Queen Juliana to Indonesia, she returned the manuscript to Indonesia. Today it is held by the National Library of Indonesia

The Lan Na or Lanna Kingdom (Lanna: , Northern Thai pronunciation: [ʔaː.naː.tɕǎk.láːn.naː], "Kingdom of a Million Rice Fields"; Thai: อาณาจักรล้านนา, rtgs: Anachak Lan Na, Thai pronunciation: [ʔaː naː tɕàk láːn naː]; Burmese: ဇင်းမယ် ပြည်, IPA: [zɪ́ɴmɛ̀ pjì] or ယွန်းပြည်, IPA: [yʊ́ɴ pjì]), also known as Lannathai, was an Indianized state centered in present-day Northern Thailand from the 13th to 18th centuries. The Pali chronicles refer to the kingdom as Yonarattha or Yonkarattha (Kingdom of the Yuon) or Bingarattha (Kingdom of the Mae Ping). In the Chinese History of the Yuan it is called Pa-pai-si-fu, mentioned first in 1292. The cultural development of the people of the Northern Thai people had begun long before as successive kingdoms preceded Lan Na. As a continuation of the kingdom of Ngoenyang, Lan Na emerged strong enough in the 15th century to rival the Ayutthaya Kingdom, with whom wars were fought. However, the Lanna Kingdom was weakened and became a tributary state of the Taungoo Dynasty in 1558. Lan Na was ruled by successive vassal kings, though some enjoyed autonomy. The Burmese rule gradually withdrew but then resumed as the new Konbaung Dynasty expanded its influence. Taksin of the Thonburi Kingdom finally conquered Lan Na in 1775 and broke it down into a number of tributary kingdoms.
- Mangrai, the 25th king of Ngoenyang (modern Chiang Saen) of the Lavachakkaraj dynasty, whose mother was a princess of a kingdom in Sipsongpanna ("the twelve nations"), centralized the mueangs of Ngoenyang into a unified kingdom or mandala and allied with the neighboring Phayao Kingdom. In 1262, Mangrai moved the capital from Ngoenyang to the newly founded Chiang Rai – naming the city after himself.

- 泰元文化，來自一個古老神秘的族群。清邁素稱「泰北玫瑰」，是今天僅次於首都曼谷的泰國第二大城市。15世紀中期，泰元人在這裡建立了泰國歷史上最強大的政權之一蘭娜王國（Lanna）。它地處湄南河流域，四周環山，綠樹成蔭。這片土地適宜農業發展，這裡人們的生活純樸迷人。居住在這裡的人民多數篤信佛教，至今仍保存着眾多古老的大小寺廟，昭示着曾經輝煌文明的歷史。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/05/31/a17-0531.pdf

The Malacca Sultanate (Malay: Kesultanan Melayu Melaka; Jawi script: كسلطانن ملايو ملاك) was a Malay sultanate centred in the modern-day state of Malacca, Malaysia. Conventional historical thesis marks c. 1400 as the founding year of the sultanate by a Malay Raja of Singapura (King of Singapore), Parameswara, also known as Iskandar Shah.^{[1]:245–246} At the height of the sultanate's power in the 15th century, its capital grew into one of the most important entrepots of its time, with territory covering much of the Malay Peninsula, the Riau Islands and a significant portion of the northern coast of Sumatra in present-day Indonesia. In the year of 1511, the capital of Malacca fell to the Portuguese Empire, forcing the last Sultan, Mahmud Shah (r. 1488–1511), to retreat to the further reaches of his empire, where his progeny established new ruling dynasties, Johor and Perak. The political and cultural legacy of the sultanate remains to this day. For centuries, Malacca has been held up as an exemplar of Malay-Muslim civilisation. It established systems of trade, diplomacy, and governance that persisted well into the 19th century, and introduced concepts such as daulat – a distinctly Malay notion of sovereignty – that continues to shape contemporary understanding of Malay kingship.^[6] The fall of Malacca benefited Brunei when its ports became a new entrepôt as the kingdom emerged as a new Muslim empire in the Malay Archipelago, attracting many Muslim traders who fled from the Portuguese occupation after the ruler of Brunei's conversion to Islam.
- The Malay Annals (Malay: Sejarah Melayu, Jawi: سجاره ملايو), originally titled Sulalatus Salatin (Genealogy of Kings),^[1] is a literary work that gives a romanticised history of the origin, evolution and demise of the great Malay maritime empire, the Malacca Sultanate. The work which was composed sometime between 15th and 16th centuries, is considered one of the finest literary and historical works in the Malay language.


Kingdom of Thonburi (Thai: ธนบุรี) was a Siamese kingdom after the downfall of the Ayutthaya Kingdom by the Konbaung Burmese invader. The kingdom was founded by King Taksin the Great, who relocated the capital to Thonburi. The kingdom of Thonburi existed from 1767 to 1782. In 1782, King Rama I founded the Rattanakosin Kingdom and relocated the capital to Bangkok on the other side of the Chao Phraya River, thus bringing the Thonburi kingdom to an end. The city of Thonburi remained an independent town and province until it was merged into Bangkok in 1971.
- 达信大帝^[a]（泰语：สมเด็จพระเจ้าตากสินมหาราช，皇家转写：Somdet Phra Chao Taksin Maharat  发音 ^{帮助·信息}；1734年4月17日－1782年4月7日），即波隆罗阇四世（สมเด็จพระบรมราชาที่ 4），是泰国吞武里王朝建立者和唯一一位君主，1767年至1782年在位。原名信（สิน），又名郑信、郑新^[b]、郑国华^[c]、郑国英^[d]，是中國、暹羅混血儿，其父為廣東潮汕人。鄭信在對兩廣總督的呈文中自稱郑昭^[e]，中國文書稱之為“暹羅頭目”、“暹羅國長”。Taksin the Great (Thai: สมเด็จพระเจ้าตากสินมหาราช, RTGS: Somdet Phra Chao Taksin Maha Rat) or the King of Thonburi (Thai: สมเด็จพระเจ้ากรุงธนบุรี, RTGS: Somdet Phra Chao Krung Thon Buri; 鄭信; pinyin: Zhèng Xin; Teochew: Dên Chao; Vietnamese: Trịnh Quốc Anh) (April 17, 1734 – April 7, 1782) was the only King of the Thonburi Kingdom. He had been an Ekatat servant and then was a leader in the liberation of Siam from Burmese occupation after the Second Fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, and the subsequent unification of Siam after it fell under various warlords. He established the city of Thonburi as the new capital, as the city of Ayutthaya had been almost completely destroyed by the invaders. His reign was characterized by numerous wars; he fought to repel new Burmese invasions and to subjugate the northern Thai kingdom of Lanna, the Laotian principalities, and a threatening Cambodia. Although warfare took up most of Taksin's time, he paid a great deal of attention to politics, administration, economy, and the welfare of the country. He promoted trade and fostered relations with foreign countries including China, Britain, and the Netherlands. He had roads built and canals dug. Apart from restoring and renovating temples, the king attempted to revive literature, and various branches of the arts such as drama, painting, architecture and handicrafts. He also issued regulations for the collection and arrangement of various texts to promote education and religious studies. He was taken in a coup d'etat and executed and succeeded by his long-time friend Maha Ksatriyaseuk who then assumed the throne, founding the Rattanakosin Kingdomand the Chakri dynasty, which has since ruled Thailand. In recognition for what he did for the Thais, he is later awarded the title of Maharaj (The Great).

• 郑信在缅甸入侵的时候同中国清朝建立关系，共抗缅甸。他也派使臣前往清朝，成为清朝的藩屬。拉玛一世夺取皇位后，为继续维持与清朝的宗藩关系，冒认郑信的儿子，自称郑华。
• King Taksin (of Thailand) came to Rayong after the fall of Ayutthaya. During a short stay in Rayong  羅勇府he built a navy, and then went on to Chanthaburi to assemble forces to fight the Burmese. There is a shrine in Rayong where local people pay their respects to Taksin.
• A tomb containing Taksin's clothes and a family shrine were found at Chenghai district in Guangdong province in China in 1921. It is believed that a descendant of Taksin must have sent his clothes to be buried there to conform to Chinese practice. This supports the claim that the place was his father's hometown.

French Indochina (previously spelled as French Indo-China) (French: Indochine française; Khmer: សហភាពឥណ្ឌូចិន; Vietnamese: Đông Dương thuộc Pháp,IPA: [ɗə̄wŋm jɨ̄əŋ tʰûək fǎp], frequently abbreviated to Đông Pháp; Lao: ຝຣັ່ງແຫຼັມອິນດູຈີນ; 法屬印度支那; faat3 suk6 jan3 dou6 zi1 naa5), officially known as the Indochinese Union (Union indochinoise) after 1887 and the Indochinese Federation (Fédération indochinoise) after 1947, was a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia. A grouping of the three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin (north), Annam (centre), and Cochinchina (south) with Cambodia was formed in 1887. Laos was added in 1893 and the leased Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan in 1898. The capital was moved from Saigon (in Cochinchina) to Hanoi (Tonkin) in 1902 and again to Da Lat (Annam) in 1939. In 1945 it was moved back to Hanoi. After the Fall of France during World War II, the colony was administered by the Vichy government and was under Japanese occupation until March 1945, when the Japanese overthrew the colonial regime. Beginning in May 1941, the Viet Minh, a communist army led by Hồ Chí Minh, began a revolt against the Japanese. In August 1945 they declared Vietnamese independence and extended the war, known as the First Indochina War, against France. In Saigon, the anti-Communist State of Vietnam, led by former Emperor Bảo Đại, was granted independence in 1949. On 9 November 1953, the Kingdom of Laos and the Kingdom of Cambodia became independent. Following the Geneva Accord of 1954, the French evacuated Vietnam and French Indochina came to an end. L’Indochine française2,a, parfois appelée simplement « Indochine »b, est un territoire de l'ancien empire colonial français, dont elle était la possession la plus riche et la plus peuplée. Officiellement nommée Union indochinoise puis Fédération indochinoise, elle est fondée en 1887 et regroupe, jusqu'à sa disparition en 1954, diverses entités possédées ou dominées par la France en Extrême-Orient : trois pays d'Asie du Sud-Estaujourd'hui indépendants, le Viêt Nam, le Laos et le Cambodge, ainsi qu'une portion de territoire chinois située dans l'actuelle province du Guangdong. L'Indochine française est créée pour englober plusieurs territoires aux statuts officiels différents, conquis entre 1858 et 1907 par la France au fur et à mesure de son expansion en Asie orientale. Elle se compose de la colonie de Cochinchine (Sud du Viêt Nam), des protectorats de l'Annam et duTonkin (Centre et Nord du Viêt Nam), du protectorat du Cambodge, du protectorat du Laos et du territoire chinois à bail de Kouang-Tchéou-Wan. La colonisation française de la péninsule commence en 1858 sous le Second Empire, avec l'invasion de la Cochinchine, officiellement annexée en1862, suivie de l'instauration d'un protectorat sur le Cambodge en 1863. Elle reprend à partir de 1883 sous la Troisième République avec l'expédition du Tonkin, corollaire de la guerre franco-chinoise, qui conduit la même année à l'instauration de deux protectorats distincts sur le reste du Viêt Nam. En 1887, l'administration de ces territoires est centralisée avec la création de l'Union indochinoise. Deux autres entités lui sont rattachées par la suite : en 1899 le protectorat laotien, instauré six ans auparavant, et en 1900 Kouang-Tchéou-Wan, que la France avait commencé d'occuper deux ans plus tôt.

