Aquitaine (UK: /ˌækwɪˈteɪn/, US: /ˈækwəˌteɪn/; French: [akitɛn]; Occitan: Aquitània; Basque: Akitania; Poitevin-Saintongeais: Aguiéne), archaic Guyenne/Guienne (Occitan: Guiana) is a traditional region of France, and was an administrative region of France until 1 January 2016. It is now part of the region Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is situated in the south-western part of Metropolitan France, along the Atlantic Ocean and the Pyrenees mountain range on the border with Spain. It is composed of the five departments of Dordogne, Lot-et-Garonne, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Landes and Gironde. In the Middle Ages, Aquitaine was a kingdom and a duchy, whose boundaries fluctuated considerably.
Gascony (/ˈɡæskəni/; French: Gascogne [ɡaskɔɲ]; Gascon: Gasconha [ɡasˈkuɲɔ]; Basque: Gaskoinia) is an area of southwest France that was part of the "Province of Guyenne and Gascony" prior to the French Revolution. The region is vaguely defined, and the distinction between Guyenne and Gascony is unclear; by some they are seen to overlap, while others consider Gascony a part of Guyenne. Most definitions put Gascony east and south of Bordeaux. It is currently divided between the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine (departments of Landes, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, southwestern Gironde, and southern Lot-et-Garonne) and the region of Occitanie (departments of Gers, Hautes-Pyrénées, southwestern Tarn-et-Garonne, and western Haute-Garonne). Gascony was historically inhabited by Basque-related people who appear to have spoken a language similar to Basque. The name Gascony comes from the same root as the word Basque (see Wasconia below). From medieval times until today, the Gascon language has been spoken, although it is classified as a regional variant of the Occitan language. Gascony is the land of d'Artagnan, who inspired Alexandre Dumas's character d'Artagnan in The Three Musketeers. It is also home to Henry III of Navarre, who later became king of France as Henry IV.
Gascony (/ˈɡæskəni/; French: Gascogne [ɡaskɔɲ]; Gascon: Gasconha [ɡasˈkuɲɔ]; Basque: Gaskoinia) is an area of southwest France that was part of the "Province of Guyenne and Gascony" prior to the French Revolution. The region is vaguely defined, and the distinction between Guyenne and Gascony is unclear; by some they are seen to overlap, while others consider Gascony a part of Guyenne. Most definitions put Gascony east and south of Bordeaux. It is currently divided between the region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine (departments of Landes, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, southwestern Gironde, and southern Lot-et-Garonne) and the region of Occitanie (departments of Gers, Hautes-Pyrénées, southwestern Tarn-et-Garonne, and western Haute-Garonne). Gascony was historically inhabited by Basque-related people who appear to have spoken a language similar to Basque. The name Gascony comes from the same root as the word Basque (see Wasconia below). From medieval times until today, the Gascon language has been spoken, although it is classified as a regional variant of the Occitan language. Gascony is the land of d'Artagnan, who inspired Alexandre Dumas's character d'Artagnan in The Three Musketeers. It is also home to Henry III of Navarre, who later became king of France as Henry IV.
- In pre-Roman times, the inhabitants of Gascony were the Aquitanians (Latin: Aquitani), who spoke a non-Indo-European language related to modern Basque. The Aquitanians inhabited a territory limited to the north and east by the Garonne River, to the south by the Pyrenees mountain range, and to the west by the Atlantic Ocean. The Romans called this territory Aquitania, either from the Latin word aqua (meaning "water"), in reference to the many rivers flowing from the Pyrenees through the area, or from the name of the Aquitanian Ausci tribe, in which case Aquitania would mean "land of the Ausci". In the 50s BC, Aquitania was conquered by lieutenants of Julius Caesar and became part of the Roman Empire.
- historic flag is white cross against red background
- *****Latin F has frequently morphed into “h”, which is pronounced as in English: huec - fire: pronounced “hwek”; hemna - woman - pronounced “henno”; hesta - fiesta, feast: pronounced “hesto”. In fact, this “h” sound does not occur in all varieties of Gascon.https://www.quora.com/Is-there-any-Romance-language-where-a-written-h-is-pronounced-like-the-English-h- gascon word for chevalier is "chibaley"
https://www.quora.com/If-France-was-occupied-by-the-Germanic-Franks-and-even-took-their-name-why-didnt-they-gradually-adopt-a-Germanic-language-How-did-they-keep-their-Latin-dialect-which-eventually-evolved-into-French First off, the barbarian invasions were not a wholesale replacement of the indigenous population. The invaders numbered in the tens, or perhaps hundreds of thousands; the Gallo-Romans in the millions. Although the Franks they definitely impacted the development of Gallic Latin into French, they were a minority of the speakers. The second aspect is that the Frankish conquerors needed the legal and administrative apparatus of the existing Gallo-Roman society. They replaced the personnel at the top but they depended on the technical sophistication which Latin brought to legal, military and religious matters. Inventing Frankish versions of the relevant vocabulary would take a long time and a lot of literary effort, but there wasn’t a native Frankish literary class as far as we know. The classic example is Charlemagne, who was famous for his support of Latin learning, but himself only semi-literate: like his Frankish predecessors he relied on Latin speakers for the administrative and legal management of his kingdom. The best analogy would be something like the Mongol conquest of China: it’s far easier for a conquering military caste to adopt the local language of a more complex culture than the reverse.
- gascon word for knife - couteau - chateau coutet's coutet came from this word
https://www.quora.com/If-France-was-occupied-by-the-Germanic-Franks-and-even-took-their-name-why-didnt-they-gradually-adopt-a-Germanic-language-How-did-they-keep-their-Latin-dialect-which-eventually-evolved-into-French First off, the barbarian invasions were not a wholesale replacement of the indigenous population. The invaders numbered in the tens, or perhaps hundreds of thousands; the Gallo-Romans in the millions. Although the Franks they definitely impacted the development of Gallic Latin into French, they were a minority of the speakers. The second aspect is that the Frankish conquerors needed the legal and administrative apparatus of the existing Gallo-Roman society. They replaced the personnel at the top but they depended on the technical sophistication which Latin brought to legal, military and religious matters. Inventing Frankish versions of the relevant vocabulary would take a long time and a lot of literary effort, but there wasn’t a native Frankish literary class as far as we know. The classic example is Charlemagne, who was famous for his support of Latin learning, but himself only semi-literate: like his Frankish predecessors he relied on Latin speakers for the administrative and legal management of his kingdom. The best analogy would be something like the Mongol conquest of China: it’s far easier for a conquering military caste to adopt the local language of a more complex culture than the reverse.
