- https://www.quora.com/Why-was-the-Ottoman-Empire-called-that-and-not-the-Turkic-Empire The “Ottoman” Empire is rather a false and made-up name. Just like the usage of the term “Byzantine” Empire for the Eastern Roman Empire. Most Europeans already called the Empire as the Turkish Empire or sometimes simply Turkey throughout its existence. After the republic was established in Turkey, historians used that term more often to describe the Imperial period of Turkey. But then again, it is still false. We do not generally use “the Habsburg Empire” for the Austrian Empire. The same applies here. Ottoman is only the name of the dynasty rather than the Empire.
On the other hand Turks simply referred their empire as “Devlet-i Aliye” (The Sublime State)
- ******** https://www.quora.com/Why-is-the-Ottoman-Empire-called-an-empire-Why-not-just-call-it-the-Ottoman-Sultanate Because it was only a ‘sultanate’ from the time of Orhan (r. 1323–62) to that of Mehmet Fatih (r. 1444–46, 1451–81), and the latter’s conquest of Constantinople. After that, he was titled as ‘Padishah’ - master of kings - and all members of the ruling family (men and women) bore the title of sultan, analogous to the Habsburg style of Archduke for all members of their house. ‘Sultan’ was just the commonly used appelation in English; the Spaniards used ‘Grand Seigneur’ - Great Lord - while the Indo-Iranian world used ‘Kaiser’ - Caesar. In the 19th century, Ottoman diplomats were scrupulous in seeing that padishah was always translated as emperor in foreign correspondence, never as sultan or king. More properly, the Ottoman state never defined itself as an ‘empire’ on the same terms as the Roman one that had preceded it, though the Ottoman sovereign did claim the Roman imperial dignity as one of his titles. The correct term would be ‘Devlet-i Aliye’, usually translated as Sublime State, but more literally meaning Sublime Era or Cycle of time; this was the same terminology used by the other great Persianate states of the age (Iran and India). The raison d’etre of the state was to maintain the nizam-i alem, the natural ‘order of the world’ equally between people and social classes as between religious communities and political entities. This is quite appropriately untranslatable; empire would indeed once have been the proper word, in that the medieval ‘Romanesque’ conception of the Empire (in the singular, Roman, Christianate sense) was very similar, but is entirely unlike modern ideas of empire as a multi-ethnic state (which ideas owe their existence to Anglo-Saxon fears of decadent Catholic Europe vs. clean, national little England). To find the real modern translation we would need to dig into the American, Soviet & Chinese languages of exceptionalism, and borrow a terminology modern people would be loath to apply to anybody but themselves.
- ******** https://www.quora.com/Why-is-the-Ottoman-Empire-called-an-empire-Why-not-just-call-it-the-Ottoman-Sultanate Because it was only a ‘sultanate’ from the time of Orhan (r. 1323–62) to that of Mehmet Fatih (r. 1444–46, 1451–81), and the latter’s conquest of Constantinople. After that, he was titled as ‘Padishah’ - master of kings - and all members of the ruling family (men and women) bore the title of sultan, analogous to the Habsburg style of Archduke for all members of their house. ‘Sultan’ was just the commonly used appelation in English; the Spaniards used ‘Grand Seigneur’ - Great Lord - while the Indo-Iranian world used ‘Kaiser’ - Caesar. In the 19th century, Ottoman diplomats were scrupulous in seeing that padishah was always translated as emperor in foreign correspondence, never as sultan or king. More properly, the Ottoman state never defined itself as an ‘empire’ on the same terms as the Roman one that had preceded it, though the Ottoman sovereign did claim the Roman imperial dignity as one of his titles. The correct term would be ‘Devlet-i Aliye’, usually translated as Sublime State, but more literally meaning Sublime Era or Cycle of time; this was the same terminology used by the other great Persianate states of the age (Iran and India). The raison d’etre of the state was to maintain the nizam-i alem, the natural ‘order of the world’ equally between people and social classes as between religious communities and political entities. This is quite appropriately untranslatable; empire would indeed once have been the proper word, in that the medieval ‘Romanesque’ conception of the Empire (in the singular, Roman, Christianate sense) was very similar, but is entirely unlike modern ideas of empire as a multi-ethnic state (which ideas owe their existence to Anglo-Saxon fears of decadent Catholic Europe vs. clean, national little England). To find the real modern translation we would need to dig into the American, Soviet & Chinese languages of exceptionalism, and borrow a terminology modern people would be loath to apply to anybody but themselves.
[dubious and to kiv] The Karamanids or Karamanid dynasty (Modern Turkish: Karamanoğulları, Karamanoğulları Beyliği), also known as the Principality of Karaman and Beylik of Karaman (Karaman Beyliği ), was one of the Islamic Anatolian beyliks, centered in south-central Anatolia around the present-day Karaman Province. From the 13th century until its fall in 1487, the Karamanid dynasty was one of the most powerful Turkish beyliks in Anatolia.