- kiv meaning of emblem (three letters)
- Tonkin (Vietnamese: Bắc Kỳ, historically Đàng Ngoài), also spelled Tongkin, Tonquin or Tongking, is in the Red River Delta Region of northern Vietnam. "Tonkin" is a corruption of Đông Kinh (東京), the name of Hanoi during the Lê Dynasty. Locally, Tonkin is known as Bắc Kỳ (北區), meaning "Northern Region". The name was used in 1883 for the French colonial Tonkin protectorate, a constituent territory of French Indochina.The area was called Văn Lang by Vietnamese ancestors from around 2000−100 BCE. Evidence of the earliest established society in northern Vietnam, along with the Đông Sơn culture, was discovered in the Cổ Loa Citadel area, the core of the ancient city of Cổ Loa. Its site is located near the historical city of Hà Nội and present-day Hanoi, the capital city of Vietnam. According to Vietnamese myths the first Vietnamese peoples descended from the Dragon Lord Lạc Long Quân and the Immortal Fairy Âu Cơ. Lạc Long Quân and Âu Cơ had 100 sons before they decided to part ways. 50 of the children went with their mother to the mountains, and the other 50 went with their father to the sea. The eldest son became the first in a line of earliest Vietnamese kings, collectively known as the Hùng kings (Hùng Vương or the Hồng Bàng Dynasty). The Hùng kings called the country, which was then located on the Red River delta in present-day northern Vietnam, Văn Lang. The people of Văn Lang were referred to as the Lạc Việt.Lê Lợi (reigned 1428–1433), a notable land owner in the Lam Kinh region, had a following of more than 1,000 people before rising up against the Chinese Ming dynasty. Following his victory he mounted the throne and established himself in the city of Thang Long ('Ascending Dragon') (former Cổ Loa, present Hà Nội). Thang Long was also calledĐông Kinh (東京), meaning 'Eastern Capital'. (東京 is identical in meaning and written form in Chinese characters to that of Tokyo).

- The Sino-French War (中法戰爭;French: Guerre franco-chinoise, Khmer: សង្គ្រាមបារាំង-ចិន, Vietnamese: Chiến tranh Pháp-Thanh), also known as the Tonkin War and Tonquin War,^[5] was a limited conflict fought from August 1884 through April 1885, to decide whether France would supplant China's control of Tonkin (northern Vietnam). Although the Chinese armies performed better than in other nineteenth-century wars and the war ended with French defeat on land, the French achieved most of their aims in the Treaty of Tientsin.
- in popular culture

• Indochine (French pronunciation: ​[ɛ̃dɔʃin]) is a 1992 French period drama film set in colonial French Indochina during the 1930s to 1950s. It is the story of Éliane Devries, a French plantation owner, and of her adopted Vietnamese daughter, Camille, with the rising Vietnamese nationalist movement set as a backdrop. Film was shot mainly in Imperial City, Hue, Ha Long (Ha Long Bay) and Ninh Binh (Phát Diệm Cathedral) in Vietnam. Butterworth in Malaysia was used as a substitute for Saigon.^[3] Some parts were filmed in Cheong Fatt Tze Mansion, in George Town, Penang, Malaysia.

Si Rat Malai (Thai: สี่รัฐมาลัย 'Four Malay States') is a former administrative division of Thailand. It included the four northern states of Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu in British Malaya annexed by the Axis-aligned Thai government after the Japanese invasion of Malaya. The Thai authorities made Alor Setar the centre for the administration of the territory. Thailand administered the states as Syburi (ไทรบุรี), Palit (ปะลิส), Kalantan (กลันตัน) and Trangkanu (ตรังกานู) provinces from 18 October 1943 until the surrender of the Japanese at the end of the war. On 14 December 1941 General Plaek Phibunsongkhram, then Prime Minister of Thailand, signed a secret agreement with the Japanese Empire and committed the Thai armed forces to participate in the planned Burma Campaign. An alliance between Thailand and Japan was formally signed on 21 December 1941. On 25 January 1942, the Thai government, believing the Allies beaten, declared war on the United States and the United Kingdom. As a reward for entering into a military alliance with the Japanese, the latter agreed to return to Thailand the four British Malayan provinces of Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan, and Terengganu which had been ceded to the British under the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909. After occupation on 20 August 1943, an agreement on the surrender of the four states was signed in Bangkok, between Phibunsongkhram and the Japanese ambassador, Teiji Tonbukami. Among the conditions found in the agreement it was stated that Japan would hand over the administration of the four Malay states to Thailand within 60 days after the signature of the document. On 18 October 1943, the four Malay states were transferred to Thailand. On the occasion Prime Minister Phibunsongkhram declared that the citizens of the annexed states were to be granted equal treatment to the inhabitants of other parts of Thailand.^[4] The Japanese authorities, however, retained a great degree of control. Japanese troops and Kempeitai continued to be stationed in the four states. Rail services would be run by Thai officers only in Kelantan, while the rail links in Kedah and Perlis would remain in Japanese hands. The Japanese also had the full control of the telegraph, post and telephone services over the nominally Thai territories. Thailand was still allied with Japan when the war ended, but the United States proposed a solution. In 1946 Thailand agreed to hand back the territories occupied during Japanese presence in the country as the price for admission to the United Nations, consequently all wartime claims against Siam were dropped and the country received a substantial package of American aid.^[6] On 1 April 1946 the former Thai-occupied states joined the Malayan Union.

Datuk is a traditional Malay honorific title commonly used in Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei. Its variant is Dato and its equivalent is Datu Sadja in the Philippines. The oldest historical records mentioning about the title datuk is the 7th century Srivijayan inscriptions such as Telaga Batu to describe lesser kings or vassalized kings. It was called dātu in Old Malay language to describe regional leader or elder, a kind of chieftain that rules of a collection of kampungs (villages). The Srivijaya empire was described as a network of mandalathat consists of settlements, villages, and ports each ruled by a datu that vowed their loyalty (persumpahan) to the central administration of Srivijayan Maharaja. Unlike the indianized title of raja and maharaja, the term datuk was also found in the Philippines as datu, which suggests its common native Austronesian origin. The term kadatwan or kedaton refer to the residence of datuk, equivalent with keraton and istana. In later Mataram Javanese culture, the term kedaton shifted to refer the inner private compound of the keraton, the residential complex of king and royal family.
- indonesia

• Today in Indonesia, datuk refer to honorific title of traditional community, especially among Malay and Minangkabau people. It is functioned as a title reserved for community leader that deals with traditions and community affairs. In Minangkabau tradition, Datuk (or Datuak) is a traditional, honorary title bestowed on a person by the agreement of a people or tribe in the Minangkabau language, spoken by the Minangkabau people.^[2] The title of Datuk was agreed upon by local, traditional leaders (Kerapatan Adat Nagari). The title engenders great respect, and is only used for Minangkabau men who have become stakeholders of traditional leaders or penghulu (noblemen) for a particular tribe. When the title is bestowed, it is celebrated with a traditional ceremony (Malewa Gala) and a banquet. Unlike other Malay traditions, the title of datuk in Minangkabau is inherited according to the matrilineal system. When a datuk dies his title may pass to his brother or nephew, whoever is closest in the maternal line. If there is no maternal relative, it may be given to another tribal member with the agreement of the tribe. In the tradition of the Toba Batak people, a datu is magician-priest who teach divination and magic via his book the pustaha.

- malaysia

• In Malaysia the title "Datuk" has two meanings: formal and informal. The informal ones holds that Datuk is equivalent to one's "grandfather" or refers to a male elder. Other function is a formal honorific style both in traditional and stately titles. "Datuk" is a federal title that has been conferred since 1965. It is limited to recipients of Panglima Jasa Negara (PJN), of which there may be up to 200 living at any one time, and Panglima Setia Diraja (PSD), of which there may be up to 200 living at any one time. The PJN and PSD rank 9th and 10th respectively in the rank of federal awards. The wife of a federal "Datuk" is a "Datin". A female conferred the title in her own right is formally known as "Datin Paduka"; the prefix "Datuk" is more commonly used for women as well as men. The numerical limits apply only to Malaysian subjects. Foreigners may receive the award in a supernumerary and honorary capacity and use the title locally. Individual states that have a head of state by the respective state's legislature may confer the title of "Datuk" to individuals. However, this is different from the title "Dato'". The latter is awarded by individual states headed by a Sultan, and not a head of state nominated by the state legislature. For example, the Yang Dipertua Negeri Melaka is the non-hereditary head of state nominated by the Melaka state legislature. He may confer the title of "Datuk". The Sultan of Pahang is the hereditary ruler of the state and may confer the title of "Dato'". Individual rulers (and their staff) determine the award of these titles. Some official sources suggest that these titles, e.g. "Datuk" and "Dato'", can be considered the equivalent of the title "Sir", which is used by male citizens of the Commonwealth who have received a British knighthood.

A kampong or kampung (both Malay and Indonesian spelling) is a village in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore and a "port" in Cambodia. The term applies to traditional villages, especially of indigenous people, and has also been used to refer to urban slum areas and enclosed developments and neighbourhoods within towns and cities in Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Christmas Island. The traditional kampong village designs and architecture have been targeted for reform by urbanists and modernists and have also been adapted by contemporary architects for various projects. Traditional kampongs are also a tourist attraction. The English word "compound" referring to a development in a town is from the Malay word kampung.

占族（占語：ꨂꨣꩃ ꨌꩌꨚ Urang Campa、越南語：người Chăm／𠊛占：高棉語：ជនជាតិចាម），東南亞民族，公元2世紀建古國占婆，至1471年被越南後黎朝瓦解成多個土司自治領地，1832年被越南阮朝改土歸流吞併滅國，今占人分佈於柬埔寨東部、越南中南部，總人口約50萬。占婆語屬南島語系，與印尼蘇門答臘島亞齊人的亞齊語最親近。原為印度教徒，9-10世紀兼信佛教，至17世紀末徹底變成穆斯林。The Chams or Cham people (Cham: Urang Campa, Vietnamese: người Chăm or người Chàm, Khmer: ជនជាតិចាម) are an ethnic group of Austronesian origin in Southeast Asia. Their contemporary population is concentrated between the Kampong Cham Province in Cambodia and Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm, Phan Thiết, Ho Chi Minh City and An Giang Provincein Southern Vietnam. Including the diaspora, their total is about 400,000. An additional 4,000 Chams live in Bangkok, Thailand, who had migrated during Rama I's reign. Recent immigrants to Thailand are mainly students and workers, who preferably seek work and education in the southern Islamic Pattani, Narathiwat, Yala and Songkhla provinces. A large Cham diaspora also established in Malaysia following the turbulence during the Pol Pot regime, where they were quickly assimilated with the local Malay population. Cham people represent the core of the Muslim communities in both Cambodia and Vietnam.
- As the cradle of brocade weaving of the Cham ethnic people, My Nghiep craft village is currently one of the two most famous traditional craft villages of Ninh Thuan Province. After centuries of existence, My Nghiep handicraft weaving is still maintained and developed in the community, which is an attraction of the Phan Rang land.https://en.nhandan.com.vn/pictures/item/8395102-my-nghiep-ancient-weaving-village-in-ninh-thuan.html

- china

• 回辉人(Utsul、ĥu Zaan)也称海南回族，是中国未识别民族，主要居住在海南三亚市鳳凰鎮的回新社區、回辉社區，约有5000人。回辉人操回辉话，属南岛语系。被中国政府认定为回族，但民族定位依然模糊，有學者認為是現今占族的一個民系，也有的認為應獨立成為回輝族或稱為北占族（因回輝話屬北占語支）。回辉人的祖先是从占婆国（现越南南部）外逃的占族人，在宋元年间占婆国领土不断被越南侵占，占族人前后数批被迫逃入海南岛^[2]。他们目前被中国政府定义为回族人，然而与中国大陆的回族人祖先大相径庭。三亚世居回族是源自晚唐时期的波斯人和阿拉伯人海上来华经商团体留居海南的后裔，以及后来明朝时期越南古占城国内乱时期自海上逃难来华的占城人后裔，并与海南各族人民融合后形成的回族穆斯林群体。三亚占族是一个多源民族，具有高鼻梁、身高、大眼睛、长睫毛等西域特征，在血统上属于阿拉伯人种，文化上属于占族伊斯兰文化。
• 外媒報道，網傳海南省三亞區禁止回輝族女學生戴頭巾進入學校，部分戴頭巾的學生，被要求只能在校門外早讀，不得進入校園。戴頭巾為該族女生的習俗，事件引起部份學生和家長不滿。學校暫未回應。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200918/00178_022.html