- gascon word for knife - couteau - chateau coutet's coutet came from this word
- Guyenne or Guienne (French: [ɡɥijɛn]; Occitan: Guiana [ˈɡjanɔ]) was an old French province which corresponded roughly to the Roman province of Aquitania Secunda and the archdiocese of Bordeaux. The name "Guyenne" comes from Aguyenne, a popular deformation of Aquitania.[1] In the 12th century it formed, along with Gascony, the duchy of Aquitaine, which passed under the dominion of the kings of England by the marriage of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II. In the 13th century, through the conquests of Philip II, Louis VIII and Louis IX, it was confined within the narrower limits fixed by the treaty of Paris (1259). It was at this point that Guyenne became distinct from Aquitaine. It then comprised the Bordelais (the old countship of Bordeaux), the Bazadais, part of Périgord, Limousin, Quercy and Rouergue and the Agenais ceded by Philip III to Edward I in 1279. Still united with Gascony, it formed a duchy extending from the Charentes to the Pyrenees. This duchy was held as a fief on the terms of homage to the French kings and both, in 1296 and 1324, it was confiscated by the kings of France on the ground that there had been a failure in the feudal duties. At the treaty of Brétigny (1360), King Edward III of England acquired the full sovereignty of the duchy of Guyenne, together with Aunis, Saintonge, Angoumois and Poitou. The victories of Bertrand du Guesclin and Gaston III, Count of Foix, restored the duchy soon after to its 13th-century limits. In 1451, it was conquered and finally united to the French crown by Charles VII. In 1469, Louis XI gave it in exchange for Champagne and Brie to his brother Charles, Duke of Berry (1446–1472), after whose death in 1472, it was again united to the royal dominion. Guyenne then formed a government (gouvernement général) which from the 17th century onwards was united with Gascony. The government of Guyenne and Gascony (Guienne et Gascogne), with its capital at Bordeaux, lasted until the end of the Ancien Régime (1792). Under the French Revolution, the departments formed from Guyenne proper were those of Gironde, Lot-et-Garonne, Dordogne, Lot, Aveyron and the chief part of Tarn-et-Garonne.
- people
- the change of Gascony from England to France in 1453. The people of Gascony considered themselves English subjects, but their main link with England was the wine trade. The reconquest of Gascony disrupted this, which is why the Battle of Castillon took place: Gascony requested that England rescue it from France. The work of ordinary people was threatened [Dunan, 1974, p372]. Another factor was that France and England had become proto-nation-states by then, so there were now distinct differences [Falkus & Gillingham, 1978, p191]. In this case, there was differences in language & culture, but most importantly commerce. England was Gascony’s best customer. It’s conquest by France put this at risk. The Gascony people considered themselves loyal English subjects, but whether this was genuine patriotism or a commercially convenient stance isn’t clear.
- connetable talbot, english general and governor of province of guyenne was defeated at the battle of castillon in 1453; chateau talbot owes its name to him
In these cases, it appeared that the average peasant cared very much. In the first case the average peasant was already fed up with the flouting of traditional culture and constant warfare. In the second case, the average peasant who worked in the wine trade faced a loss of custom.https://www.quora.com/Medieval-borders-changed-very-frequently-Would-the-average-peasant-particularly-care-if-say-they-went-from-being-French-to-English-subjects-Was-there-a-sense-of-patriotism-to-their-former-state-How-did-daily-life
Cornouaille (Breton: Kernev or Kerne) is a historic region on the west coast of Brittany in western France. The name is cognate with Cornwall in neighbouring Great Britain. This can be explained by settlement of Cornouaille by migrant princes from Cornwall creating an independent principality founded by Rivelen Mor Marthou,[1][2] and the founding of the Bishopric of Cornouaille by ancient saints from Cornwall. The two regions spoke a similar Brythonic language, which evolved into Cornish in Cornwall and the closely related Breton across the English Channel in Brittany; the two languages are more remotely related to Welsh. The toponym Cornouaille was established in the early Middle Ages in the southwest of the Breton peninsula.[3] Prior to this, following the withdrawal of Rome from Britain, other British migrants from what is now modern Devon had established the region of Domnonea (in Breton) or Domnonée (in French) in the north of the peninsula, taken from the Latin Dumnonia. The region was first mentioned in surviving records by a Cornouaille-related name between 852 and 857, when Anaweten, bishop of Saint-Corentin at Quimper Cathedral, took over Cornugallensis under the order of Nominoe, Duke of Brittany and Tad ar Vro. The names Cornwall and Cornouaille, like the surname Cornwallis, are from Corn-wealas. The first element is from the name of a Brythonic tribe Latinized as Cornovii, meaning 'peninsula people', from the Celtic kernou, 'horn, headland'. It is a cognate of the English word horn, both being from PIE *ker- 'uppermost part of the body, head, horn, top, summit',[4][5]. The second element is the Anglo-Saxon suffix -wealas, from walh, a word used by the Germanic speakers for 'a non-Germanic foreigner', especially Celtic speakers but also sometimes used for Romance-language speakers. Walh is an element found in the words and names walnut, Walloon, Wales, Wallachia, Wallace, Walcheren, and Walsh.A Corn-/Kern- name was used in reference to the resettling of the new wave Celts from Great Britain in formerly Dumnonian-seized lands. This is related to the difference between Grande-Bretagne (Great Britain) and Bretagne (Brittany) in French, with Brittany having originally been thought of a British colony (and the second such in the same area). In Breton, Cornouaille is known as Kernev or Bro-Gernev, and in Latin as Cornugallia or Cornubia. In Cornish, Kernev is written Kernow, but the pronunciation is the same.