The Karamanids traced their ancestry from Hodja Sad al-Din and his son Nure Sufi Bey, who emigrated from Arran (roughly encompassing modern-day Azerbaijan) to Sivas because of the Mongol invasion in 1230.The Karamanids were members of the Salur tribe of Oghuz Turks.According to Muhsin Yazicioglu and others, they were members of the Afshar tribe, which participated in the revolt led by Baba Ishak and afterwards moved to the western Taurus Mountains, near the town of Larende, where they came to serve the Seljuks. Nûre Sûfi worked there as a woodcutter. His son, Kerîmeddin Karaman Bey, gained a tenuous control over the mountainous parts of Cilicia in the middle of the 13th century. A persistent but spurious legend, however, claims that the Seljuq Sultan of Rum, Kayqubad I, instead established a Karamanid dynasty in these lands.According to Abraham Cresques' Catalan Atlas (compiled in 1375), the flag of Karamanoğlu consisted of a blue six-edged star. In the medieval times, this star was a popular Islamic symbol (especially among the Hanafi Madhhab) known as the Seal of Solomon due to the belief that the Jewish king, King Solomon was a prophet, and was used by several of the Anatolian beyliks (such as the Isfendiyarids). As such the seal was also used by Ottomans in their mosque decorations, coins and even in the personal flags of individual Pasha (e.g. that of Hayreddin Barbarossa).
- Les Karamanides doivent leur importance historique à leur situation géographique. Ils contrôlaient le passage de l'Anatolie vers la Syrie et pouvaient trouver refuge dans les montagnes en cas d'attaque par une puissance adverse. Cette position leur assurait en outre de confortables revenus sous la forme de taxes douanières dans les ports. Leurs constructions à Karaman, Konya et Nidğe sont les preuves de cette richesse
Mehmed II (Ottoman Turkish: محمد ثانى, Meḥmed-i sānī; Modern Turkish: II. Mehmet Turkish pronunciation: [ˈikind͡ʒi meh.met]; 30 March 1432 – 3 May 1481), commonly known as Mehmed the Conqueror (Turkish: Fatih Sultan Mehmet), was an Ottoman Sultan who ruled first for a short time from August 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to May 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire. Mehmed continued his conquests in Anatolia with its reunification and in Southeast Europe as far west as Bosnia. Mehmed is considered a hero in modern-day Turkey and parts of the wider Muslim world. Among other things, Istanbul's Fatihdistrict, Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge and Fatih Mosque are named after him.
- ***********After moving his capital to Constantinople, Mehmed II (r. 1451–1481) ordered the construction of what would become Topkapi Palace. It would serve as the House of Osman’s home for most of the empire’s history. The Hagia Sophia, a church that stood since the reign of Justinian (r. 527–565), was converted into a mosque. The Ottomans would end up building a lot of mosques, actually. A really important one was the Eyüp Ensari Mosque, built around the tomb of Muhammad’s standard bearer. The House of Osman would use it for their sword girdling ceremonies, the Ottoman equivalent of a coronation.Sultan Mehmed recognized the need to keep the city’s local Orthodox Christian population loyal to him. He installed Patriarch Gennadius, a scholar, to be the leader of the Rum millet, the religious community that included all Orthodox Christians within the empire. From then on, the Patriarchs of Constantinople would keep the Christian population in line so that their Muslim rulers didn’t have to.This was a change from before. The Byzantines had practiced caesaropapism, meaning that the Church was subordinate to the Emperor. While the Patriarch of Constantinople was subordinate to the Sultan, this arrangement gave him greater autonomy over the Eastern Orthodox community concerning religious matters.The demographics of the city changed, as well. Not only were there more Muslims, but the Jewish population increased, too. When Ferdinand and Isabella expelled the Jews from Spain, many of them found themselves in the Ottoman Empire. Sultan Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512) was very accepting of Jewish refugees, and Jews would play an important role in court and city life. For instance, Constantinople’s first printing press was introduced by Jews. Some Jews, like Joseph Nasi, an advisor to Selim II (r. 1566–1574), would serve in prominent positions at court.https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-Ottomans-do-after-conquering-Constantinople
- [bettany hughes] its racial, ethnic and religious identity was protean: non muslim women, brought captive to the harem, rose to become mothers to the sultan; black eunuchs wielded political influence as harem guards; bright boys from macedonian villages, brought to capital for education, could and did end up grand vizier
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-Mehmed-the-Conqueror-do-after-his-conquest-of-Constantinople note that Eski Saray is “Old Palace.”, Yeni Saray is the New Palace.