The Yi or Nuosuo people (historically known as Lolo)^[2] are an ethnic group in China, Vietnam, and Thailand. Some scholars believe that the Yi are descended from the ancient Qiang people of today's western China, who are also said to be the ancestors of the Tibetan, Naxi and Qiang peoples. They migrated from southeastern Tibet through Sichuan and into the Yunnan Province, where their largest populations can be found today. They practice a form of animism, led by a shaman priest known as the Bimaw. They still retain a few ancient religious texts written in their unique pictographic script. Their religion also contains many elements of Daoism and Buddhism. Many of the Yi in Liangshan and northwestern Yunnan practiced a complicated form of slavery. People were split into the nuohuo or Black Yi (nobles), qunuo or White Yi (commoners), and slaves. White Yi were free and could own property and slaves but were in a way tied to a lord. Other ethnic groups were held as slaves.彝族內部有「尼蘇（崇尚黑色）」、「納蘇」（涼山彝族，納蘇頗）、「羅武」、「米撒潑」、「撒尼」、「阿西」、「倮倮」等多種稱謂，部分不同稱謂代表不同支系，各個支系族群之間主要以方言和服飾區別。彝族語言屬緬彝語群彝語支，有六種方言。越南的倮倮族大多數屬於說彝語南部方言的尼蘇人。
- 近年來改擴建而成的一座主題博物館，和一組破空而來的仿古建築群，還是為旅行者提供了走讀這座千年王城的若干物理線索。博物館名叫奢香博物館。而仿古建築群，雖然名為「貴州宣慰府」，但其佈局、形制，無不與方志記載的九層衙（院）門空間佈局建制和「九扯九縱」官制息息相關。這裡提及的方志，包括但不限於林則徐唯一作序的《大定府志》。在以父系始祖希慕遮為紀年起點的彝族譜系中，女性的奢香所嫁的夫君隴贊靄翠，序屬希慕遮第97世孫。隴贊靄翠不幸早逝，其子尚幼。奢香依例攝政，並大放異彩。奢香現在被稱為一位偉大的彝族女政治家。其功績主要是維護地方與中央的團結和統一。雖然坊間演繹的奢香故事，最精彩處往往被史家指為失實。但開闢「龍場九驛」，事跡不僅確鑿，而且，還是理解奢香處理地方與中央關係的切入點或稱「抓手」。奢香嫁給隴贊靄翠時年僅16歲。三、四年後，後者早逝奢香攝政時，也就二十歲上下。而主持開闢「龍場九驛」，也就是攝政之後幾年間的事。同樣堪與開闢「龍場九驛」功績並論者，當屬興辦教育或文化交流。隨着資深彝學學者課歐吉立的講述，我們彷彿看到，初為人母的奢香，在兒子尚且年幼的時候，就把他送到了千里之外的南京求學。奢香之子靄翠隴弟是依例襲政的候任者。讓朝廷對其徹底放心，最主要的，還是想讓這位未來的繼位者從小學習以漢文化為主體的中原文明。大力興辦學校，延請漢學名師教授彝家子弟，也就順理成章，成了奢香夫人終其一生的日常功課，和備受後人稱頌的主要功德。從地方、民族與中央王朝的團結和統一考量，興辦教育或文化交流，或許才是根本。果然，由奢香開篇的文化交流，在其八世孫布局直罷之世出現了令人擊節讚歎的章節。布局直罷漢名安貴榮，時在明代中葉，也是依例承襲的貴州宣慰使。巧合的是，這一章節發生的地點，正是早年奢香「龍場九驛」的起點龍場驛。主角一是安貴榮，另一個，則是中國思想史上一代大儒王陽明。後者彼時被貶龍場驛，任驛丞，前者仰慕其才學，禮聘王陽明講學，並請王陽明為其重修之象祠作《象祠記》。《象祠記》成後來《古文觀止》收錄的千古名篇。奢香墓葬大方城北，早已被擴建為一個以她名字命名的主題博物館。記者到訪的時候，一牆之隔的順德民族小學正在搞防空演習。之後，就是一片朗朗讀書之聲。幸有課歐吉立教我，方知小學的得名，正是由當年朱元璋嘉勉奢香夫人，賜給大明順德夫人封號而來。記者則有悟焉，這一片朗朗讀書之聲，不就是奢香夫人一生功績的當下隱喻嗎？奢香故事，其實僅僅是這裡曾經存在的一個千年方國的後續篇章。據課歐吉立的研究，本土的水西彝族世家治黔，實際主宰這一方土地，其實已有近兩千年不間斷的歷史。而感知這一學術判斷的最佳物證，其實還是大方城北的「貴州宣慰府」。早年即聽聞「luosi塘」這一地名，普通話拼音「luosi」，到底是水田裡的「螺螄」還是汽車上的「螺絲」？有課歐吉立耳提面命，方知所謂「luosi塘」原來是羅施國、羅施鬼國、羅甸國、羅殿國等不同稱謂指稱的同一王國的靈塘，若寫成「羅氏塘」或「羅施塘」或更為貼切。今天的羅氏塘上，飛架了拱背的石橋，沿橋面過去，就是沿雲龍山腳從容佈局的仿古建築群，迎面宮殿橫額上書「貴州宣慰府」。順着山腳的緩坡地勢，貴州宣慰府台基共分九級，每一級台地建築一進院落，契合方志記載中的羅甸王府九層衙院（門）建制，又與彝族政權「九扯九縱」（即九大部門或系統、九大長官）規制一致。已有多位彝學專家指出，作為中央王朝認可的土司政權行政中心，貴州宣慰府其實設置在今天的貴陽市，近年興建在大方的貴州宣慰府，其實更像一個配套建設的景區景點或影視拍攝基地。更有學者建議乾脆改個名字，或者叫羅甸王府，或者就叫「慕俄格」。從東漢光武時期起，落腳今貴州赫章縣可樂鄉的西南彝人就自立為王，開治黔先聲。蜀漢時期，彝族父系始祖希慕遮之第56世孫妥阿哲助諸葛亮南征有功，正式受封羅甸國王。其「國都」，先短暫遷至畢節，後「定都」大方，自此「世襲其職，世長其土，世長其民」。元朝時期的1283年，中央王朝最終停止了對彝家君長封王，改任土司，至公元1698年，彝家末代君長安勝祖「乏嗣」即沒有後人，土司時代結束。一直到清末民初，彝人「土目」還在底層發揮實際影響，作用勝似朝廷命官。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/05/09/b05-0509.pdf

• 大方人吃飯，最講究葷素搭配。酸菜豆湯連渣鬧，酸湯豆腐菜豆花是素湯菜主角，家家吃，天天吃，每一頓都不會沒有一鍋素湯菜。素湯菜往往還是「火鍋」，煮起吃，熱呼呼地吃。鍋往往是當地砂土燒紙的砂鍋，灰黑油亮地坐在火爐上，鍋沿架一塊火鍋板，火鍋板「凳」一碗素辣椒蘸水，「凳」一碗蒸好的臘肉，或許還有一碗筒筒辣椒加苦蒜炒的臭豆腐乾，齊了。大方人做事，講究「一錘一朵火」。當地起房坐屋，愛在山上開採大青石。大青石上要雕花，石匠一錘下去，火星飛濺，就是「一錘一朵火」。用來說大方人，「一錘一朵火」，則類似擲地有聲，說到做到，絕不打馬虎眼。要說到他們為人，往往是在一家吃飯喝酒，送出家門，還要送到你家門口。之後，又從你家門口，送回這家門口。如此送來送去，有時就會送到天亮。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/05/09/b05-0509.pdf
• 如果熟悉中國方志，就會知道《大定府志》被學術界譽為「半部西南彝族史」。鮮為人知的是，在林林種種的地方志書中，《大定府志》還是清代名臣林則徐唯一作序的一部地方志書。林則徐曾任雲貴總督，對貴州沿革諳熟於胸。又與《大定府志》主修黃宅中公私兩宜，所以由他給《大定府志》作序，以及書信中給出的相關評價，既權威，又中肯。不光是林則徐，中國近代維新派代表人物梁啟超也給志書很高的評價；清代帝師翁同龢的兄長翁同書，也專門為志書作序。包括但不限於《大定府志》，課歐吉立發現了以大方「慕俄格」王城為主線的彝人「治」黔的若干線索。在《大定府志》裡，不難發現諸如「勿阿納統治貴州地，自立為王，立規章法令，設四十八目」等信息。勿阿納是彝族父系始祖希慕遮第56世孫，這是彝人落腳貴州赫章縣可樂鄉，正式「治」黔的最早記載。正是有了這些記載，還原中的「慕俄格」，才有了相應的史實和史識。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/05/09/b05-0509.pdf

railway
- A railway reconnecting Cambodia and Thailand was officially inaugurated Monday in a bid to slash travel times and boost trade between the Southeast Asian neighbors. Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Sen and his Thai counterpart, Prayuth Chan-ocha, witnessed a signing ceremony at a Thai border post before riding together to the Cambodian town of Poipet on a train donated by Thailand. The pair — with Prayut dressed in a bright yellow shirt — stepped from the train in Poipet with their clasped hands held high to the cheers of waiting crowds, waving flags of both countries. Hun Sen described their journey as “historic” and thanked Thailand for its efforts “to reconnect the railway between Cambodia and Thailand.” The railway would also better link his country to other Southeast Asian neighbors and boost economy and trade, he added. Bilateral trade between Thailand and Cambodia currently stands at $6 billion. Cambodia last year re-opened the final stretch of a 370-kilometer railway running from the capital, Phnom Penh, to the Thai border. The Asian Development Bank bankrolled the reconstruction of the link to the tune of $13 million. Much of Cambodia’s railways — built by the French in colonial times — were damaged by the years of bitter conflict that engulfed the country during the Cold War era. The 48-kilometer section of track near Poipet was destroyed in 1973 while the rest of the track to Phnom Penh had been suspended for over a decade due to its poor condition.https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/04/22/asia-pacific/cambodia-thailand-reconnected-rail-45-years/#.XL_L34kzYdU

Maritime trade
- indonesia and philippines

• Indonesia's Parliament on Thursday (April 27) ratified a landmark sea border agreement with the Philippines, which sets the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) boundaries between the two countries in the Mindanao and Celebes seas. "The conclusion of the agreement with the Philippines and the subsequent ratification by Indonesian Parliament constitutes the seriousness of the Indonesian government in resolving the border issue with all of Indonesia's neighbours," said Foreign Minister Retno Marsudi in a statement. The new boundary, said to be about 1,161km long, is the first maritime border agreement to be finalised between Jakarta and Manila.It was first inked in 2014 after more than two decades of negotiations between the two sides. The ratification by Parliament comes just days before President Joko Widodo heads to Manila for the 30th Asean Summit and a meeting with his Philippine counterpart Rodrigo Duterte, to launch a new trade route aimed at improving connectivity in the region. http://www.straitstimes.com/asia/se-asia/indonesia-philippines-sea-border-pact-ratified

logistics
- https://www.scmp.com/tech/start-ups/article/3033497/southeast-asia-seeing-new-kind-logistics-surge-start-ups-apply-new

telecom
- https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3018435/asias-digital-economy-booming-so-why-are-singtel-and-co


US
- http://www.scmp.com/news/asia/article/1741450/asean-nations-react-coolly-us-navy-commanders-call-joint-patrols-south The commander of the Japan-based US Navy Seventh Fleet has called on Southeast Asian nations to form a combined maritime force to patrol areas of the South China Sea where there are territorial tensions with China. Analysts said the initiative signalled the renewed urgency of the United States to preserve its right of free passage through some of the world's most important sea lanes. But despite China's accelerating reclamation works in the waters, the plan is unlikely to win support from most Southeast Asian countries given their business interests in the world's second-largest economy. During the Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition in Malaysia on Tuesday, Vice-Admiral Robert Thomas suggested that members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Asean) could streamline maritime security and launch joint patrols.

Russia
- http://rbth.com/author/Ajay%20Kamalakaran

uk
- The Straits Settlements were a group of British territories located in Southeast Asia. Originally established in 1826 as part of the territories controlled by the British East India Company, the Straits Settlements came under direct British control as a Crown colony on 1 April 1867.

• company

• Cathay Organisation Holdings Limited is one of Singapore's leisure and entertainment groups. It has the first THX cinema hall and digital cinema in Singapore. The group has operations in Singapore and Malaysia. Associated Theatres Ltd was established on 18 July 1935 in Singapore by Mrs Loke Cheng Kim with the help of her three partners: her undergraduate son Loke Wan Tho, her relative Khoo Teik Ee, and a British friend Max Baker. In 1936, the company opened its first cinema in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, the Pavilion, with 1200 seats. The year 1939 saw the landmark Cathay Building open in Singapore with the Cathay Cinema premiering Sir Alexander Korda's The Four Feathers. Cathay was the country's first air-conditioned cinema i.e. Cathay Cinema and the first skyscraper, the tallest in Southeast Asia during that time. It was the first time patrons could watch movies air-conditioned and sitting in a comfortable armchair. It was also used as a landmark by pilots as a final approach before landing. Three years later, it showed its last show and was converted into a Red Cross casualty station. After the end of war in 1945, Cathay reopened and it was Singapore's first cinema to show American and British pictures as its first screening after closure. It signed a joint venture with another company to distribute mobile films to villages and estates in Malaysia. The group installed a new air-conditioning plant in 1948 and they started to acquire many cinemas in Singapore and Malaysia.