Rouen (French pronunciation: [ʁwɑ̃]; Latin:Rotomagus) is a city on the River Seine in the north of France. It is the capital of theregion of Normandy. Formerly one of the largest and most prosperous cities ofmedieval Europe, Rouen was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy during the Middle Ages. It was one of the capitals of the Anglo-Norman dynasties, which ruled both England and large parts of modern France from the 11th to the 15th centuries. Rouen was founded by the Gaulish tribe of Veliocasses, who controlled a large area in the lower Seine valley, which today retains a trace of their name as the Vexin. The Gauls named the settlement Ratumacos and the Romans called it Rotomagus. Roman Rotomagus was the second city of Gallia Lugdunensis, after Lugdunum (Lyon). After the reorganization of the empire by Diocletian, Rouen became the chief city of the divided province of Gallia Lugdunensis II and reached the peak of its Roman development, with an amphitheatre andthermae, whos foundations remain today. In the 5th century, it became the seat of a bishopric and later a capital of Merovingian Neustria.
Rouen (French pronunciation: [ʁwɑ̃]; Latin:Rotomagus) is a city on the River Seine in the north of France. It is the capital of theregion of Normandy. Formerly one of the largest and most prosperous cities ofmedieval Europe, Rouen was the seat of the Exchequer of Normandy during the Middle Ages. It was one of the capitals of the Anglo-Norman dynasties, which ruled both England and large parts of modern France from the 11th to the 15th centuries. Rouen was founded by the Gaulish tribe of Veliocasses, who controlled a large area in the lower Seine valley, which today retains a trace of their name as the Vexin. The Gauls named the settlement Ratumacos and the Romans called it Rotomagus. Roman Rotomagus was the second city of Gallia Lugdunensis, after Lugdunum (Lyon). After the reorganization of the empire by Diocletian, Rouen became the chief city of the divided province of Gallia Lugdunensis II and reached the peak of its Roman development, with an amphitheatre andthermae, whos foundations remain today. In the 5th century, it became the seat of a bishopric and later a capital of Merovingian Neustria.
The Amboise conspiracy, also called Tumult of Amboise, was a failed attempt by Huguenots in 1560 to gain power over France by abducting the young king Francis II and arresting Francis, Duke of Guise and his brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine. It was one of the events directly leading up to the Wars of Religion that divided France from 1562 to 1598.
- At the death of Henry II in 1559, the Protestants of France looked forward to a relaxation of stringent policies against their religion, but the young king, Francis II, retained his father's policy. Among the king's advisors were his wife's uncles, Francis, Duke of Guise and Charles of Guise, Cardinal of Lorraine, who through their niece exercised great influence with the King.In late October 1560, Louis of Bourbon, Prince of Condé was arrested[5] on the suspicion of having been the architect of the plot but was released for lack of conclusive evidence. During the events, he had preserved a distance from the plot but had stood at the ready at Orléans, le capitaine muet, the "silent captain" of the plotters' correspondence. He was one of the principal leaders of the Huguenots during the French Wars of Religion. The Edict of Amboise in 1563 ended the first phase of the French Wars of Religion.- the term huguenots came into general usage in the conspiracy of ambiose in early 1560. In early 1562 the huguenot population accounted for 10 pc of total population in france, forming a formidable challenge to the established gallican church.
- in late 1561, militant catholics, fearful that catherine de medici might compromise with tge huguenots, formed a military triumvirate to seek aid from philip II of spain in order to extirpate sall those of the new religion. The militant catholics included the courtly faction, led by guise family.
peace and edict of saint-germain in august 1570 granted civil rights to huguenots
edict of beaulieu on 6may1576
- french protestants enjoy right of a free, public, and general exercise of religion everywhere innfrance except in paris; huguenots were granted eight fortified cities for their protection; their faith will be referred to in all official documents as the religion pretendue reformee (reformed religion, R.P.R. for short)
- in secret articlescthat were attached to the edict, duke of alencon was granted the new title of duke of anjou. He later marched northward with french troops in support of the beggars' cause, and was received by the estates general as "prince and lord of the netherlands" at antwerp in feb1582.
- in the war that preceded this edict, huguenots were supported by 20000 german mercenaries under command of john casimir (brother of calvinist elector of palatinate) in spring of 1576
- huguenot dominance in south/southwest (montauban, nimes and la rochelle); catholic dominance in paris, rouen, amiens and dijon (north and east)
On 12 may 1588 (the day of barricades), a popular revolt in paris, combined with open defiance of the leadership of the league, exposed the king's political weakness and forced him to flee the city.
The Edict of Nantes (French: édit de Nantes), signed in April 1598 by King Henry IV of France, granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in the nation, which was still considered essentially Catholic at the time. In the edict, Henry aimed primarily to promote civil unity. The edict separated civil from religious unity, treated some Protestants for the first time as more than mere schismatics and heretics, and opened a path for secularism and tolerance. In offering general freedom of conscience to individuals, the edict offered many specific concessions to the Protestants, such as amnesty and the reinstatement of their civil rights, including the right to work in any field or for the state and to bring grievances directly to the king. It marked the end of the religious wars that had afflicted France during the second half of the 16th century. The Edict of St. Germain, promulgated 36 years before by Catherine de Médici, had granted limited tolerance to Huguenots but was overtaken by events, as it was not formally registered until after the Massacre of Vassy on 1 March 1562, which triggered the first of the French Wars of Religion. The later Edict of Fontainebleau, which revoked the Edict of Nantes in October 1685, was promulgated by Louis XIV, the grandson of Henry IV. It drove an exodus of Protestants and increased the hostility of Protestant nations bordering France.
- the established church in france in the course of religious wars called itself the sainte union (sacred union or league)
- networks of support - protestant churches created and activated new networks of support in the form of regional and national assemblies; catholics activated or revitalized long-standing institutions of traditional catholic piety, such as confraternities; brokerage of political entrepreneurs who connect people ans groups who were previously unconnected, in france, duke of guise and princr of conde linked networkd of zealous catholics and protestants respectively to specialistd of coercion inntge form of mercenary armies on the eve of and throughout many decades of religious war; polarization- contending parties, mobilizing locally and nationally, made routine social interactions and collaborative governance among heretics abd papists more difficult, if not impoosible
- two royal brevets
- 3apr1598 (one month before the public proclamation of edict) - provided royal grant to be employed inncertain secret matters which concern them which his majesty does not wish to be specified or declared. These funds were product of long negotiation between royal commissioners and protestant assembly and were intended to pay the salaries or stipends of protestant pastors, professors, and students of theology. Protestants were required by the edict of nantes as well as earlier edicts to pay the tithe in support of the catholic church.