- italy
Suleiman I (Ottoman Turkish: سلطان سليمان اول; Modern Turkish: I. Süleyman, Kanunî Sultan Süleyman or Muhteşem Süleyman; 6 November 1494 – 6 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and "Kanuni" (the Lawgiver) in his realm, was the tenth and longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman state ruled over 15 to 25 million people. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade and Rhodes as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf. At the helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. His reforms, carried out in conjunction with the empire's chief judicial official Ebussuud Efendi, harmonized the relationship between the two forms of Ottoman law; sultanic (Kanun) and religious (Sharia). He was a distinguished poet and goldsmith; he also became a great patron of culture, overseeing the "Golden" age of the Ottoman Empire in its artistic, literary and architectural development. Breaking with Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married Hürrem Sultan, a woman from his harem, a Christian of Rusyn origin who converted to Islam, and who became famous in the West by the name Roxelana. Their son Selim II succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule. Suleiman's other potential heirs Mehmed and Mustafa had died, the former from smallpox and the latter had been strangled to death 13 years earlier at the sultan's order. His other son Bayezid was executed in 1561 on Suleiman's orders, along with his four sons, after a rebellion. Although scholars no longer believe that the empire declined after his death,the end of Suleiman's reign is still frequently characterized as a watershed in Ottoman history. In the decades after Suleiman, the empire began to experience significant political, institutional, and economic changes, a phenomenon often referred to as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Ottomans-give-up-on-conquering-Italy
- https://www.quora.com/How-come-the-Ottoman-Empire-didnt-conquer-Italy They tried twice. First when Fatih Sultan Mehmet conquered Otranto castle with his fleet and build a starting point for a future gradual invasion. The process was planned just like Ottomans conquered Rumelia by making a small castle “Cimpe” as base. In the next campaign season (may-september) Sultan was expected to land Otranto with its imperial army. However; only 5 months later Sultan Mehmet II died suspiciously, probably poisoned and with the fight between Bayezid II and Sultan Cem, they had to abandon their plans for Italy.The second attempt of Ottoman Empire to conquer Italy happened in the era of Suleiman the Magnificient. This time a massive Ottoman Imperial Army landed to Castro Puglia. With a peace agreement with Venice and allience with France. According to the plan France would attack from western Italy and Ottomans would assault southern Italy simultaneously. However, after the Ottomans landed, France had some distractions and their fleet didn’t arrive on time. In these conditions, it was impossible for the Ottoman Army to march in foreign terrains. Therefore Suleiman halted the campaign and tried to conquer Corfu instead. The fleet was not prepared for Corfu, so with the emergence of diseases in the army, the campaign ended with failure.
- https://www.quora.com/If-Skanderbeg-wouldnt-exist-could-Mehmet-II-conquer-Italy
Suleiman I (Ottoman Turkish: سلطان سليمان اول; Modern Turkish: I. Süleyman, Kanunî Sultan Süleyman or Muhteşem Süleyman; 6 November 1494 – 6 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the West and "Kanuni" (the Lawgiver) in his realm, was the tenth and longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman state ruled over 15 to 25 million people. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade and Rhodes as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf. At the helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law. His reforms, carried out in conjunction with the empire's chief judicial official Ebussuud Efendi, harmonized the relationship between the two forms of Ottoman law; sultanic (Kanun) and religious (Sharia). He was a distinguished poet and goldsmith; he also became a great patron of culture, overseeing the "Golden" age of the Ottoman Empire in its artistic, literary and architectural development. Breaking with Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married Hürrem Sultan, a woman from his harem, a Christian of Rusyn origin who converted to Islam, and who became famous in the West by the name Roxelana. Their son Selim II succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule. Suleiman's other potential heirs Mehmed and Mustafa had died, the former from smallpox and the latter had been strangled to death 13 years earlier at the sultan's order. His other son Bayezid was executed in 1561 on Suleiman's orders, along with his four sons, after a rebellion. Although scholars no longer believe that the empire declined after his death,the end of Suleiman's reign is still frequently characterized as a watershed in Ottoman history. In the decades after Suleiman, the empire began to experience significant political, institutional, and economic changes, a phenomenon often referred to as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire.
- [m&p] Ottoman empire reached its zenith under son of selim the grimn - sulaiman the magnificent, or law giver, (reign -1520-1566) an exact contemporary of great renaissance monarchs of europe - the hapsburg emperor charles v, francis i of france and tudor henery viii of england. He added hungary, rhodes and north africa to the empire, although he failed to take vienna. Selim and sulaiman brought in craftsmen from tabriz in western persia; and (under sulaiman) sinan, the son of a christian from anatolia and architect.
- 除了陸軍強大外，蘇萊曼一世亦建立了海軍部隊，任命「紅鬍子」巴巴羅薩（Hayreddin Barbarossa）為海軍總司令，並在1538年擊敗西班牙艦隊，又多次擊敗熱那亞（Genoa）海軍名將安德烈亞．多里亞（Andrea Doria），使鄂圖曼帝國一度稱霸東地中海，1542年更派了200艘船支援法國，法王法蘭索瓦一世（Francis I）直接把土倫港（Toulon）讓出，給鄂圖曼海軍做指揮部。派200艘戰船去支援，在當時是一個什麼樣的概念？我們來看看1571年的勒班陀海戰（Battle of Lepanto），即西班牙聯軍擊敗鄂圖曼艦隊的決定性一仗，西班牙聯軍的戰船就由西班牙、威尼斯、教皇國、熱那亞等國組成，集結多國力量也才200艘， 可想而知蘇萊曼一世一口氣派200艘戰船去支援，是有多財大氣粗。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/04/07/a22-0407.pdf
Turhan Hatice Sultan (c. 1627 – 4 August 1683; Turhan meaning "Of mercy"), was Haseki Sultan of the Ottoman Sultan Ibrahim (reign 1640–48) and Valide Sultan as the mother of Mehmed IV (reign 1648–87). Turhan Hatice was prominent for the regency of her young son and her building patronage. She and her mother-in-law, Kösem Sultan, are the only two women in Ottoman history to be regarded as official regents and had supreme control over the Ottoman Empire. Turhan Hatice herself was the only one in Ottoman history to equally share the power of running the entire empire with Ottoman Sultan legally, although in fact she transferred her political power to the grand vizier. As a result, Turhan became one of the prominent figures during the era known as Sultanate of Women.Turhan Hatice, whose original name is unknown, was believed to be of East Slavicorigin (Russian or Ukrainian). She was captured as a child during a Crimean slave raid in Rus' and sold into slavery in the Ottoman Empire. When she was about 12 years old, Turhan was sent to the Imperial Harem at the Topkapı Palace as a gift, from the Khan of Crimea, to the mother of Sultan Ibrahim, Kösem Sultan.