•  In November 2017, Cathay Cineplexes Pte Ltd; a subsidiary of Cathay Organisation was acquired wholly by mm2 Asia Ltd. Cathay Organisation has subsidiaries in Singapore and Malaysia, in cinema operations, film distribution, film acquisitions, hotel management, investment holding, advertising, events management and property management.
• people

•  Grace Chang (born 1933), known in Chinese as Ge Lan (葛蘭), is a Hong Kong-Chinese actress and singer. She was a popular idol in the 1950s, especially among students and the middle class.She was an actress from the Cathay Organisation with many successes including It Blossoms Again, The Wild, Wild Rose, and Mambo Girl.Chang was a Haining, Zhejiang native, born in Nanjing and grew up in Shanghai, before moving to Hong Kong in 1949. 1961年6月15日她和港澳富商高福全在英国伦敦结婚，高福全出生于1916年，比葛兰大17岁，他是尤敏丈夫高福球的哥哥，因此，葛兰与尤敏是妯娌关系。在七个多月的环球蜜月旅行后，她又回到香港拍摄了《教我如何不想她》、《宝莲灯》等影片。1964年，葛兰在演完《啼笑姻缘》（上、下集）后，正式退出了影坛和歌坛，在家专心相夫教子。
•  Wong Tin-Lam or Wang Tianlin (1927–2010) was a Chinese screenwriter, producer, director, and actor, who has contributed to the Hong Kong cinema scene with a career spanning six decades. He has made films in Cantonese, Mandarin and Amoy dialect.Wong began as a director in the mid-1950s, working for the Hsin Hwa Film Company. He later joined Cathay Organisation. Wong jing is his son

ethnic groups
- Bidayuh is the collective name for several indigenous groups found in southern Sarawak, Malaysia and northern West Kalimantan, Indonesia, on the island of Borneo, that are broadly similar in language and culture (see also issues below). The name Bidayuh means 'inhabitants of land'. Originally from the western part of Borneo, the collective name Land Dayak was first used during the period of Rajah James Brooke, the White Rajah of Sarawak. At times they were also lesser referred to as Klemantan people. They constitute one of the main indigenous groups in Sarawak and West Kalimantan and live in towns and villages around Kuching and Samarahan in the Malaysian state of Sarawak, while in the Indonesianprovince of West Kalimantan they are mainly concentrated in the northern Sanggau Regency. In Sarawak, most of Bidayuh population are found within 40 km of the geographical area known as Greater Kuching, within the Kuching and Samarahan division. They are the second largest Dayak ethnic group in Sarawak after the Iban and one of the major Dayak tribes in West Kalimantan.
- The Lahu people (拉祜族; Lahu: Ladhulsi / Kawzhawd; Vietnamese: La Hủ) are an ethnic group of Chinaand Mainland Southeast Asia.he Lahu are one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China, where about 720,000 live in Yunnan province, mostly in Lancang Lahu Autonomous County. In Thailand, the Lahu are one of the six main groups categorized as hill tribes.^[5] The Tai often refer to them by the exonym Muso (Thai: มูเซอ), meaning 'hunter'. They are one of 54 ethnic groups in Vietnam, and mostly live in Lai Châu Province. A few Lahu, along with the Hmong, Lao, and Mien were recruited by the United States Central Intelligence Agency to help fight against the communist Pathet Lao, known as the secret war, during the Laotian Civil War. In fear of retribution when the Pathet Lao took over the Laotian government in 1975, those who had helped the United States fled to neighboring Thailand seeking political asylum. A couple thousand Lahu have resettled in the United States as refugees, in the states of California, Minnesota, North Carolina, Texas, and Utah. Most Lahu Americans live in Visalia, California, thus making Visalia home to the largest concentration of Lahu people outside of Asia.拉祜族，是中国古老民族之一，人口48.5966万（2010年第四次人口普查）。“拉祜”一词是这个民族语言中的一个词汇，“拉”为虎，“祜”为将肉烤香的意思。因此，在历史上拉祜族被称做“猎虎的民族”。拉祜族起源于甘肃、青海一带的古羌人，早期过着游牧生活。后来逐渐南迁，最终定居于澜沧江流域。

• Lahu people used to have just a given name, until the Chinese Government gave them surnames. About 90% of the Lahu people are either named Lee or Zhang, two of the most common Chinese surnames. Lahu given names are made of two syllables: one that shows the gender and one that gives information on the day of birth, based on the zodiac. For example, a person born on the Ox day will be named “Zanu” if he is a boy and “Nanu” if she is a girl.
• china daily 12jan18
• 拉祜村寨曼班三隊地處雲南省 西南部的中緬邊境，一共只有17戶 64人，是一個拉祜族 「直過民族」 （指從原始社會或奴隸社會跨越幾 種社會形態，直接進入社會主義社 會的民族）的村民小組http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20201130/PDF/a11_screen.pdf

-  拉威族  Lawa (Thai: ลัวะ or ละว้า; RTGS: Lawa) are an ethnic group in northern Thailand. The Lawa language is related to the Blang and the Wa language found in China and Burma, and belongs to the Palaungic languages, a branch of the Austroasiatic languages. Their population is estimated to be some 17,000.^[2] The Western Lawa are found in the vicinity of Mae Sariang in the south of Mae Hong Son Province, the Eastern Lawa are centred on Bo Luang in Chiang Mai Province.The Lawa are sometimes mistaken for being the same people as the Lua of northern Laos and of Nan Province, Thailand, who are speakers of the more distantly related Khmuic languages. This problem is compounded by the Eastern Lawa of Chiang Mai Province preferring to be called Lua by outsiders, and by the Thai people generally referring to speakers of these different Palaungic languages as Lua. Today, those Lawa who have not been integrated in mainstream Thai society, still live a traditional way of life, often professing animism. As with the other mountain ethnic groups of Thailand, they are known for extraordinary craft skills, especially for being ironsmiths.他们是老挝與泰國真正的土著，比泰人更早居住在當地。今日他们还保持万物有灵信仰，刀耕火种与紋面斷齒。他们与崩龙族、佤族也是南亚语系，现在有17000人。他們本來在湄公河平原上生活，後來泰人打敗他們後將他們趕上山區。

- The Penan are a nomadic indigenous people living in Sarawak and Brunei, although there is only one small community in Brunei; among those in Brunei half have been converted to Islam, even if only superficially. Penan are one of the last such peoples remaining as hunters and gatherers.^[1] The Penan are noted for their practice of 'molong' which means never taking more than necessary. Most Penan were nomadic hunter-gatherers until the post-World War IImissionaries settled many of the Penan, mainly in the Ulu-Baram district but also in the Limbang district. They eat plants, which are also used as medicines, and animals and use the hides, skin, fur, and other parts for clothing and shelter.
-赫蒙族  The Hmong people (RPA: Hmoob/Moob, Hmong pronunciation: [m̥ɔ̃ŋ]) are an ethnic group in East and Southeast Asia. They are a sub-group of the Miao people, and live mainly in southern China, Vietnam and Laos. The ancient town of Zhuolu is considered to be the birthplace of the widely proclaimed legendary Hmong king, Chi You. Today, a statue of Chi You has been erected in the town.^[12] The author of the Guoyu, authored in the 4th to 5th century, considered Chi You’s Jui Li tribe to be related to the ancient ancestors of the Hmong, the San-Miao people.

• https://www.scmp.com/news/asia/southeast-asia/article/3003490/vietnams-hmong-christians-are-persecuted-their-beliefs-why The couple are ethnic Hmong – a group that in the late 1980s began converting to Christianity after listening to an evangelical radio programme hosted by Protestants, broadcast from Manila. There are an estimated 300,000 Hmong Christians living in Vietnam, where the communist government is suspicious of all religion, particularly Christianity, which is associated with former invaders, France and the US
• https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-origin-of-Hmong-last-names

- The Gelao people (also spelled Gelo) (Gelao: Klau, 仡佬族) are an ethnic group of China and Vietnam. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the PRC. However, many Gelao are also variously classified as Yi, Miao, and Zhuang by the Chinese government.The Gelao people are often considered to be the aboriginal inhabitants of Guizhou. The ancestors of the Gelao were the Liáo (僚), who made up the population of the ancient Yelang (夜郎) kingdom.The traditional suits of the men consist of jacket done up to a side and long pants. The women wear short jackets and narrow skirts divided into three parts: the head office is elaborate in red wool while the other two are of fabric bordered in black and white colors. Men and women wear long scarves.In their traditional music, the Gelao use a two-stringed fiddle with a body made from a cow horn, called the jiaohu (角胡).The Yiren (羿人), who number no more 3,000 people, live in the Chishui (赤水) area in Xuyong County, Sichuan, which is on the border with Guizhou.^[3] They are a subgroup of the Gelao but have a distinctive history. The Yiren call themselves the gau13.^[4] In comparison, the Gelao of Xinzhai 新寨, Puding 普定, Guizhou, call themselves the qau13.仡佬族历史悠久，商周至西汉时期的“百濮”，东汉至南北朝时代的“濮”、“僚”都与其先祖有渊源关系。“仡僚”、“葛僚”、“僚”、“仡佬”是隋唐以后，各个时期对他们的称谓，中华人民共和国成立以后，正式定名为仡佬族。仡佬族人与古代贵州一代的僚人有渊源关系。唐宋时，史书中开始出现“葛僚”、“仡僚”、“革老”、“仡佬”等名称，统称为“僚”。僚人可能是古代对这一地区若干少数民族的泛称，而与仡佬族有着更为直接的密切关系。“仡佬”一名最早见于南宋朱辅写的《溪蛮丛笑》。自明代以来的许多史籍都说：“仡佬，古称僚”。近一、二百年间，在一部分仡佬族中还保留着古代僚人的某些习俗，如妇女穿统裙和凿齿，以及以石板为棺的墓葬等，都说明仡佬族与古僚人有渊源关系。古僚人，是西汉时夜郎国（主要在今贵州、云南境内）的主体民族之一。距今2100多年前，夜郎境内的僚人亦“魅结、耕田、有邑聚”(《史记·西南夷列传》)，即已过着定居的农耕生活，出现了村落和集镇，有了君长，其社会已处于原始社会末期或阶级社会初期。公元前130年，汉朝以夜郎地设置犍为郡，前111年又分设群。从此，这一带与中原地区的联系逐渐密切。汉族封建社会的生产方式影响了僚人社会，从而缓慢地向封建社会过渡。7世纪时，唐朝在今贵州省北部僚人居住地区，建立了羁縻州、县。这时，僚人社会的生产力已发展到了相当高的水平。农民生产的稻、麦等粮食已有一部分作为商品在市场出售，他们纺织的“僚布”质量也很好，成了上缴王朝的贡品。自唐、宋到清代，仡佬族处于中原王朝和当地土官的统治之下，受尽了压迫和剥削。元、明时期、仡佬族地区大都为当地的土司所统治。后来，这里又建立了卫、所、屯、堡等军事机构。明末开始“改土归流”，到清代雍正年间，仡佬族地区的“改土归流”基本完成，仡佬族人民从此在流官的统治之下。 清末及民国初年，仡佬族人口急剧减少，居住区域迅速缩小，仡佬族聚居地多呈点状分布在其他各民族生活区域之间，而各地的仡佬族人在与周围其他民族的共同生活中，通过互相影响互相学习，其生活习俗、饮食服饰等方方面面也发生着不同程度的变化。 但在贵州黔西、大方等彝族安姓土司，仍保留了他们的政治、经济势力，直到中华人民共和国成立前夕为止。仡佬族，族源和古代僚（lǎo）人有关，民族语言为仡佬语，属汉藏语系，没有本民族的文字，通用汉文。仡佬语崇拜祖先， 奉祀竹王、蛮王老祖、山神。仡佬族集中聚居在贵州省北部的务川和道真两个仡佬族苗族自治县和石阡县，其余分别散居在安顺、平坝、普定、关岭、清镇、正安、凤岗、松桃、黔西、六枝、织金、大方等二十多个县市。