- 31apr1598 - allowed continued military presence in approximately 200 citues/towns held by huguenot coalition at the end of war
- article 82 of public articles specifically addressed the issue of protestant independence within the french state, intending to dismantle the politucal and military institutions of semi-independent "unitedvprovinces of the Midi"
- Henry IV issued letters patent to a small jewish community that had begun to settle, once again, in Metz since the middle of 16th C. Henry and his predecessors had been encouraging the resettlement of crypto-jews from iberia in a number of communities in france, but in metz they were actually granted a measure of self-regulation as well as the privilege of living and worshipping publicly.
- around the time Louis XIV officially revoked the edit in 1685, virtually all worship spaces that the huguenots used during and after the wars were wiped off the religious landscape, with the notable exception of the tower of eglise saint-barthelemy in la rochelle and eglise saint-privat outside metz, which was restored to catholic use in 1610.
- led to a new civil war in 1702 to eliminate miliatarily the continued challeng of protestant "camisards" in the south of france. The war ended indecisively with no formal settlement
An Assembly of Notables (French: Assemblée des notables) was a group of high-ranking nobles,ecclesiastics, and state functionaries convened by theKing of France on extraordinary occasions to consult on matters of state. Assemblies of Notables had met in 1583, 1596–97, 1617, 1626, 1787, and 1788. Like the States-General, they served a consultative purpose only. But unlike the States-General, whose members were elected by the subjects of the realm, the assemblymen were selected by the king for their "zeal", "devotion", and their "trustworthiness" toward the sovereign. Assemblymen were prominent men, usually of the aristocracy, and included royal princes, peers, archbishops, high-ranking judges, and, in some cases, major town officials. The king would issue one or more reforming edicts after hearing their advice. In addition, assembly of notables can refer to an expanded version of the King's Council (Curia regis).
- The Grand Sanhedrin was a Jewish high court convened in Europe by Napoleon I to give legal sanction to the principles expressed by the Assembly of Notables in answer to the twelve questions submitted to it by the government. The name was chosen to imply that the Grand Sanhedrin had the authority of the original Sanhedrin that had been the main legislative and judicial body of the Jewish people in classical and late antiquity.The Fronde (French pronunciation: [fʀɔ̃d]) was a series of civil wars in France between 1648 and 1653, occurring in the midst of the Franco-Spanish War, which had begun in 1635. King Louis XIV confronted the combined opposition of the princes, the nobility, the law courts (parlements), and most of the French people, and yet won out in the end.The Fronde was divided into two campaigns, the Fronde of the parlements and the Fronde of the nobles. The timing of the outbreak of the Fronde des parlements, directly after the Peace of Westphalia (1648) that ended the Thirty Years War, was significant. The nuclei of the armed bands that terrorized parts of France under aristocratic leaders during this period had been hardened in a generation of war in Germany, where troops still tended to operate autonomously. Louis XIV, impressed as a young ruler with the experience of the Fronde, came to reorganize French fighting forces under a stricter hierarchy whose leaders ultimately could be made or unmade by the King. A. Lloyd Moote argues that Cardinal Mazarin blundered into the crisis but came out well ahead at the end. The Fronde represented the final attempt of the French nobility to do battle with the king, and they were humiliated. In the long-term, the Fronde served to strengthen Royal authority, but weakened the economy. The Fronde facilitated the emergence of absolute monarchy.
french revolution
- **********[jh williams] in late 1780s, french weights and measures were in total confusion. The french economy was beginning to industrialise in response to similar developments in england (which had uniformity of measurement and standardisation of production). The american colonies sent ambassadors to france to help them in their struggle against britain. Thomas jefferson (who became the 3rd president of usa) served as ambassador to france. He visited london in 1789. During that time, king louis xvi, in an effort to avert bankruptcy, convened the etats generaux (estates general, a meeting of three estates (clergy, nobility (seigneurs - nobles) and bourgeoisie), had not met since 1614) to impose new taxes. A list of grievances (cahiers de doleances) were drawn up in mar and apr 1789 for discussion by the estates general, issues related to weights and measures were a constant theme in these lists of grievances, esp about how they related to rents, tithes and taxes. Although there had been previous attempts to impose the units of measurement habitually used in paris upon the whole of france, such moves had always been opposed by the church, the guilds of artisans and professionals, and the nobles who all benefited greatly from confusion in measurements.
- *********The guillotine essentially allowed the Montagnards regime to turn their executions into a demonstration of their power; ideally, with every execution the Parisian masses would jeer the accused to their deaths, howling as the severed head was shown to them. It would show people that the masses supported the Terror, and it would humiliate the condemned in their final moments. Now, that first part wouldn't really hold true as the Terror began expanding more and more in 1794, but the intent was still there.French republic
- Marianne (pronounced [maʁjan]) is a national symbol of the French Republic, a personification of liberty and reason, and a portrayal of the Goddess of Liberty.
Marianne is displayed in many places in France and holds a place of honour in town halls and law courts. She symbolizes the Triumph of the Republic, a bronze sculpture overlooking the Place de la Nation in Paris, and is represented with another Parisian statue in the Place de la République. Her profile stands out on the official government logo of the country, is engraved on French euro coins and appears on French postage stamps; it was also featured on the former franc currency. Marianne is one of the most prominent symbols of the French Republic, and is officially used on most government documents. Marianne is a significant republican symbol. As a national icon she represents opposition to monarchy and the championship of freedom and democracy against all forms of oppression. Other national symbols of France include the tricolor flag, the national motto Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité, the national anthem "La Marseillaise", as well as the coat of arms and the official Great Seal of France.
- https://www.france24.com/en/20181202-arc-de-triomphe-vandalised-paris-yellow-vest-protests-france-macron
The interior of the Arc de Triomphe, the 19th-century arch that towers over the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier at the western end of Champs Elysées, was ransacked. The statue of the Marianne, the symbol of the French republic, in display at the entrance of the Arc de Triomphe museum was smashed. A video shared on Facebook shows most of the front of the statue hacked off, while several other men, dressed with yellow vests, are being filmed repeatedly hitting other artefacts with hammers. While protests degenerated in some places into scenes of destruction and fires, graffiti was scrawled over the Arc, reading “Macron resign” and “the yellow vests will triumph.”