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-commander-of-the-Ottoman-troops-after-the-Battle-of-Vienna-in-1683 After the defeat at Vienna, the commander of the Army and the Grand Vizier of the Turkish Empire, Kara Mustafa Paşa of Merzifon (who was an adopted member of the Köprülü noble family) was executed in Belgrade, then an important Turkish dominion. Before his death, he was planning to reorganise what was left from the imperial Turkish army (Ordu-yi Hümayun) and getting ready for a counter-attack. He was a stubborn paşa who had many political enemies in the court. He couldn’t escape the public rage caused by the defeat.
Selim III (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثالث Selīm-i sālis) (24 December 1761 – 28 July 1808) was the reform-minded Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. The Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV. Selim was subsequently killed by a group of assassins. Selim III was the son of Sultan Mustafa III and his wife Mihrişah Sultan. His mother Mihrişah Sultan originated in Georgia and when she became the Valide Sultan, she participated in reforming the government schools and establishing political corporations. His father Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III was very well educated and believed in the necessity of reforms. Mustafa III attempted to create a powerful army during the peacetime with professional, well-educated soldiers. This was primarily motivated by his fear of a Russian invasion. During the Russo-Turkish War he fell ill and died of a heart attack in 1774. Sultan Mustafa was aware of the fact that a military reform was necessary. He declared new military regulations and opened maritime and artillery academies. Sultan Mustafa was very influenced by mysticism. Oracles predicted his son Selim would be a world-conqueror, so he organized a joyous feast lasting seven days. Selim was very well educated in the palace. Sultan Mustafa III bequeathed his son as his successor; however, Selim's uncle Abdul Hamid I ascended the throne after Mustafa's death. Sultan Abdul Hamid I took care of Selim and put great emphasis on his education. After Abdul Hamid's death Selim succeeded him on 7 April 1789, not yet 27 years old. Sultan Selim III was very fond of literature and calligraphy; many of his works were put on the walls of mosques and convents. He wrote many poems, especially about Crimea's occupation by Russia. He spoke Arabic and Persian fluently. Selim III was very religious, and very patriotic. He was a poet, a musician and very fond of fine arts.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Ottoman-Empire-not-join-the-Napoleonic-Wars-on-either-side
Mahmud II (Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثانى Mahmud-u s̠ānī, محمود عدلى Mahmud-u Âdlî; Turkish: İkinci Mahmut; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms he instituted, which culminated in the Decree of Tanzimat ("reorganization") that was carried out by his sons Abdulmejid I and Abdülaziz. Often described as "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud's reforms included the 1826 abolition of the conservative Janissary corps, which removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. The reforms he instituted were characterized by political and social changes, which would eventually lead to the birth of the modern Turkish Republic.Notwithstanding his domestic reforms, Mahmud's reign was also marked by nationalist uprisings in Ottoman-ruled Serbia and Greece, leading to significant loss of territory for the Empire following the emergence of an independent Greek state.
Abdul Hamid II (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی, `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî; Turkish: İkinci Abdülhamit; 21 September 1842 – 10 February 1918) was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the last Sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a period of decline. He ruled from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed shortly after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, on 27 April 1909. In accordance with an agreement made with the republican Young Ottomans, he promulgated the first Ottoman constitution of 1876 on 23 December 1876, which was a sign of progressive thinking that marked his early rule. Later, however, he noticed Western influence on Ottoman affairs and citing disagreements with Parliament, suspended both the short-lived constitution and Parliament in 1878 accomplished highly effective power and control. Modernization of the Ottoman Empire occurred during his reign, including reform of the bureaucracy, the extension of the Rumelia Railway and Anatolia Railway and the construction of the Baghdad Railway and Hejaz Railway. In addition, a system for population registration and control over the press was established along with the first local modern law school in 1898. The most far-reaching of these reforms were in education: many professional schools were established, including Law School, School of Arts, School of Trades, Civil Engineering School, The Veterinarian School, The Customs School, The Farming School, The Linguistic School, and more. The University of Istanbul, although shut down by Abdul Hamid in 1881, was reopened in 1900, and a network of secondary, primary, and military schools was extended throughout the empire. Railway and telegraph systems were developed by primarily German firms. Between 1871 and 1908, the Sublime Porte thus "reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation.",
Moreover, Abdul Hamid was first nicknamed the Red Sultan by Western journalists because of the massacres committed against Armenians during his rule and claiming the use of secret police to silence dissent and republicanism. These initiatives led to a failed assassination attempt in 1905.
As a result of the worsening state of the Ottoman Empire after the deposition of Abdul Hamid, Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı, who was a member of the Committee of Union and Progress, which dethroned Abdul Hamid II, wrote a poem called "İstimdad" which shows the Turk's regret concerning Abdul Hamid's deposition.