• 獦獠是对古代西南方少数民族的称呼。《新唐书·南蛮》有记述：“戎、泸间有獦獠，居依山谷林菁，逾数百里。俗喜叛，持牌而战，奉酋帅为王，号曰婆能，出入前后植旗。”这里的“戎”指戎州，州治在今四川宜宾；“泸”指泸州，当年居住在那里的“獦獠”，已经演变成为今天的仡佬族。

• 《坛经·行由品》：“祖言：‘汝是 岭 南人，又是獦獠，若为堪作佛？’《六祖坛经》中的「獦獠」一辞。「獦」应是「猎」的俗字，「獠」是夷蛮之人，多以渔猎为生，「獦獠」意为田猎渔捕之獠，已大体接近文献本义。「獦獠」又读为「猎獠」，但解释上则应为「猎头獠人」（猎头之獠），而非「打猎獠人」。所谓「猎头」仍指獠人长期存在的一种文化习俗，即猎取人头以祭祀神灵。大量文献资料都证明獠人长期存在猎头风俗。它既来源于发祭或血祭的巫术行为，也与头颅崇拜的原始文化极端心理有关，并为汉族土人所熟知，所以才将这一骇异可怕之习俗单独说出，以作獠人之特殊称谓，并引起了五祖的注意。

- The Palaung (Burmese: ပလောင် လူမျိုး [pəlàʊɴ lùmjó]; Thai: ปะหล่อง, also written as Benglong Palong) or Ta'ang are a Mon–Khmer ethnic minority found in Shan State of Burma, Yunnan Province of China and Northern Thailand. In China, they are referred to as the De'ang ( 德昂族; also spelt Deang) people. They live mainly in the northern parts of Shan State in the Pa Laung Self-Administered Zone, with the capital at Namhsan. The Ta'ang (Palaung) State Liberation Army, the armed wing of the Palaung ethnic group, began fighting against the Burmese military in 1963. It entered a cease-fire agreement with the central government in April 1991, but is currently continuing the insurgency.^[1] Both the government and the rebel armies have derived benefit from poppy cultivation, which has caused serious drug addiction among the local people. 德昂族，於緬甸稱巴朗族。是中国、緬甸、泰國的少数民族。德昂族旧称“崩龙族”，1985年按照本民族意愿改为德昂族（有岩石的意思）。中國武術梅花拳發源於此。居住在德宏地区的德昂族自称“德昂”，镇康、耿马的德昂族则自称“尼昂”或“纳昂”，此外，还有“崩龙”、“昂”、“冷”、“梁”、“布雷”、“纳安诺买”等称呼。根据德昂族妇女的裙子上所织线条的不同色调特征，当地汉族人民分别称他们为“红崩龙”、“花崩龙”、“黑崩龙”等。新中国成立后进行民族识别，沿用了“崩龙”这个名称。后根据本民族的意愿，1985年9月经国务院批准，“崩龙族”正式改名为“德昂族” [2]  。

• 中國唯一的德 昂族鄉組織鄉親發展澳洲 堅果（又稱： 夏威夷果） 產業，種植面積 2.98 萬畝，成為三台山第一特色 產業，為鄉親創造了巨大的 經濟效益。關於德昂族的起源，有葫蘆起源 說、岩洞起源說和茶樹起源說，其 中，德昂族自稱茶的子孫，在雲南 古代民族的原始文化中獨有。 相傳，在人類誕生之前，天界有一株小茶樹看到 天空五彩斑斕，而大地一片荒涼，便想讓大地變得與 天界一樣美好，願意捨身去裝點大地。智慧之神「帕達 然」為考驗他，颳起一陣狂風，吹落了小茶樹身上的102片 葉子，單數變成了 51個精明能幹的青年，雙數變成了 51個美 麗漂亮的小姑娘，他們結成51對夫妻，同心協力驅洪水、鬥妖魔， 給大地帶來了平安。當時大地上還沒有生命，智慧之神引導他們說： 「只要捨掉身子，大地就有了一切。」於是他們割 下自己身上的皮肉，揉碎撒到大地上，大地從此 變得生機勃勃。51對夫妻共同經歷了10,001次磨 難後，50 對返回了天界，僅留下最小的「達 楞」和「亞楞」，相傳他們就是德昂族的始祖。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/08/01/a10-0801.pdf
• festivals

• Held seven days after the Qingming Festival, the Jiaohua Festival is the annually grandest event for the De’ang people who mainly reside in Dehong of China’s southwestern Yunnan Province. “Jiaohua” in Chinese literally means “watering the flowers”, and the Jiaohua Festival is indeed an occasion about water and flowers. By tradition, when it comes, the De’ang men and women will go into mountains to pick flowers for festival decorations. After coming back, they’ll put on their most beautiful clothes and prepare for the ceremony of Bathing the Buddha, during which they spray water on a statue of the Buddha. http://english.yunnan.cn/html/2018/culture_0419/14067.html
• shao baichai festival china daily 3aug19

- The Kuy (Khmer: កួយ, Thai: กูย) are an indigenous ethnic group of mainland Southeast Asia. The native lands of the Kuy range from the southern Khorat Plateau in northeast Thailand east to the banks of the Mekong River in southern Laos and south to north central Cambodia. The Kuy are an ethnic minority in all three countries, where they live as "hill tribes" or Montagnards. Their language is classified as a Katuic language of the Mon-Khmer language family and, as such, is related to the Khmer language of Cambodia. The Thais, Lao, and Khmer traditionally recognize the Kuy as the aboriginal inhabitants of the region and refer to them as Khmer boran (Khmer), meaning "ancient Khmer" or Khamen pa dong (Thai: เขมรป่าดง; RTGS: Khamen pa dong, "jungle Khmer people"). The word kuy in the Kuy language means "people" or "human being"; alternate English spellings include Kui, Kuoy and Kuay, while forms similar to "Suay" or "Suei" are derived from the Thai/Lao exonyms meaning "those who pay tribute". The Kuy are known as skilled mahouts, or elephant trainers, and many Kuy villages are employed in finding, taming, and selling elephants.
- 阿昌族是云南特有的、人口较少的7个少数民族之一，民族语言为阿昌语，属汉藏语系藏缅语族，语支待定，有梁河方言和户撒方言两种方言，兼通汉语、傣语等其他民族的语言或方言，无本民族文字，使用汉字。阿昌族主要分布于云南省德宏傣族景颇族自治州陇川县户撒阿昌族乡、梁河县囊宋阿昌族乡、九保阿昌族乡，其余分布于潞西、盈江、腾冲、龙陵、云龙等县。此外，在邻国缅甸也有部分阿昌族分布。阿昌族制造的铁器极负盛名，以“户撒刀”著称于世。The Achang (阿昌族), also known as the Ngac'ang (their own name) is an ethnic group. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China. They also live in Myanmar, where they're known as Maingtha (Burmese: မိုင်းသာလူမျိုး) in Shan State and Ngochang in Kachin State.The ancestors of the Achang were some of the first inhabitants of the province of Yunnan.^{[citation needed]} Their ancestors lived near the Lancang river^{[citation needed]} and during the 12th century they began to emigrate towards the border the west of the river.^{[citation needed]}By the 13th century, some of them settled down in the area of Longchuan, whereas others settled around Lianghe.^{[citation needed]}During the Ming and Qing dynasties they were governed by local village heads.漢語の史書の中で、阿昌は、“峨昌”、“莪昌”、“俄昌”と呼ばれたことがある。その先住民は早い時期から雲南省北西部の金沙江、瀾滄江、怒江流域一帯で生活していた。居住地区の違いによって、“勐撒掸”、“衬撒”、“漢撒”と呼ばれたこともある。西暦13世紀に、何度もの移住を通じて、次第に現在住んでいる地域に定住するようになった。阿昌族の人々は防衛のため辺境地帯に駐屯していた兵士たちから水田を耕作し、鉄器を作る技術を学び、農業と手工業との分業を推し進め、商品経済が初歩的な発展をとげた。唐代と宋代の頃に、阿昌族居住地区は南詔と大理の管轄下に置かれた。不同地區阿昌族的自稱有所不同，如“蒙撒”、“襯撒”（戶撒地區），“漢撒”、“峨昌”（梁河地區）等。在漢文史籍中，阿昌族曾被称为“峨昌”、“娥昌”、“莪昌”、“阿昌”、“萼昌”等。中華人民共和國成立后，統一定名為阿昌族。阿昌族與中國古代的氐羌族群有淵源關係。唐宋時期，由南詔、大理政權統治；元代歸屬云南行省金齒宣撫司的鎮西路、平緬路、柔遠路等；明清時期由土司管理。

• http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/09/15/a08-0915.pdf 

- 羅越人  The Orang Laut are several seafaring ethnic groups and tribes living around Singapore, peninsular Malaysia and the Riau Islands. The Orang Laut are commonly identified as the Orang Seletar from the Straits of Johor, but the term may also may refer to any Malay origin people living on coastal islands, including those of Andaman Sea islands of India and those in Thailand and Burma, commonly known as Moken.The Malay term orang laut literally means "sea peoples". The Orang Laut live and travel in their boats on the sea.^[1] Another Malay term for them, Orang Selat (literally "Straits people" ), was brought into European languages as Celates.Historically, the Orang Laut played major roles in Srivijaya, the Sultanate of Malacca, and the Sultanate of Johor. They patrolled the adjacent sea areas, repelling real pirates, directing traders to their employers' ports and maintaining those ports' dominance in the area.^[4] The earliest description of the Orang Laut may have been by the 14th century Chinese traveller Wang Dayuan who described the inhabitants of Temasek (present day Singapore) in his work Daoyi Zhilüe.

• [aerial asia episode on singapore] mentioned these people as sea gypsies

- 巴喬人（Bajau、/ˈbɑːdʒaʊ, ˈbæ-/）也作巴瑤族  The Sama-Bajau refers to several Austronesian ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia with their origins from the southern Philippines. The name collectively refers to related people who usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A'a Sama, "Sama people"); or are known by the exonym Bajau (/ˈbɑːdʒaʊ,ˈbæ-/, also spelled Badjao, Bajaw, Badjau, Badjaw, Bajo or Bayao). They usually live a seaborne lifestyle, and use small wooden sailing vessels such as the perahu (layag in Meranau), djenging, balutu, lepa, pilang, and vinta (or lepa-lepa).^[6] Some Sama-Bajau groups native to Sabah are also known for their traditional horse culture. The Sama-Bajau are the dominant ethnic group of the islands of Tawi-Tawi in the Philippines. They are also found in other islands of the Sulu Archipelago, coastal areas of Mindanao, northern and eastern Borneo, Sulawesi, and throughout eastern Indonesian islands.^[7] In the Philippines, they are grouped together with the religiously-similar Moro people. Within the last fifty years, many of the Filipino Sama-Bajau have migrated to neighbouring Malaysia and the northern islands of the Philippines, due to the conflict in Mindanao.^[8][9] As of 2010, they were the second-largest ethnic group in the Malaysian state of Sabah.^[1][10]Sama-Bajau have sometimes been called the "Sea Gypsies" or "Sea Nomads", terms that have also been used for non-related ethnic groups with similar traditional lifestyles, such as the Moken of the Burmese-Thai Mergui Archipelago and the Orang laut of southeastern Sumatra and the Riau Islands of Indonesia. The modern outward spread of the Sama-Bajau from older inhabited areas seems to have been associated with the development of sea trade in sea cucumber (trepang).

• [aerial asia episode on malaysia] called these people as bajau laut

- 伊班族  The Ibans or Sea Dayaks are a branch of the Dayak peoples of Borneo, in South East Asia. Most Ibans are located in the Malaysian state of Sarawak. It is believed that the term "Iban" was originally an exonym used by the Kayans, who - when they initially came into contact with them - referred to the Sea Dayaks in the upper Rajang river region as the "Hivan".Ibans were renowned for practicing headhunting and territorial migration, and had a fearsome reputation as a strong and successful warring tribe. Since the arrival of Europeans and the subsequent colonisation of the area, headhunting gradually faded out of practice, although many other tribal customs and practices as well as the Iban language continue to thrive. The Iban population is concentrated in Sarawak, Brunei, and in the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan. They traditionally live in longhouses called rumah panjai or betang (trunk) in West Kalimantan.