The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the town of Tilsit in July 1807 in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland. The first was signed on 7 July, between Tsar Alexander I of Russia and Napoleon I of France, when they met on a raft in the middle of the Nieman River. The second was signed with Prussia on 9 July. The treaties were made at the expense of the Prussian king, who had already agreed to a truce on 25 June after the Grande Armée had pursued him to the easternmost frontier of his realm. In Tilsit, he ceded about half of his pre-war territories. From those territories, Napoleon had created French client states, which were formalized and recognized at Tilsit: the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Duchy of Warsaw and the Free City of Danzig; the other ceded territories were awarded to further French clients and to Russia. Napoleon not only cemented his control of Central Europe but also had Russia and the truncated Prussia ally with him against his two remaining enemies, Great Britain and Sweden, triggering the Anglo-Russian and Finnish War. Tilsit also freed French forces for the Peninsular War. Central Europe became a battlefield again in 1809, when Austria and Great Britain engaged France in the War of the Fifth Coalition. Following the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the Congress of Vienna would restore many Prussian territories.
The Frankfurt proposals or Frankfurt memorandum was a Coalition peace initiative designed by Austrian minister Metternich. It was offered to French Emperor Napoleon I in November 1813 after he had suffered a decisive military defeat at the Battle of Leipzig. The goal was a peaceful end to the War of the Sixth Coalition. The Allies had reconquered most of Germany up to the Rhine, but they had not decided on the next step. Metternich took the initiative. The Allies, meeting in Frankfurt, drafted the proposals under Metternich's close supervision. The British diplomat in attendance, Lord Aberdeen, misunderstood London's position and accepted the moderate terms.The proposal was that Napoleon would remain as Emperor of France, but France would be reduced to what the French revolutionaries claimed as France's "Natural borders." The natural borders were the Pyrenees mountains, the Alps mountains, and the Rhine River. France would retain control of Belgium, Savoy and the Rhineland (the west bank of the Rhine River), conquered and annexed during the early wars of the French Revolution, while giving up other conquests, including all of Spain, Poland and the Netherlands, and most of Italy and Germany east of the Rhine.Metternich and Napoleon, meeting privately at Dresden in June had already discussed the terms.[4] The final version was relayed to Napoleon by the Baron de Saint-Aignon in November.[5] Metternich told Napoleon these were the best terms the Allies were likely to offer; after further victories, the terms would become harsher and harsher. Metternich's motivation was to maintain France as a balance against Russian threats, while ending the highly destabilizing series of wars.Napoleon, expecting to win the war, delayed too long and lost this opportunity. By December Austria had signed treaties with the Allies, and London rejected the terms because they might allow Belgium to become a base for the invasion of England. The offer was withdrawn.[8] When the Allies invaded France in late 1813 Napoleon was heavily outnumbered; he tried to reopen peace negotiations on the basis of accepting the Frankfurt proposals.[9] The Allies now had new, harsher terms that included the retreat of France to its 1791 boundaries, which meant the loss of Belgium and the Rhineland.[10] Napoleon adamantly refused. He was finally forced to abdicate on April 6, 1814 and lost his throne.
- https://www.quora.com/What-would-France-be-look-like-now-if-Napoleon-accepted-the-Frankfurt-proposals
Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (born Charles-Louis Napoleon Bonaparte; 20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873) was the only President (1848–52) of the French Second Republic and, as Napoleon III, the Emperor (1852–70) of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I. He was the first President of France to be elected by a direct popular vote. He was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, so he organized a coup d'état in 1851 and then took the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution. During the first years of the Empire, Napoleon's government imposed censorship and harsh repressive measures against his opponents. Some six thousand were imprisoned or sent to penal colonies until 1859. Thousands more went into voluntary exile abroad, including Victor Hugo. From 1862 onwards, he relaxed government censorship, and his regime came to be known as the "Liberal Empire." Many of his opponents returned to France and became members of the National Assembly. Napoleon III is best known today for his grand reconstruction of Paris, carried out by his prefect of the Seine, Baron Haussmann. He launched similar public works projects in Marseille, Lyon, and other French cities.[3] Napoleon III modernized the French banking system, greatly expanded and consolidated the French railway system, and made the French merchant marine the second largest in the world. He promoted the building of the Suez Canal and established modern agriculture, which ended famines in France and made France an agricultural exporter. Napoleon III negotiated the 1860 Cobden–Chevalier free trade agreement with Britain and similar agreements with France's other European trading partners.[4] Social reforms included giving French workers the right to strike and the right to organize. Women's education greatly expanded, as did the list of required subjects in public schools. In foreign policy, Napoleon III aimed to reassert French influence in Europe and around the world. He was a supporter of popular sovereignty and of nationalism.[6] In Europe, he allied with Britain and defeated Russia in the Crimean War (1853–56). His regime assisted Italian unification and, in doing so, annexed Savoy and the County of Nice to France; at the same time, his forces defended the Papal States against annexation by Italy. Napoleon doubled the area of the French overseas empire in Asia, the Pacific, and Africa. On the other hand, his army's intervention in Mexico which aimed to create a Second Mexican Empire under French protection ended in failure. Beginning in 1866, Napoleon had to face the mounting power of Prussia, as Chancellor Otto von Bismarck sought German unification under Prussian leadership. In July 1870, Napoleon entered the Franco-Prussian War without allies and with inferior military forces. The French army was rapidly defeated and Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan. The French Third Republic was proclaimed in Paris, and Napoleon went into exile in England, where he died in 1873.
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-France-after-Napoleon-lost-the-battle-of-Waterloo-Was-it-occupied-by-the-British-or-Prussians The coalition did not decide to leave France alone after Napoleon’s exile but rather to maintain troops on its soil. From summer to winter 1815, 1 million troops were stationed in France. By the end of the year a treaty was signed dividing France in occupation zones but reducing the occupation armiy to 150 000 troops under the command of the Duke of Wellington. The occupation was supposed to last for 5 years. The French government was to pay the cost of this occupation which costed several millions to the French treasury.In 1818 the French prime minister the duke of Richelieu negotiated to end the occupation by the end of the year and succeeded.