- Abdul Hamid II was born at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul (Constantinople), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, on 21 September 1842. He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid and Tirimüjgan Kadınefendi (Circassia, 16 August 1819 – Beylerbeyi Palace, 2 November 1853), originally named Virjin.
- philippines
- hkej 28aug17 shum article
Mehmed VI Vahideddin (Ottoman Turkish: محمد السادس Meḥmed-i sâdis, وحيد الدين Vahideddin, Turkish: Vahideddin or Altıncı Mehmet), who is also known as Şahbaba (meaning "Emperor-father") among his relatives, (14 January 1861 – 16 May 1926) was the 36th and last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from July 4, 1918 until November 1, 1922 when the Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I and became the nation of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923. The brother of Mehmed V, he became heir to the throne after the 1916 suicide of Abdülaziz's son Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin as the eldest male member of the House of Osman. He acceded to the throne after the death of Mehmed V. He was girded with the Sword of Osman on 4 July 1918, as the thirty-sixth padishah. His father was Sultan Abdulmejid I and mother was Gülüstü Hanım (1830 – 1865), an ethnic Abkhazian, daughter of Prince Tahir Bey Çaçba and his wife Afişe Lakerba, originally named Fatma Çaçba. Mehmed was removed from the throne when the Ottoman sultanate was abolished in 1922.The Grand National Assembly of Turkey abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and Mehmed VI was expelled from Constantinople. Leaving aboard the British warship Malaya on 17 November, he went into exile in Malta; Mehmed later lived on the Italian Riviera.
On 19 November 1922, Mehmed's first cousin and heir Abdulmejid Efendi was elected caliph, becoming the new head of the Imperial House of Osman as Abdulmejid II before the Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in 1924. Mehmed died on 16 May 1926 in Sanremo, Italy, and was buried at the Tekkiye Mosque of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in Damascus.
- https://www.quora.com/The-last-Sultan-of-the-Ottoman-Empire-Mehmed-VI-abdicated-and-fled-Anatolia-Where-did-he-go-What-was-the-rest-of-his-life-like-Did-he-have-a-family-Are-there-any-more-living-heirs-to-the-Ottoman-Empire
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908) of the Ottoman Empire was when the Young Turks movement restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and ushered in multi-party politics in a two stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. More than three decades earlier, in 1876, constitutional monarchy had been established under Sultan Abdul Hamid II during a period of time known as the First Constitutional Era, which only lasted for two years before Abdul Hamid suspended it and restored autocratic powers to himself. On 24 July 1908, Abdul Hamid capitulated and announced the restoration of Constitution, which established the Second Constitutional Era. After an attempted monarchist counterrevolution in favor of Abdul Hamid the following year, he was deposed and his brother Mehmed V ascended the throne. Once underground, organizations (named committee, group, etc.) established (declared) their parties. Among them "Committee of Union and Progress" (CUP), and "Freedom and Accord Party" also known as the Liberal Union or Liberal Entente (LU) were major parties. There were smaller parties such as Ottoman Socialist Party. On the other end of the spectrum were the ethnic parties which included; People's Federative Party (Bulgarian Section), Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs, Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion), Al-Fatat, and Armenians organized under Armenakan, Hunchakian and Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF). ARF, previously outlawed, became the main representative of the Armenian community in the Ottoman Empire, replacing the pre-1908 Armenian elite, which had been composed of merchants, artisans, and clerics who had seen their future in obtaining more privileges within the boundaries of the state's version of Ottomanism.
- The Ottoman constitution of 1876 (Ottoman Turkish: قانون اساسى; Turkish: Kanûn-u Esâsî; English: "basic law") was the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire. Written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha, during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876–1909), the constitution was only in effect for two years, from 1876 to 1878 in a period known as the First Constitutional Era. Later it was put back into effect and amended to transfer more power from the sultan and the appointed Senate to the generally elected Chamber of Deputies after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, initiating a period known as the Second Constitutional Era.
In the course of their studies in Europe, some members of the new Ottoman elite concluded that the secret of Europe's success rested not just with its technical achievements but also with its political organizations. Moreover, the process of reform itself had imbued a small segment of this elite with the belief that constitutional government would be a desirable check on autocracy and provide them with a better opportunity to influence policy. Sultan Abdul Aziz's chaotic rule led to his deposition in 1876 and, after a few troubled months, to the proclamation of an Ottoman constitution that the new sultan, Abdul Hamid II, pledged to uphold.- hkej 28aug17 shum article
Ottoman Syria refers to divisions of the Ottoman Empire within the Levant. Ottoman Syria became organized by the Ottomans upon conquest from the Mamluks in the early 16th century as a single eyalet(province) of Damascus Eyalet. In 1534, the Aleppo Eyalet was split into a separate administration. The Tripoli Eyalet was formed out of Damascus province in 1579 and later the Adana Eyalet was split from Aleppo. In 1660, the Eyalet of Safed was established and shortly afterwards renamed Sidon Eyalet; in 1667, the Mount Lebanon Emirate was given special autonomous status within the Sidon province, but was abolished in 1841 and reconfigured in 1861 as the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. The Syrian eyalets were later transformed into the Syria Vilayet, the Aleppo Vilayet and the Beirut Vilayet, following the 1864 Tanzimat reforms. Finally, in 1872, the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was split from the Syria Vilayet into an autonomous administration with special status.