• https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3039202/tale-one-iban-man-johor-story-malaysias-diversity Gawing – a member of Sarawak’s indigenous Iban race and a Christian – was 19 when he first arrived in the state of Johor back in 1993. He certainly never expected – just over a quarter of a century later – to be living and working in the state capital of Johor Bahru.Growing up in an isolated longhouse community about 250km from Kuching, the capital of East Malaysian state of Sarawak, and the eldest son of struggling black pepper farmers, he received a scholarship to study civil engineering.

Javanese
- royalty

• elephant, umbrella are symbol of royalty in ancient java
• parasols - symbol of high status

- descended from seafarers who left south china coast and ventured across the great oceans south and east of asian mainland some 6000 years ago.  Some sailed east and settled in the islands of pacific, while others sailed south and west to borneo, java, and beyond, even crossing indian ocean to madagascar in 1st millennium AD. Javanese sailors probably visited india even before time of christ, since java is mentioned in earliest written version (300BC) of Indian Ramayana epic. First kingdom known in Java, Tarumanegara existed in far western part of island in 5th C.  By 700 AD the focus of civilisation moved to center of the island, where population began to construct stone temples in corporating motifs from several parts of india.  Between AD 700-900, there was an astonishing number of religious monuments.  Many remains have disappeared in past two centuries.
- javanese never found it necessary to use family names, and javanese society does not restrict its concepts of inheritance and descent to a single link, such as that between fathers and sons. Instead javanese trace their family relationships through males and females. Groups of kinsmen coalesce around distinguished forbears while less important ancestors are quickly forgotten.
- economist 25may19 "polite and powerful"
- disapora

• [precarious belongings] in indonesia, central javanese labor migrants make up nearly 21 pc of the nation's migrant population. Majority of them from relatively rural backgrounds and typically are junior high or high school graduates. They usually work in ethnic chinese-dominant countries in east and south-east asia such as taiwan, hk and singapore, or countries with a predominantly muslim population, such as saudi arabia and malaysia. Men tend to work together in constructions, plantations, factory work; women tend to perform domestic work alone in foreign households. Nearly all of them are on what is commonly termed guest worker programs where migrants are allowed to work and live in destination countries for up to two or five years, after which they can either renew their contracts or return home. 

- people

• ******Raden Saleh Sjarif Boestaman (Arabic: رادين صالح شريف بوستامن‎ Rādīn Ṣāliḥ Šarīf Būstāman, Javanese: ꦫꦢꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦭꦺꦃꦯ꦳ꦫꦶꦥ꦳꧀ꦨꦸꦱ꧀ꦠꦩꦤ꧀; EYD, EBI: Raden Saleh Syarif Bustaman; 1807 – 23 April 1880)^[1][2] was a pioneering Indonesian Romantic painter of Arab-Javanese ethnicity. He was considered to be the first "modern" artist from Indonesia (then Dutch East Indies), and his paintings corresponded with nineteenth-century romanticism which was popular in Europe at the time.Raden Saleh Syarif Bustaman was born in 1807 in Semarang on the island of Java in the Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia). He was born into a noble Hadhrami family where his father was Sayyid Husen bin Alwi bin Awal bin Yahya, an Indonesian of Arab descent. He was the grandson of Sayyid Abdullah Bustaman maternally.^[3] Raden Saleh has family connection to Habib Ali Kwitangthrough his sister, Roqayah, who once married to Abdurrahman (father of Ali Kwitang) but gave no offsprings. Young Raden Saleh was first taught in Bogor by the Belgian artist A.J. Payen. Payen acknowledged the youth's talent, and persuaded the colonial government of the Netherlands to send Raden Saleh to the Netherlands to study art. He arrived in Europe in 1829 and began to study under Cornelius Kruseman and Andreas Schelfhout. It was from Kruseman that Raden Saleh studied his skills in portraiture, and later was accepted at various European courts where he was assigned to do portraits. While in Europe, in 1836 Saleh became the first indigenous Indonesian to be initiated into Freemasonry. From 1839, he spent five years at the court of Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, who became an important patron. From Schelfhout, Raden Saleh furthered his skills as a landscape painter. Raden Saleh visited several European cities, as well as Algiers. In The Hague, a lion tamer allowed Raden Saleh to study his lion, and from that his most famous painting of animal fights was created, which subsequently brought fame to the artist. Many of his paintings were exhibited at the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam. Several of his paintings were destroyed when the Colonial Dutch pavilion in Paris was burnt in 1931. Raden Saleh returned to Dutch East Indies in 1852,^[5]:26 after living in Europe for 20 years. He worked as conservator for the colonial collection of government art and continued painting portraits of the Javanese aristocracy, and many more landscape paintings. Returning to Java, he expressed his uneasiness of living in the colonies, stating that "here, people only talks about coffee and sugar, then sugar and coffee" in one of his letters.^[5]:31 Upon returning, Saleh built a house in Cikini (now Cikini Hospital), based on the Callenberg Castle where he had stayed during his European travels c. 1844. Surrounded by vast grounds, most of them were converted into public gardens in 1862, and were closed in the turn of the century. In 1960, the Taman Ismail Marzuki was built in the former gardens. The house itself is still used today as a hospital.

• https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maxenmoschee.jpg?uselang=fr La Blaues Häusel, une petite mosquée construite pour Raden Saleh à Maxen en Saxe
•  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Het_huis_van_de_kunstschilder_Raden_Saleh_door_hemzelf_gebouwd._TMnr_60005156.jpg?uselang=fr La maison de Raden Saleh à Batavia en 1875-1885 (aujourd'hui l'hôpital de Cikini)

- javanese language

• grojogan means waterfall
• sewu is a thousand
• tengah is central

Bumiputera or Bumiputra (Jawi: بوميڤوترا) is a controversial Malaysian term to describe Malays and other indigenous peoples of Southeast Asia, i.e. the Malay world, used similarly as in Indonesia and Brunei. The term is derived from the Sanskrit and later absorbed into the classical Malay word bhumiputra [Sanskrit "भूमिपुत्र"], which can be translated literally as "son of the land" or "son of the soil". In Indonesia, this term is known as "Pribumi".In the 1970s, the Malaysian government implemented policies designed to favour bumiputras (including affirmative action in public education and in the public sector) to create opportunities, and to defuse interethnic tensions following the 13 May Incident in 1969. Originally intended to be a temporary measure, these policies are still in effect and have been described as racially discriminatory. Although the policies have succeeded in creating a significant urban Malay and Native Bornean middle class, they have been less effective in eradicating poverty among rural communities.The concept of a bumiputra ethnic group in Malaysia was coined by Abdul Razak Hussein. It recognised the "special position" of the Malays provided in the Constitution of Malaysia, in particular Article 153. However, the constitution does not use the term bumiputra; it defines only "Malay" and "indigenous peoples" (Article 160(2)), "natives" of Sarawak (161A(6)(a)), and "natives" of Sabah (Article 161A(6) (b)).^[6] Definitions of bumiputra in public use vary among different institutions, organisations, and government departments and agencies.In the book Buku Panduan Kemasukan ke Institusi Pengajian Tinggi Awam, Program Pengajian Lepasan SPM/Setaraf Sesi Akademik 2007/2008 (Guidebook for entry into public higher learning institutions for SPM/equivalent graduates for academic year 2007/2008), the Malaysian Higher Education Ministry defined bumiputra

Chaozhou people
- http://www.hkcd.com.hk/pdf/201511/1118/HA11B18CADE.pdf chaozhou chamber of commerce delegation to singapore, malaysia and thailand

疍家，繁体字为蜑，拼音dàn，亦作蜑家、蛋家、艇家、水上人等，广东、广西和福建一带一种以船为家的渔民。属于汉族，但不属于汉族中的广府民系，而是一支特有的，濒临消失的民系。疍家的母语为汉语粤方言蜑家话，语音与粤语广州话很近似，但有一些专有的词汇。疍家的起源已无可考，有人认为是先于广府、客家、四邑等珠三角汉族民系到达珠三角的早期南方汉族人，也有人认为是古越族或古黎族等南方水上民族被陆上北方移民排斥，多年来形成的一种独特民体。 蛋家原本主要生活在珠三角、粤西沿海，在其它闽粤桂沿海地区亦有分布。蛋家往往以海为家，居无定所。从20世纪90年代起，随着渔业的进步，蛋民（蛋家人）已逐渐被广东政府安排到珠三角沿海地区上岸定居，告别往日“居无定所”的生活。蛋家上岸的主要地点有：惠州惠东、深圳西乡、东莞。

- hk

• 因臨近漁場，蜑家漁民早已植根大澳，當年更佔了大 澳一半的人口，這族群相信是最早食用海魚魚鰾的，魚 鰾是魚控制自己在水裏浮沉的重要器官，漁民一般稱所 有海魚乾魚鰾為魚膠(魚鰾由於藏在魚的肚內，又名魚 肚)，但白花魚除外，只有乾白花魚鰾才稱花膠，可能魚 名有個花字，此外海味商為求統一及美化其名而叫花 膠。黃鰲膠及白花膠是極具滋補藥用及食用價值的，以 黃鰲膠最為頂級，有公之分，以公優於，可止血鎮 痛，對孕婦產後出血療效明顯也有助傷口癒合，養顏抗 老壯陽活血，也可燉湯作菜，故漁民視為傳家之寶看門 口良藥，十分珍貴，很少變賣。上世紀六七十年代大澳漁鹽業紛紛衰退，但也慢慢變 成旅遊景點，再發展至現在的生態文化旅遊，帶動起零 售飲食，零售以花膠魚肚、鹹魚蝦膏為主，現在出售的 絕大部分是入口，有內地、印度、孟加拉、非洲及中南 美洲。今大澳還有少數海味商從內地入口 養殖的白花魚，先取魚鰾曬作花膠，後曬 魚身成鹹魚才作價出售。http://hk.hkcd.com/pdf/202103/0329/HA07329CX01_HKCD.pdf

southeast asian audio visual association http://www.saava.org/index.php/about-us

maritime dispute
- http://www.cfr.org/asia-and-pacific/chinas-maritime-disputes/p31345#!/?cid=soc-facebook-in-china_sea_InfoGuide-111214
- http://www.economist.com/news/asia/21640403-two-case-studies-disputed-sea-oil-troubled-waters TWO Chinese oil companies show contrasting approaches in their attempts to operate in the South China Sea where, to the discomfort of its smaller neighbours, China’s claims in disputed waters have grown increasingly assertive. One company’s actions are adding to tensions in the area, while the other’s may hint at a way to ease them.

Mekong river
- http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20161017/00182_001.html 越南等湄公河下游國家將矛頭對準中國，認為中國在上游大量建設水電站，層層蓄水，影響了下游用水，導致當地出現生態災難和農業危機。其實這種指摘多少有點誇大其辭。湄公河上下游分布着中國、老撾、泰國、柬埔寨、越南的三十九座水電站大壩，各國都有責任，而不是僅僅中國。不過，中國處於上游的優勢地位，可以憑藉有利的地理條件掌握更多資源，並將資源轉化為地緣政治優勢，卻是不爭的事實。湄公河流域的爭議給域外國家插手提供了機會，尤其是處處針對中國的美國和日本，更是不放過機會。比如，美國智庫史汀生中心專注於對湄公河下游國家的地理、社會和經濟狀況實地考察，片面地渲染中國在湄公河上游開發對下游國家帶來的消極影響，以激化中國與湄公河下游國家的矛盾；這種手法美國在南海問題上已經多次使用，可謂屢試不爽。奧巴馬政府重返亞太之後，更視湄公河下游地區是美國新亞太戰略的重要「側翼」，近年高調推出《湄公河下游倡議》，大力投資環境、醫療、教育和基礎設施等領域，不斷加強「美湄合作」的制度化建設，並提升同地區內各國的雙邊關係，適時進行民主改造。越南、柬埔寨、老撾都不是美國認定的民主國家，華盛頓通過援助，藉機輸出美式民主與普世價值觀，在當地發動顏色革命。至於日本，將打造綠色湄公河倡議的多邊平台，積極配合美國在當地的戰略，以促進共同價值觀、提升法治和可持續發展水平為名，在當地暗中發展勢力，抑制中國影響力的上升。



The Straits Settlements (Malay: Negeri-negeri Selat, نݢري٢ سلت; Chinese: 叻嶼呷/海峽殖民地) were a group of Britishterritories located in Southeast Asia. Originally established in 1826 as part of the territories controlled by the British East India Company, the Straits Settlements came under direct British control as aCrown colony on 1 April 1867. The colony was dissolved in 1946 as part of the British reorganisation of its Southeast Asian dependencies following the end of theSecond World War. The Straits Settlements consisted of the four individual settlements of Malacca,Dinding, Penang (also known as Prince of Wales Island) and Singapore (withChristmas Island and the Cocos Islands). The island of Labuan, off the coast ofBorneo, was also incorporated into the colony with effect from 1 January 1907, becoming a separate settlement within it in 1912. Most of the territories now form part of Malaysia, from which Singapore gained independence in 1965. Meanwhile, the Cocos (or Keeling) Islands and Christmas Island were transferred toAustralian control in 1955 viz. 1958, combined in 1996 to form the Australian Indian Ocean Territories.