National assembly
- The Estates-General had been called on Dec 4, 1789 to deal with France's financial crisis, but promptly fell to squabbling over its own structure. Its members had been elected to represent the estates of the realm: the 1st Estate (the clergy), the 2nd Estate (the nobility) and the 3rd Estate (which, in theory, represented all of the commoners and, in practice, represented the bourgeoisie). The Third Estate had been granted "double representation"—that is, twice as many delegates as each of the other estates—but at the opening session on May 5, 1789 they were informed that all voting would be "by power" not "by head", so their double representation was to be meaningless in terms of power. They refused this and proceeded to meet separately. Shuttle diplomacy among the estates continued without success until May 27; on May 28, the representatives of the 3rd Estate began to meet on their own, calling themselves the Communes ("Commons") and proceeding with their "verification of powers" independently of the other bodies; from June 13 to June 17 they were gradually joined by some of the nobles and the majority of the clergy and other people such as the peasants. On June 13, this group began to call itself the National Assembly. Following a tradition started by the first National Assembly during the French Revolution, the "left-wing" parties sit to the left as seen from the president's seat, and the "right-wing" parties sit to the right, and the seating arrangement thus directly indicates the political spectrum as represented in the Assembly.
La Troisième République est le régime républicain en vigueur en France de 1870 à 1940. C'est le premier régime français à s'imposer dans la durée depuis 1789. En effet, après la chute de la royauté, la France a expérimenté, en quatre-vingts ans, sept régimes politiques : trois monarchies constitutionnelles, deux républiques éphémères (pendant douze et quatre ans) et deux empires. Ces difficultés contribuent à expliquer les hésitations de l'Assemblée nationale, qui met neuf ans, de 1870 à 1879, pour renoncer à la royauté et proposer une troisième constitution républicaine. Formant une constitution de compromis, les lois constitutionnelles de 1875 établissent une république parlementaire de type bicaméral. Marqués par lerenversement en 1851 de la République par son premier président élu, les républicains vont n'accorder dans la pratique au chef de l'État qu'un rôle représentatif. La IIIe République a constitué ce que Philip Nord a appelé « le moment républicain1 », c'est-à-dire une période marquée par une forte identité démocratique, que les grandes lois sur l'Instruction, la laïcité, les droits de grève, d'association et de réunion illustrent. La IIIe République est aussi une époque où la vie des Français est « passionnément politique, autant que la vie d'un peuple peut l'être dans une période non révolutionnaire2. » C'est ce que Vincent Duclert qualifie de « naissance de l'idée de la France comme nation politique3. » La IIIe République est aussi une période marquée par toute une série de réformes sociales auxquelles la société aspirait, notamment par l'adoption d'une législation plus favorable pour les salariés. La Troisième République est le régime qui a permis à la république de s'installer durablement dans l'histoire politique de la France après l'échec des Première (1792-1804) et Deuxième Républiques (1848-1852), qui n'avaient duré respectivement que douze et quatre ans. Née dans la défaite, la IIIe République évolue de sa proclamation à sa chute dans un contexte de confrontation avec l'Allemagne. Le 1940, face à la progression allemande, l'Assemblée nationale, vote les pleins pouvoirs constituants à Pétain. Le lendemain, le 11, Pétain se nomme lui-même« chef de l'État français » (régime de Vichy), mettant de facto un terme à la Troisième République.
- The Paris Commune (French: La Commune de Paris, IPA: [la kɔmyn də paʁi]) was a radical socialist and revolutionary government that ruled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871. The Franco-Prussian War had led to the capture of Emperor Napoleon III in September 1870, the collapse of the Second French Empire, and the beginning of the Third Republic. Because Paris was under siege for four months, the Third Republic moved its capital to Tours. A hotbed of working-class radicalism, Paris was primarily defended during this time by the often politicised and radical troops of the National Guard rather than regular Army troops. Paris surrendered to the Prussians on 28 January 1871, and in February Adolphe Thiers, the new chief executive of the French national government, signed an armistice with Prussia that disarmed the Army but not the National Guard.On 18 March, soldiers of the Commune's National Guard killed two French army generals, and the Commune refused to accept the authority of the French government. The Commune governed Paris for two months, until it was suppressed by the regular French Army during "La semaine sanglante" ("The Bloody Week") beginning on 21 May 1871.Debates over the policies and outcome of the Commune had significant influence on the ideas of Karl Marx, who described it as an example of the "dictatorship of the proletariat". 公社在它短暂的生命期内采用了从前被废弃的法兰西共和国历，并采用象征社会主义的红旗以及第二共和国时期装饰有红边的三色旗作为自己的象征标志，恢复了在第二帝国时期被禁唱的《马赛曲》为国歌。1848年，在法兰西第二共和国期间，激进主义者和社会主义者曾经用红旗以及装饰有红色绶带的三色旗来作为自己的标识，以区别于政治立场中立的共和分子，正如这些中立的持自由主义立场的吉伦特党人在1789年革命期间所做的那样。
- hket 7jan2020 after the failure of paris commune, political prisoners were exiled to new caledonia
- Gaston Alexandre Auguste, Marquis de Galliffet, Prince de Martigues (Paris, 23 January 1830 – 8 July 1909), was a French general, best known for having taken part in the repression of the 1871 Paris Commune. He was Minister of War in Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet at the turn of the century, which caused a controversy in the socialist movement, since independent socialist Alexandre Millerand also took part in the same government, and was thus side by side with the Fusilleur de la Commune (the "Commune's executioner").
The Dreyfus Affair (French: l'affaire Dreyfus, pronounced [la.fɛʁ dʁɛ.fys]) was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice, and it remains one of the most notable examples of a complex miscarriage of justice and antisemitism. The major role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the lasting social conflict. The scandal began in December 1894 with the treason conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a young Alsatian French artillery officer of Jewish descent. Sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris, Dreyfus was imprisoned on Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent nearly five years.The affair from 1894 to 1906 divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps: the pro-Army, mostly Catholic "anti-Dreyfusards" and the anticlerical, pro-republican Dreyfusards. It embittered French politics and encouraged radicalization.
Action française (French pronunciation: [aksjɔ̃ fʁɑ̃sɛz], AF; English: French Action) is a French right-wing political movement. The name was also given to a journal associated with the movement.The movement and the journal were founded by Maurice Pujo and Henri Vaugeois in 1899, as a nationalist reaction against the intervention of left-wing intellectuals on the behalf of Alfred Dreyfus. Charles Maurras quickly joined Action française and became its principal ideologist. Under the influence of Maurras, Action française became monarchist, counter-revolutionary (objecting to the legacy of the French Revolution) and anti-democratic, and supported Integralismand Catholicism. In the inter-war period, the movement enjoyed prestige and influence, but its popularity gradually declined as a result of the rise of fascism and of a rupture in the relations with the Catholic Church. During the Second World War, Action française supported the Vichy Regime and Marshal Philippe Pétain. After the fall of Vichy, its newspaper was banned and Maurras was sentenced to life imprisonment. The movement nevertheless continued to exist due to new publications and political movements. Although Action française is not a major force in the right as it used to be, its ideas have remained influential.