- usa
people
- Ahmed Şefik Midhat Pasha (18 October 1822 – 26 April 1883) was one of the leading Ottoman statesmen during the late Tanzimat era. He is most famous for leading the Ottoman constitutional movement of 1876 and introducing the First Constitutional Era, but was also a leading figure of reform in the educational and provincial administrations. He was part of a governing elite which recognized the crisis the Empire was in and considered reform to be a dire need. Midhat Pasha is described as a person with a liberal attitude and is often considered as one of the founders of the Ottoman Parliament. He was described by Caroline Finkel as "a true representative of Tanzimat optimism, who believed that separatist tendencies could be best countered by demonstrating the benefits of good government." For the British, his reforming zeal was an aberration, based on individual strength of personality. They believed Midhat Pasha could not succeed, citing the inefficient and corrupt nature of the Ottoman state, and the fractured nature of its society.The Midhat Pasha Souq in Damascus still bears his name.Midhat Pasha was born in Istanbul in the Islamic month of Safar, 1238 AH (which began on 18 October 1822), into a well-established family of Muslim scholars. Born into an ilmiyye family, he received a private and medrese education. His father was Hadjdji 'Air Efendi-Zade Hadjdji Hafiz Mehemmed Eshref Efendi, a native of Ruse. The family seem to have been professed Bektashis.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Ottoman-caliphs-often-have-Balkan-or-Caucasian-wives-but-never-Arabs-Was-there-a-particular-reason-for-this Most Arabs were Muslims and if an Ottoman sultan begat a child with a Muslim woman, her tribe/clan would also be elevated and have some degree of nobility and possibly a stake in running the empire. It could well fracture the authority of the Ottoman Sultanate for multiple families to have claims on the future of an Islamic Caliphate.
administration
- The Vilayets (Turkish pronunciation: [vilaːˈjet]) of the Ottoman Empire were the first-order administrative division, or provinces, of the later empire, introduced with the promulgation of the Vilayet Law (Turkish: Teşkil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi) of 21 January 1867. The reform was part of the ongoing administrative reforms that were being enacted throughout the empire, and enshrined in the Imperial Edict of 1856. The reform was at first implemented experimentally in the Danube Vilayet, specially formed in 1864 and headed by the leading reformist Midhat Pasha. The reform was gradually implemented, and not until 1884 was it applied to the entirety of the Empire's provinces.The term vilayet is derived from the Arabic word wilayah or wilaya. While in Arabic, the word wilaya is used to denote a province or region or district without any specific administrative connotation, the Ottomans used it to denote a specific administrative division. The Ottoman Empire had already begun to modernize its administration and regularize its provinces (eyalets) in the 1840s, but the Vilayet Law extended this to the entire Ottoman territory, with a regularized hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, headed by a vali, was subdivided into sub-provinces (sanjak) under a mütesarrif, further into districts (kaza or liva) under a kaimakam, and into communes (nahiye) under a müdir. The vali was the representative of the Sultan in the vilayet and hence the supreme head of the administration. He was assisted by secretaries in charge of finances (defterdar), correspondence and archives (mektubci), dealings with foreigners, public works, agriculture and commerce, nominated by the respective ministers. Along with the chief justice (mufettiş-i hukkam-i Şeri'a), these officials formed the vilayet's executive council. In addition, there was an elected provincial council of four members, two Muslims and two non-Muslims. The governor of the chief sanjak (merkez sanjak), where the vilayet's capital was located, deputized for the vali in the latter's absence. A similar structure was replicated in the lower hierarchical levels, with executive and advisory councils drawn from the local administrators and—following long-established practice—the heads of the various local religious communities.
- Devshirme (Ottoman Turkish: دوشيرمه, devşirme, literally "lifting" or "collecting"), also known as the blood tax or tribute in blood,[2] was chiefly the practice where by the Ottoman Empire sent military officers to take boys, ages 8 to 18, from their families in Eastern and Southeastern Europe in order that they be raised to serve the state.[3] This tax of sons was imposed only on the Christian subjects of the empire, in the villages of the Balkans and Anatolia.[4][better source needed] The boys were then forcibly converted to Islam[5] with the primary objective of selecting and training the ablest children and teenagers for the military or civil service of the empire, notably into the Janissaries. Devshirme started in the mid 1300s under Murad I as a means to counteract the growing power of the Turkish nobility. According to Alexander Mikaberidze the practice violated Islamic law.[7] Mikaberidze argues that the boys were "effectively enslaved" under the devshirme system, and that this was a violation of the dhimmi protections guaranteed under Islamic law. This is disputed by scholars of Ottoman history, including Halil İnalcık, who argues that the devshirme were not slaves. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the practice formally came to an end. An attempt to re-institute it in 1703 was resisted by its Ottoman members who coveted its military and civilian posts. Finally in the early days of Ahmet III's reign, the practice of devshirme was abolished.
harem
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-Turkish-harem-really-the-way-its-portrayed-in-Western-depictions-or-was-it-a-lot-more-orderly-and-far-less-sensual-in-day-to-day-life
army
- Los jenízaros 耶尼切里军团 The Janissaries (Ottoman Turkish: يڭيچرى yeñiçeri [jeniˈtʃeɾi], meaning "new soldier") were elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops, bodyguards and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established during the reign of Murad I (1362–89). They began as an elite corps of slaves made up of kidnapped young Christian boys who were converted to Islam,[6] and became famed for internal cohesion cemented by strict discipline and order. Unlike typical slaves, they were paid regular salaries. Forbidden to marry or engage in trade, their complete loyalty to the Sultan was expected.[7] By the seventeenth century, due to a dramatic increase in the size of the Ottoman standing army, the corps' initially strict recruitment policy was relaxed. Civilians bought their way into it in order to benefit from the improved socioeconomic status it conferred upon them. Consequently, the corps gradually lost its military character, undergoing a process that has been described as 'civilianization'.[8] The corps was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 in the Auspicious Incident in which 6,000 or more were executed.