The Federation of Malaya (Malay: Persekutuan Tanah Melayu; Jawi: ڤرسكوتوان تانه ملايو) was a federation of what previously had been British Malaya comprising eleven states (nine Malay states and two of the British Straits Settlements, Penang and Malacca) that existed from 1 February 1948 until 16 September 1963. The Federation became independent on 31 August 1957,^[3] and in 1963 Malaysia was formed when the federation united with the Singapore, North Borneo, and Sarawak Crown Colonies. The federation of states that made up the Federation of Malaya is now known as Peninsular Malaysia.

- From 1946 to 1948, the eleven states formed a single British crown colony known as the Malayan Union. Due to opposition from Malay nationalists, the Union was disbanded and replaced by the Federation of Malaya, which restored the symbolic positions of the rulers of the Malay states. Within the Federation, while the Malay states were protectorates of the United Kingdom, Penang and Malacca remained British colonial territories. Like the Malayan Union before it, the Federation did not include Singapore, despite its traditional connections with Malaya. The Federation achieved independence within the Commonwealth of Nations on 31 August 1957. In 1963, the Federation was reconstituted as "Malaysia" when it federated with the British territories of Singapore, Sarawak, and North Borneo; a claim to the latter territory was maintained by the Philippines.^[6][7]Singapore separated from Malaysia to become an independent republic on 9 August 1965. The Federation of Malaya Agreement was formulated by the British–Malay Pleno Conference between June and December 1946. At the end of the meeting, the Pleno Conference produced a 100-page "Blue Book."^[9] It was signed on 21 January 1948 at King House by the Malay rulers, and by Sir Edward Gent as the representative of the British government.^[10] The Agreement superseded the Agreement creating the Malayan Union, and prepared for the establishment of the Federation of Malaya on 1 February 1948. The position of the Malay rulers was also restored.

Reef
- http://www.economist.com/news/international/21692869-greed-and-politics-are-destroying-some-asias-most-valuable-coral-reefs-thousand-cuts THE giant clams that lurk in the coral reefs of the South China Sea can live for more than a century and grow more than a metre wide. Their shells are coveted by China’s rich as swanky furnishings or cut into trinkets, such as jewellery. Large specimens can sell for thousands of dollars. The trade is damaging some of the world’s most important ecosystems. China’s giant-clam industry operates from the port of Tanmen on the southern Chinese island of Hainan. There skippers load rickety wooden fishing vessels with provisions for a month. Barrels of water are lashed down at the stern and pigs led to pens at the bow. On the sidedecks sit crude open boats with single-cylinder engines and long propeller shafts. Once the mother ship reaches distant reefs, these are lowered and the propellers used to chew up submerged coral. When the murk clears divers bring up any giant clams that are revealed. The plunder is illegal in China, and trade in giant-clam shells is banned under international treaties. But in Tanmen it operates in broad daylight.

transport infrastructure
- http://www.scmp.com/business/economy/article/1655893/infrastructure-fails-bridge-growth-gap-southeast-asia
- http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/f20f9fec-90f4-11e5-bd82-c1fb87bef7af.html China and Japan are stepping up their battle for strategic infrastructure projects in Southeast Asia amid rising economic competition and tensions over maritime disputes. At an annual summit of Asia-Pacific leaders in Kuala Lumpur this weekend, China pledged to add another $10bn to its growing pool of infrastructure lending in Southeast Asia, while Japan vowed to halve the time it takes to approve infrastructure loans and take on more financial risk.
- thailand-malaysia railway

• 泰国交通部长阿空日前透露，泰国与马来西亚政府将就建设连接两国首都的高铁项目进行协商。该高铁线路总长度约1500公里，将促进两地之间的人员和商品往来，成为地区经济发展的起爆剂。东南亚高铁构想也符合中国的“一带一路”战略，中国很有可能对建设感兴趣，预计中日两国将再度展开竞争。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170208/PDF/a5_screen.pdf

- http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2017-04/24/c_136231864.htm Cambodian Prime Minister Samdech Techo Hun Sen and his Vietnamese counterpart Nguyen Xuan Phuc on Monday jointly inaugurated a bridge connecting southern Cambodia's Kandal province and southwestern Vietnam's An Giang province. The concrete bridge has a total length of 427 meters in which half was built by Cambodia and the other half was developed by Vietnam, said Cambodian Transport Minister Sun Chanthol. He said the project took 27 months to be completed at a total cost of 36 million U.S. dollars in which more than 15 million dollars were paid by Cambodia and the rest was covered by Vietnam.


motor vehicles
- us and european groups want to bolster share in the region ft 9oct14 pp20

motorcycle
- http://www.scmp.com/business/article/1610567/big-motorbikes-new-kings-road-southeast-asia

waste
- Southeast Asian countries are having difficulties dealing with huge quantities of imported waste, and ecological observers are pointing to addressing plastics pollution at the source. As China restricts and stops importing waste and recyclables, "many countries like the United States and Japan ship to other Southeast Asian countries like Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand," said June Wong, oceans conservation project officer with WWF-Hong Kong.http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201904/15/WS5cb3e6aca3104842260b6328.html

preah vihear
- http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/security/946309/military-builds-preah-vihear-temple-replica Amid efforts to mend a rift with Cambodia over disputed land around Preah Vihear temple, the Thai military has built a miniature version of the Hindu site on Pha Mor E-Daeng cliff. http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20160427/00180_006.html


refugees
- from indonesia and vietnam

• cultural revolution in china coincided with powerful nationalist movemenys in SE asia, two of which caused major flight migrations of ethnic Chinese.  In Indonesia, ethnic Chinese, mostly from Fujian, were forced by government stimulated political animosity and persecution to flee to their ancestral land.   The political tumult in china made it impossible for beijing to intervene, but beijing did take responsibility for them and shipped many of them to China.  In vietnam, after US withdrawal beginning in 1975, ethnic Chinese refugees poured into China overland and by boat.  By the time of the abortive Chinese invasion of vietnam in 1979, almost a quarter of a million people had been forced to flee across the border into Guangdong and Guangxi.  The migration coincided with the flight of boat people from vietnam to HK, Thailand and Malaysia.

- An estimated 25,000 Bangladeshis and Rohingya boarded rickety smugglers’ boats in the first three months of this year, twice as many in the same period of 2014, the UNHCR has said. 15 countries are going to meet on May 29 in Bangkok do discuss migrant smuggling crisisThailand, Malaysia and Indonesia will continue to send boats holding thousands of migrants back to sea, a senior Thai official said on Wednesday, despite a UN appeal for a rapid rescue operation to avoid a humanitarian crisis. Several thousand migrants, many of them hungry and sick, are adrift in Southeast Asian seas in boats that have been abandoned by smugglers following a Thai government crackdown on human trafficking, the United Nations has said. “Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand have decided not to receive boat people, as far as I am aware,” said Major General Werachon Sukhondhapatipak, spokesman for Thailand’s ruling junta. http://www.pressreader.com/hong-kong/china-daily-hong-kong/20150514/282007555967245/TextView

language
- https://www.quora.com/Why-are-Malay-Indonesian-Tagalog-and-Vietnamese-written-using-the-Roman-alphabet

-language comparison

• https://www.quora.com/How-come-some-Thai-words-are-cognate-with-Tagalog-or-nearby-languages-like-Bulan-Buwan
• ***** https://www.quora.com/How-closely-related-are-the-Thai-and-Vietnamese-languages
• pronunciation

• [encyclopedia of asian food the definitive guide to asian cookery by charmaine solomon] in the new unified system of spelling introduced some years ago in malaysia and indonesia, the pronunciation of the letter C can be confusing - C replaces CH (blachan is now written as blacan); C replaces TJ (dutch indonesian spelling) (ketjap is now written as kecap, however, the sound is still that of CH as in chump)

• script

•  
  Hindi speakers largely use the Devanagari script.
  Secondly, Brahmic (“Indian-originated”) scripts in Mainland Southeast Asia, including the Thai and Lao scripts, were largely derived from the Old Khmer script, so if Vietnam ever were to use a Brahmic script it would be similar to Khmer, Thai, or Lao, not Devanagari. Thirdly, traditional Vietnam was a Sinosphere-influenced civilisation-culture before its long period of Nam tiến, so if Portuguese Missionaries did not invent Quốc ngữ, they would have likely to have standardised and streamlined Chữ nôm instead.https://www.quora.com/Why-doesnt-Vietnam-use-the-Hindi-alphabet-instead-of-Latinizing-the-Vietnamese-language

The Tai or Zhuang–Tai languages (Thai: ภาษาไท or ภาษาไต, transliteration: p̣hās̛̄āthay or p̣hās̛̄ātay) are a branch of the Kra–Dailanguage family. The Tai languages include the most widely spoken of the Tai–Kadai languages, including standard Thai or Siamese, the national language of Thailand; Lao or Laotian, the national language of Laos; Myanmar's Shan language; and Zhuang, a major language in the southern Chinese province of Guangxi.

嘉絨語（藏文：རྒྱལ་རོང་，威利：rgyal rong），又作嘉戎語，屬於漢藏語系藏緬語族的羌語支。通行於四川省的甘孜藏族自治州和阿壩藏族羌族自治州。操嘉絨語的人在1954年前為嘉絨族 1954年後被共產黨劃分為藏族。從民初直到1953年前的文獻都將嘉絨地區的族群稱為「嘉絨族」。1950年代初期，中央民族學院還設有「嘉絨族研究班」，創製了嘉絨拼音文字，記錄當地的民間故事。1954年，將「嘉絨」識別為藏族，之後才有了「嘉絨藏族」這一稱謂。不過，儘管嘉絨族被識別為藏族，但在代表中國官方意見的《中國語言地圖集》中，藏語仍未覆及嘉絨語。可見嘉絨族群的獨立性。嘉絨語是一種非常古老的語言，是漢藏語系的「活化石」，它保留了原始漢藏語的一些語音形式（例如：複雜的複輔音）和構詞手段。嘉絨語對了解古漢語的語音和語法有重大的意義，因為語言歷史比較有助於構擬上古漢語的語音系統。例如：法國語言學家沙加爾提出「肘」（中古知母有韻）應該構擬成*tr-kuʔ。嘉絨語可以印證這個構擬，因為這個詞有同樣 tkr- /trk- 的複輔音；請參考「肘」在嘉絨語諸方言的形式：茶堡 /tɯ-ɣru/、日部 /tə-krəvzuʔ/、四土 /tə-krú/。嘉絨語可以分為四種彼此互不相通的方言：四土話、草登話（藏文：ཚོ་བདུན་，威利：tsho bdun）、日部話（當地：zbu；藏文：རྫོང་འབུར་，威利：rdzong 'bur）和茶堡話（藏文：ཇ་ཕུག་，威利：ja phug）。

- 達古嘉戎語動詞變化範例http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/11/08/a25-1108.pdf

malayan language
- https://www.quora.com/How-is-the-Malayan-languages-diversity-compared-to-that-of-Slavic-languages/answer/Adithya-Ekananda

Papia Kristang ("speak kristang"), or just Kristang, is a creole language. It is spoken by the Kristang, a community of people of mixed Portuguese and Asian ancestry, chiefly in Malacca (Malaysia) and Singapore. The language is also called Cristão or Cristan ("Christian"), Portugues di Melaka ("Malacca Portuguese"), Linggu Mai ("Mother Tongue") or simply Papia. Papia means speak. However, locals and most of the Kristang community refer to the language as "Portugis".The language has about 750 speakers in Malacca and another 100 in Singapore.^[4] A small number of speakers also live in other Portuguese Eurasian communities in Kuala Lumpur and Penang in Malaysia, and in diaspora communities in Perth, Canada, the United Kingdom and elsewhere.