May 1968 unrest
Company
- The Banque de l'Indochine (French: [bɑ̃k də lɛ̃dɔʃin]) was a bank established in Paris on 21 January 1875 to operate in French Indochina, the rest of Asia, and the Pacific. It issued banknotes, not only in French territories, but also in China and elsewhere. Up to World War II, the bank experienced three phases of development. From 1875 to 1888, it functioned as a colonial bank to help the French government manage its colonial properties in South-east Asia. Then from 1889 to 1900, the bank shifted its operations from French Indochina to China. Thereafter, from 1900 to 1941, the bank represented the interests of the French government in handling the Boxer indemnity and transacted international trade between France and China. It merged with Banque de Suez in 1974 to form Banque Indosuez, which was then purchased by the Crédit Agricole group, which operated it as Crédit Agricole Indosuez (CAI), until a 2004 merger with Crédit Lyonnais, which created Calyon.
- Note its other operations in places like djiboubi, ethiopia, pacific ocean
People
-Eleanor of Aquitaine (French: Aliénor/Éléonore; 1122 or 1124 – 1 April 1204) was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in western Europe during the High Middle Agesand a member of the Ramnulfid dynasty of rulers in southwestern France. She inherited the Duchy of Aquitaine from her father, William X, in 1137, and later became queen consort ofFrance (1137–1152) and of England (1154–1189). She was the patron of literary figures such as Wace, Benoît de Sainte-Maure, andBernart de Ventadorn. As Duchess of Aquitaine, Eleanor was the most eligible bride in Europe. Three months after she became duchess, she married King Louis VII of France, son of her guardian, King Louis VI. AsQueen of France, she participated in the unsuccessful Second Crusade. Soon after, Eleanor sought an annulment of her marriage, but her request was rejected byPope Eugene III. However, after the birth of her second daughter Alix, Louis agreed to anannulment given that their union had not produced a son after fifteen years of marriage.[3] The marriage was annulled on 11 March 1152 on the grounds of consanguinitywithin the fourth degree. Their daughters were declared legitimate and custody was awarded to Louis, while Eleanor's lands were restored to her. As soon as the annulment was granted, Eleanor became engaged to Henry, Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, who became King Henry II of England in 1154. Henry was her third cousin (cousin of the third degree), and eleven years younger. The couple married on 18 May 1152 (Whit Sunday), eight weeks after the annulment of Eleanor's first marriage, in a cathedral in Poitiers, France. Over the next thirteen years, she bore Henry eight children: five sons, three of whom would become kings; and three daughters. However, Henry and Eleanor eventually became estranged. Henry imprisoned her in 1173 for supporting her son Henry's revolt against her husband. She was not released until 6 July 1189, when Henry died and their son ascended the English throne asRichard I. Now queen dowager, Eleanor acted as regent while Richard went on the Third Crusade, where on his return he was captured and held prisoner. Eleanor lived well into the reign of her youngest son, John. By the time of her death, she had outlived all her children except for John and Eleanor.
class
- peasant
- Le paysan est une personne vivant à la campagne d'une activité agricole lui permettant l'autoconsommation. Il peut adopter ou subir une économie de subsistance. Il peut être amené à se déplacer d'une manière saisonnière dans d'autres « pays » par exemple vers des pâturages qui font défaut à ses bêtes. Il façonne son environnement et le paysage par ses différents prélèvements, apports, aménagements, plantations, etc. Ses activités sont souvent multiples : élevage, cultures, maçonnerie, artisanat et, accessoirement, commercialisation de ses excédents de production.On ne peut pas parler de « métier de paysan », le terme ne figurant jamais dans les listes des métiers de la terre.
- reference - eugene burnaud painting "le paysan" 1894, moudon
- The livre (French for "pound") was the currency of Kingdom of France and its predecessor state of West Francia from 781 to 1794. Several different livres existed, some concurrently. The livre was the name of both units of account and coins. The livre was established by Charlemagne as a unit of account equal to one pound of silver. It was subdivided into 20 sous (also sols), each of 12 deniers. The word livre came from the Latin word libra, a Roman unit of weight, and the denier comes from the Roman denarius. This system and the denier itself served as the model for many of Europe's currencies, including the British pound, Italian lira, Spanish dinero and the Portuguese dinheiro. The livre had also been used as the legal currency of the Channel Islands. The Jersey livreremained legal currency in Jersey until 1834 when dwindling supplies of no-longer minted coins obliged the adoption of the pound as legal tender.
- The Louis d'or (French pronunciation: [lwi dɔʁ]) is any number of French coins first introduced by Louis XIII in 1640. The name derives from the depiction of the portrait of King Louis on one side of the coin; the French royal coat of arms is on the reverse. The coin was replaced by the French franc at the time of the revolutionand later the similarly valued Napoléon.
street numbering system
- economist 28sep19 "the view from no 2027"on a remote country road that winds through vineyards, a metal letter box mounted on a post marks the address of a hillside farm: 1710, route de Mérindol. From the road, almost no other dwelling is in sight. The closest neighbour, further down this southern French valley, is at number 1460. On the opposite side, the nearest dwelling is number 2027. Across the country, a bewildering system of rural addresses has sprung up, which seems more suited to an American suburb than la France profonde. Napoleon imposed an orderly street-numbering system on Paris in 1805. For nearly two centuries, though, even centralised France left rural parts alone. The idea now is to bring some order to remote hilltops and valleys. A ruling in 1994 obliged communes with a population of 2,000 or more to number their houses. Now, mayors of the country’s 30,000 smaller villages say that they are under increasing pressure to do so, too. The growing use of home delivery, not to mention the efficiency of ambulances and fire services, all call for clearer house identification. So mayors have been poring over maps. The Burgundy village of Lugny-les-Charolles numbered its 264 houses for the first time in July this year. https://www.economist.com/europe/2019/09/26/the-countryside-catches-up-with-napoleon
language
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-French-suppress-other-languages-like-Occitan-to-become-the-national-language
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-people-in-France-go-from-speaking-Frankish-a-Germanic-language-to-French-a-Latin-language The language of everyday life in the Frankish kingdom was a mishmash of the late Latin of Roman Gaul with a thin smattering of the Germanic language of the new ruling classes on top* In this regard its not unlike English, which absorbed a lot of vocabulary from French thanks to the Normans but remained an essentially Germanic language.