A dragoman was an interpreter, translator, and official guide between Turkish, Arabic, and Persian-speaking countries and polities of the Middle East and Europeanembassies, consulates, vice-consulates and trading posts. A dragoman had to have a knowledge of Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and European languages. In Arabic the word is ترجمان (tarjumān), in Turkish tercüman. Deriving from the Semitic quadriliteral root t-r-g-m, it appears in Akkadian as "targumannu," in Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic) as t-r-gw-m, and in Aramaic as targemana. Hebrew makes a distinction between מתרגם (metargem)—referring to a translator of written texts—and מתורגמן (meturgeman) referring to an interpreter of spoken conversation or speeches. The latter is obviously more closely related to the other languages mentioned, though both are derived from the same Semitic root. There has been speculation of a Hittite origin of the term (Salonen, p. 12; Rabin, pp. 134–136). During the Middle Ages the word entered European languages: in Middle English as dragman, from Old French drugeman, from Medieval Latin as dragumannus, from Middle Greek δραγομάνος, dragoumanos. Later European variants include the German trutzelmann, the French trucheman or truchement (in modern French it is drogman), the Italian turcimanno, and the Spanish trujamán, trujimán and truchimán; these variants point to a Turkish or Arabic word "turjuman", with different vocalization. Webster's Dictionary of 1828 lists dragoman as well as the variants drogman and truchman in English. Consequently, the plural, in English, is "dragomans" (not "dragomen"). The family name of Franjo Tudjman, the first post-Communist President of Croatia, indicates that one of his ancestors might have been a dragoman.
- cyprus
language
- diplomatic
Classes
- Çavuş, also anglicized Chaush and Chiaus (from Turkish: çavuş, "messenger") was an Ottoman title used for two separate soldier professions, both acting as messengers although differing in levels.[2] It was a rank below agha and kethüda in units such as the Janissaries and Sipahi, and was also a term for members of the specialized unit of çavuşān (also çavuşiyye,[3] çavuş(an)-i divan(i)[2]) consisting of combined cavalry and infantry serving the Imperial Council (as in Ottoman Egypt).[3] The leaders of the council's çavuş were titled çavuşbaşı (or başçavuş).[4] The çavuşbaşı was an assistant (or deputy) to the Grand Vizier,[5]dealing with security matters,[6] accompanying ambassadors visiting the Grand Vizier,[2] and also carried out the first examination of petitions submitted to the Council, and led council meetings when the Grand Vizier was not present.[6] The title has its origin in Uyghur use, where it was the title of ambassadors, and then entered Seljuq use for Byzantine imperial messengers, and Persian and Arabic use for various court attendants. The word gave rise to surnames, such as Çavuş (Turkish), Çavuşoğlu (Turkish),[7] Čaušević (Serbo-Croatian),[8] Čaušić (Serbo-Croatian),[9] Baščaušević (Serbo-Croatian),[10] Çaushaj (Albanian), Ceaușu (Romanian), Ceaușescu (Romanian), and others. It is also the stem of place names, such as Çavuş (in Turkey), Çavuşlu (in Turkey), Çavuşlar (in Turkey), Çavuşköy (in Turkey), Çavuşbayırı (in Turkey), Čauševac (in Bosnia),[11] Čauševići (in Bosnia[12] and Serbia), Čaušev Do (in Bosnia), Čauševina (in Bosnia),[10] Čaušlije (in Bosnia),[10] Čaušlija (in Macedonia), Çaushi (in Albania), and others. In the past in former Yugoslavia, the word čauš was also sometimes applied to the wedding-planner.
- A rayah or reaya (from Arabic: رعايا ra`aya, a plural of رعيّة ra`iya "flock, subject", also spelled raya, raja, raiah, re'aya; Ottoman Turkish رعايا [ɾeˈʔaːjeː]; Modern Turkish râya [ɾaːˈja] or reaya) was a member of the tax-paying lower class of Ottoman society, in contrast to the askeri(upper class) and kul (slaves). The rayah made up over 90% of the general population and the millet communities. In the Muslim world, rayah is literally subject of a government or sovereign. The rayah (literally 'members of the flock') included Christians, Muslims, and Jews who were 'shorn' (i.e. taxed) to support the state and the associated 'professional Ottoman' class. However, both in contemporaneous and in modern usage, it refers to non-Muslim subjects in particular, also called zimmi.[2][3][4] The word is sometimes mistranslated as 'cattle' rather than 'flock' or 'subjects' to emphasize the inferior status of the rayah. In the early Ottoman Empire, rayah were not eligible for military service, but from the late 16th century, Muslim rayah became eligible, to the distress of some of the ruling class.