- 克里斯坦語為葡語及馬來語的混合體，最早可追溯至十六世紀。當時的馬六甲是由葡萄牙人統治，不少葡國人與馬來人通婚，由此發展出該套獨特的語言。在十九世紀的高峰期，估計有最少二千人能夠流利掌握克里斯坦語。馬來西亞後來改由英國統治，當地人對英文的重視程度遠超克里斯坦語，令其慢慢失傳。馬來西亞及新加坡獨立後，要為多元人口挑選一種官方語言，克里斯坦語亦不在考量之列。在現今的馬來西亞及新加坡，估計僅不足九百人可流利使用克里斯坦語。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20171212/00180_035.html
- scmp 3jun19 "battle to preserve a language in decline"
- [the eurasian face by kirsteen zimmern] kristang is spoken by many eurasians of portuguese descent.  Kristang is still especially widely spoken among eurasians in malacca.  It is a language that combines portuguese, bahasa, chinese and tamil. Some words are the same in kristang as in portuguese. "jingkli nona" (a kristang song meaning "fair maiden") remains a very popular traditional eurasian song. 

Sarong
- 沙龍（Sarong）圍腰布是東南亞一帶男性的傳統服裝，美國有公司推出一款多用途的沙龍（圖），令這傳統服裝變成潮物。該款沙龍寬卅九點四吋、長四十三點三吋，平時可當一般圍腰布穿着，又或是鋪在沙灘或公園地上當墊子坐。當經過指定方式摺疊再加上吊扣後，沙龍就可以變身為斜孭袋；有拉鏈的主袋足夠收納單反相機和水瓶，而兩邊的側袋和扣環則可以收納車票、鎖匙等小物。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20180105/00180_038.html

festival
- Songkran is a term derived from the Sanskrit word, saṅkrānti (or, more specifically, meṣa saṅkrānti) and used to refer to the traditional Lunar New Year celebrated inThailand, Laos, Cambodia, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, parts of northeast India, parts of Vietnam and Xishuangbanna, China. It begins when the sun transits the constellation of Aries, the first astrological sign in the Zodiac, as reckoned by sidereal astrology. It is related to the equivalent Hindu calendar-based New Year festivals in most parts of South Asia which are collectively referred to as Mesha Sankranti.
- japan

• 伝統的にソンクラーンは正月の意味合いが強かったが、1888年以降はこの暦が廃止され、4月1日（西暦）を新年と定めることになったため正月の意味が薄れた。1940年にはグレゴリオ暦を導入し、仏暦を修正したことにより、1月1日（西暦）が元旦とされた。一方で、ソンクラーンに行われていたお清めの習慣は現在まで存続し、もう一つの正月として機能している。なお週末とソンクラーンが重なった場合は翌週に振り替え休日が来ることになっている。なお、仏像のお清めなど宗教的なことも行われるが、仏教の祭日ではない。

dance
- Menora (Jawi: منورا) is a type of dance drama originating in Southern Thailand and practised mainly in the northern states of Malaysia and southern provinces of Thailand. Menora also known as Manora (มโนราห์, มโนห์รา) Nora (โนรา) in Thai language. The basic features of the performance include a lengthy invocation, a dance by the main character, and a play or skit. The invocation is enacted by slow rhythmic movements of legs, arms and fingers.^[2] The dramatic repertoire of Menora performance is based on Thai legends of Manohara, derived from the Buddhist Jataka tales, many of which already accultured into Malay society centuries ago. In the northeastern state of Kelantan and Terengganu, Menora incorporates much use of Malay language and a mak yong-style dance movements. While in the northwestern state of Kedah, it is performed in a mixture of Thai and local dialects, but adheres to the invocation-play in a distinctly north Malaysian style and incorporates some elements of Jikey and Mek Mulung. The musical ensemble consists of a pair of hand cymbals, a pair of small knobbed gongs, a pair of wooden sticks, a barrel-shaped kendang, a reed instrument and a vase-shaped single headed drum.

• 默諾拉舞具二千年歷史，是一種起源於泰國南部、結合戲劇與音樂的舞蹈表演，亦常見於馬來西亞北部，本意為獻給皇室，並作寺廟敬神之用，其主要透過舞者腿部，手臂和手指的緩慢節奏運動來表演。它的特別之處還在於舞者會按照神話故事模仿小鳥的舞姿，並戴上相關道具，因此也有媒體將其稱為「人鳥舞」。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190125/00180_027.html

muslims
- The Moro people is a coined term for the population of Muslims in the Philippines, forming the largest non-Catholic group in the country, and comprising about 5.1% (as of August 2007) of the total Philippine population. There are around 13 Filipino ethnic groups included, and the majority are Muslim,^[4] most are the followers ofSunni Islam of Shafi'i madh'hab. The "Moro" term came into use during the Spanish colonial period, drawing upon a term used centuries earlier to refer the Muslims of al-Andalus in southern Spain known as the "Moors" during theReconquista and applied to the native Muslims within conquered islands.^[5]Traditionally, the Filipino Muslims were offended with the term "Moro", for it was taken from the "Moro-Moro" stage plays from the Spanish era, in which Muslims were always depicted as antagonists. In modern history, influential groups such as the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) espoused the Moro identity to unify all Muslim groups in the Philippines. This is different from the "Filipino" identity as it was more seen as an epithet to Christian ethnic groups. In addition with the Moro concept represents their distinct Islamic heritage, MNLF leader Nur Misuari clarifies that they are not a part of the majority Filipino society with a slogan "Moro not Filipino" in their struggle for autonomy or independence against theCatholic majority Philippine central government.^[6] This is rooted from resistance of the then-Spanish and American rule who forced them to integrate into the modern Philippine republic.^[5][7] The Moro people mostly live in Mindanao, Sulu and Palawan. Due to continuous movement of their people since the 16th century until present, Moro communities can be found in all large cities in the Philippines, including Manila, Cebu and Davao. Many Moros also have emigrated to Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei in the last half of the 20th century due to theconflict in the Southern Philippines. Newer communities can be found today in Kota Kinabalu,Sandakan, Semporna in neighbouring Sabah, Malaysia,^[8] North Kalimantan in Indonesia, as well in Bandar Seri Begawan of Brunei.

russia
- https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3032568/russia-romances-southeast-asia-trade-and-arms-its-no-match-china

Japan
-  Red-seal ships (朱印船 Shuinsen) were Japanese armed merchant sailing ships bound for Southeast Asian ports with red-sealed letters patent issued by the early Tokugawa shogunate in the first half of the 17th century.^[2] Between 1600 and 1635, more than 350 Japanese ships went overseas under this permit system.From the 13th to the 16th century, Japanese ships were quite active in Asian waters, often in the role of "wakō" pirates who plundered the coast of the Chinese Empire. Official trading missions were also sent to China, such as the Tenryūji-bune around 1341. Wakō activity was efficiently curbed in the late 16th century with the interdiction of piracy by Hideyoshi, and the successful campaigns against pirate activity on the Chinese coast by Ming Dynasty generals. Between the 15th and the 16th century, the main trading intermediary in Eastern Asia was the island kingdom of the Ryūkyū (modern Okinawa), which exchanged Japanese products (silver, swords) and Chinese products for Southeast Asian sappan wood and deer hides. Altogether 150 Ryukyuan ships are recorded between the kingdom and Southeast Asia, 61 of them for Annam (Viet Nam), 10 for Malacca, 10 for Pattani, 8 for Java etc... Their commerce disappeared around 1570 with the rise of Chinese merchants and the intervention of Portuguese and Spanish ships, and corresponds with the beginnings of the Red Seal system. The Ryūkyū kingdom was finally invaded by Japan in 1609. When the first Europeans started to navigate in the Pacific Ocean (see also Nanban trade period), they regularly encountered Japanese ships, such as when the Spanish welcomed in Manila in 1589 a storm-battered Japanese junk bound for Siam, or when the Dutch circumnavigator Olivier van Noort encountered a 110-ton Japanese junk in the Philippines in December 1600, and on the same voyage a Red Seal ship with a Portuguese captain off Borneo through which they learned about the arrival of William Adams in Japan.The Red Seal system appears from at least 1592, under Hideyoshi, date of the first known mention of the system in a document. The first actually preserved Shuinjō (Red Seal Permit) is dated to 1604, under Tokugawa Ieyasu, first ruler of Tokugawa Japan. Tokugawa issued red-sealed permits to his favourite feudal lords and principal merchants who were interested in foreign trade. By doing so, he was able to control Japanese traders and reduce Japanese piracy in the South Sea. His seal also guaranteed the protection of the ships, since he vowed to pursue any pirate or nation who would violate it. Besides Japanese traders, 12 European and 11 Chinese residents, including William Adams and Jan Joosten, are known to have received permits. At one point after 1621, Jan Joosten is recorded to have possessed 10 Red Seal Ships for commerce. Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, English ships and Asian rulers basically protected Japanese red seal ships, since they had diplomatic relations with the Japanese shōgun. Only Ming China had nothing to do with this practice, because the Empire officially prohibited Japanese ships from entering Chinese ports. (But Ming officials were not able to stop Chinese smugglers from setting sail to Japan.)朱印船贸易期间，日本来往于海外的人数约有 10 万人，称的上是日本的大航海时代。东南亚一些地方出现了有数百甚至上千的日本人定居，实行自治制。朱印船一般认为是文禄元年（ 1592 年）丰臣秀吉开始的，但是近年来“德川家康说”也得到很多人认可。朱印船输入了生丝、绢织物、棉织物、毛织物等中国商品，鲨鱼皮、象牙、胡椒、水牛角、铅、药等东南亚商品。输出物主要是银、铜、铁、硫磺等矿物，其他还有刀剑、工艺品等。当时日本是世界上屈指可数的产银国，有相当的购买力，对英国、荷兰、西班牙等国的西方商人来说极具诱惑力。1600年關原合戰後，江戶幕府的霸權確立。徳川家康基本上沿襲豊臣秀吉的政策，保護及鼓勵對外貿易以及歡迎外國人來航。徳川家康將豊臣秀吉創設的朱印船貿易更明確的制度化：任何船隻需持有幕府發行的朱印狀才可合法從事海外貿易，藉此完全支配對外貿易。另外將長崎納入幕府直轄領，設長崎奉行所管理。規定所有朱印船統一由長崎出航及歸航。1601年徳川家康向安南国大都統阮潢致信，要求保護持有朱印狀的日本商船、禁止與朱印船以外的商船交易，「朱印船制度」確立。另外為了排除葡萄牙人對長崎生絲貿易的利益獨占，1604年幕府任命京都、堺、長崎的御用商人為絲割符年寄，與葡萄牙人交涉生絲的價格，再批發給日本各地的商人（絲割符制度）。據官方統計，從1604年至1635年的32年間，共有356船次的日本商船得到了海外貿易許可證渡航海外，平均每年有11船次，而不在官方統計的走私船更是不計其數。朱印船主包含大名、幕吏、商人及外國人等100多人，目的地主要有高砂（臺灣）、呂宋、柬埔寨、東京、交趾及暹羅等東南亞地區。朱印船貿易促使許多日本人移居海外，遷移到東南亞各地形成日本人町。由於日本需要中國的貨物，但不能直接到中國進行貿易，所以日本商人只好南下到臺灣與中國商人會合，在此進行生絲、布匹、金銀等商品的交易，使得臺灣成為中國、日本二地商人的貿易轉運站。

- http://online.wsj.com/articles/japanese-food-firms-eye-southeast-asian-markets-1406259305
- http://www.financeasia.com/News/354428,japan-inc-targets-southeast-asia-with-spending-spree.aspx, http://online.wsj.com/articles/japan-inc-goes-deeper-into-southeast-asia-1411953543

- 日本家電大廠Panasonic近期表示，將重組白色家電在東南亞的生產地點，明年會把泰國的冰箱和洗衣機生產線遷至越南，並裁減約800名泰國員工。完成後，該公司在泰國仍有約1.37萬名員工，從事小型家電和電池的生產。這反映出東南亞製造業面臨新格局。日本家電廠商從一九七○年代開始，將生產線從日本遷移至東南亞，先是新加坡、馬來西亞等，後來因新加坡人工上漲，又搬到泰國等。如今這些日本企業又在尋找成本更低廉的地方，同時也為了開拓冰箱、洗衣機等家電產品更大潛在需求，將目光投放在人口較多的印尼、菲律賓和越南等國身上。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/finance/20200527/00202_031.html