artefacts/references
- Saint Gregory of Tours was born in 538 in what is now Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne region of central France. A Gallo-Roman who spoke Latin as his native language, he was ordained as a deacon in 563 and was bishop of Tours from 573 until his death in 594. Gregory’s Historia Francorum (History of the Franks) is a major source for the history of France under the Merovingians (ruled from the late fifth century to 750).https://www.wdl.org/en/item/20001/
unofficial sources/information
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-darkest-secrets-of-France
- https://www.quora.com/Why-does-France-continue-to-bear-the-name-of-her-invader-the-Franks 400–300 b.c. : mass arrival of the Kelts from the East, in tribes of warriors mastering horses. They form numerous kingdoms around fortified cities (some still exist). They fought one the other most of the time, to try to form bigger territories. They sometimes gather to defend their own territories from other invasions (Germans, yet!). France nowadays population is some 60-70% of Kelt roots. Phocean Greeks create Marseille in the south. Kelts tribes such as Lingons make business with Romans (weapons made of Kelt steel and potery, against wines, gold or luxury stuffs)… 50b.c. : Romans rule the South-Est of France since 150b.c., but Julius Ceasar wants to control the rest, to become the Emperor of Rome. He makes it, thanks to a sudden invasion of starving and aggressive Helvetians (today's Switzerland). Ceasar becomes the alliee of powerfull Kelt tribes (like Lingons,…). He finally creates “the Gaul", the first unified country on roughly nowaday's France land, but still under Rome's taxes, control and administration. Gaulish is the name of the most powerfull Kelt tribe, settled in the North (nowadays’ outh of Belgium was a part of France…!). Ceasar choose this name : “Gaul”. 300–500a.c. : Gallo-Roman local administrators (most are Kelts) become christians, to keep good relations with Rome, that protects them from German invasions, essentialy. 450a.c. : the pressure of the Germans on Gaul if so heavy that some German war tribes settle there and there, controling e.g. Toulouse in the south, in a “Roman peace" process. 496 a.c. : Clovis, king of the Franks (also invaders, yes.), is baptised in order to be accepted by the Gallo-Romans as a King. This, is the creation of France, as an independant territory. So that we, French, are the consequence of a political manoeuver: Clovis, a stranger, will protect us from invasions of other strangers, which is the main condition to grow crops and make trade … to (very) simplify it . The feudality will then come — although with one last main invasion in the North-West : Vikings, creating Normandy and conquering England, then becoming totally French one day (without England).
- Marc Léopold Benjamin Bloch(French: [maʁk blɔk]; 6 July 1886 – 16 June 1944) was a French historian who cofounded the highly influential Annales School of French social history. Bloch was a quintessential modernist. An assimilatedAlsatian Jew from an academic family in Paris, he was deeply affected in his youth by the Dreyfus Affair.
artefacts/references
- Saint Gregory of Tours was born in 538 in what is now Clermont-Ferrand in the Auvergne region of central France. A Gallo-Roman who spoke Latin as his native language, he was ordained as a deacon in 563 and was bishop of Tours from 573 until his death in 594. Gregory’s Historia Francorum (History of the Franks) is a major source for the history of France under the Merovingians (ruled from the late fifth century to 750).https://www.wdl.org/en/item/20001/
unofficial sources/information
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-darkest-secrets-of-France
- https://www.quora.com/Why-does-France-continue-to-bear-the-name-of-her-invader-the-Franks 400–300 b.c. : mass arrival of the Kelts from the East, in tribes of warriors mastering horses. They form numerous kingdoms around fortified cities (some still exist). They fought one the other most of the time, to try to form bigger territories. They sometimes gather to defend their own territories from other invasions (Germans, yet!). France nowadays population is some 60-70% of Kelt roots. Phocean Greeks create Marseille in the south. Kelts tribes such as Lingons make business with Romans (weapons made of Kelt steel and potery, against wines, gold or luxury stuffs)… 50b.c. : Romans rule the South-Est of France since 150b.c., but Julius Ceasar wants to control the rest, to become the Emperor of Rome. He makes it, thanks to a sudden invasion of starving and aggressive Helvetians (today's Switzerland). Ceasar becomes the alliee of powerfull Kelt tribes (like Lingons,…). He finally creates “the Gaul", the first unified country on roughly nowaday's France land, but still under Rome's taxes, control and administration. Gaulish is the name of the most powerfull Kelt tribe, settled in the North (nowadays’ outh of Belgium was a part of France…!). Ceasar choose this name : “Gaul”. 300–500a.c. : Gallo-Roman local administrators (most are Kelts) become christians, to keep good relations with Rome, that protects them from German invasions, essentialy. 450a.c. : the pressure of the Germans on Gaul if so heavy that some German war tribes settle there and there, controling e.g. Toulouse in the south, in a “Roman peace" process. 496 a.c. : Clovis, king of the Franks (also invaders, yes.), is baptised in order to be accepted by the Gallo-Romans as a King. This, is the creation of France, as an independant territory. So that we, French, are the consequence of a political manoeuver: Clovis, a stranger, will protect us from invasions of other strangers, which is the main condition to grow crops and make trade … to (very) simplify it . The feudality will then come — although with one last main invasion in the North-West : Vikings, creating Normandy and conquering England, then becoming totally French one day (without England).
So, why “France”? … Shall we find another name? “Neandertal — African — Anatolian - Kelt — Roman — German — Corwall — Jew — Arabian — African (2nd) — Viets? …
Historian- Marc Léopold Benjamin Bloch(French: [maʁk blɔk]; 6 July 1886 – 16 June 1944) was a French historian who cofounded the highly influential Annales School of French social history. Bloch was a quintessential modernist. An assimilatedAlsatian Jew from an academic family in Paris, he was deeply affected in his youth by the Dreyfus Affair.
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