- An odalisque (Turkish: Odalık) was a chambermaid or a female attendant in a Turkish seraglio, particularly the court ladies in the household of the Ottoman sultan. The word "odalisque" is French in form and originates from the Turkish odalık, meaning "chambermaid", from oda, "chamber" or "room". It can also be transliterated odahlic, odalisk, and odaliq.
race of ruling class, elite
- ******The Ottoman Empire was founded by the son of Ertugrul, named Ataman (English Ottoman/ Arabic Osman), who was Turkish and his supporters were Turkish. The women of the Sultan’s harem though were all slaves, and it was forbidden to enslave Muslims, they were largely from the Caucasus but also the Balkans, Ukraine and even at least one French lady. Therefore generation after generation the royal family became less and less biologically Turkish. Meanwhile the women of the Sultan’s Harem were not the only slaves, there was a thing called the Devshirme, where a ‘tithe’ of young male children were collected across the Balkans. The best and brightest were chosen and given an education and they held many, in fact, most important administrative positions in the State and often established Vakifs (foundations) to support their families across the generations. The majority of the slave boys though were sent out as farm workers and ‘Turkified’ and then become the Imperial army, the Janissaries. Together this means that very few people in the ruling class or army of the Ottoman Empire had any significant amount of Turkish genetic ancestry. To this you can add general converts, particularly in Anatolia and the Balkans,
ethnic groups
- https://www.quora.com/Why-do-Greek-Cypriots-call-themselves-Greek-if-they-do-not-want-to-be-a-part-of-Greece-Arent-people-from-Greece-called-Greeks note the map showing the distribution of ethnic population
jews
- sephardi
- The Holy League (Latin: Liga Sancta, Spanish: Liga Santa, Italian: Lega Santa) of 1571 was arranged by Pope Pius V and included the major Catholic maritime states in the Mediterranean except France. It was intended to break the Ottoman Empire’s control of the eastern Mediterranean Sea and was formally concluded on 25 May 1571. Its members were:
- The Holy League (Latin: Sacra Ligua) of 1684 was an alliance organized by Pope Innocent XI to oppose the Ottoman Empire in the Great Turkish War. The League's initial members were the Papal States, the Holy Roman Empire under Habsburg Emperor Leopold I, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of John III Sobieski, and the Venetian Republic; the Tsardom of Russia joined the League in 1686. The alliance lasted until the Treaty of Karlowitz brought an end to the war in 1699. Pope Innocent was aided by Capuchin Friar Marco d'Aviano during the formation of the League, and the Friar was prominent in defending Vienna. The events to the League's creation and the 1683 Battle of Vienna.
- The Great Turkish War (German: Großer Türkenkrieg) or the War of the Holy League (Turkish: Kutsal İttifak Savaşları) was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League consisting of the Habsburg Monarchy, Poland-Lithuania, Venice and Russia. Intensive fighting began in 1683 and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. The war was a defeat for the Ottoman Empire, which for the first time lost large amounts of territory. It lost lands in Hungary and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as part of the western Balkans. The war was also significant in that it marked the first time Russia was involved in a western European alliance.On September 11, 1697, the Battle of Zenta was fought just south of the then-Ottoman city of Zenta. During the battle, Habsburg Imperial forces routed the Ottoman forces while the Ottomans were crossing the Tisa River (which is near the city). This resulted in the Habsburg forces killing over 30,000 Ottomans and dispersing the rest. This crippling defeat was the ultimate factor of the Ottoman Empire signing the Treaty of Karlowitz on January 22, 1699, ending the Great Turkish War. This treaty resulted in the transfer of most of Ottoman Hungary to the Habsburgs, and prompted the Ottomans to adopt a more defensive military policy in the following century.
arabs
armenians
- As the Ottoman Empire suffered its first losses in the First World War, the “Young Turk” government rounded up intellectuals and political leaders from its Christian Armenian minority. It then went one step further - ordering the community’s expulsion from Anatolia to Syria. Across eastern Turkey, long columns of Armenians were ambushed by soldiers and Kurdish gangs, who slaughtered them by the hundreds of thousand. Instructions from provincial Ottoman officials, notably the governor of Diyarbakir province Mehmed Reshid, gave impunity to the attackers, many of whom plundered and looted Armenian property.
The killings were carried out under the glare of international publicity, including from missionaries - America was yet to join the war, and dramatic witness accounts of hundreds of people being killed, or even burned alive, appeared in the western press. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/armenia/11559779/Armenian-massacres-What-happened-during-the-genocide-and-why-does-Turkey-deny-it.html With onslaught of World War I, the Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire engaged during the Caucasus and Persian Campaigns, and the CUP began to look on the Armenians with distrust and suspicion. This was due to the fact that the Russian army contained a contingent of Armenian volunteers. On 24 April 1915, Armenian intellectuals were arrested by Ottoman authorities and, with the Tehcir Law (29 May 1915), eventually a large proportion of Armenians living in Western Armenia perished in what has become known as the Armenian Genocide. There was local Armenian resistance in the region, developed against the activities of the Ottoman Empire. The events of 1915 to 1917 are regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians and even some Turkish writers and historians like Taner Akçam and Orhan Pamuk to have been state-sponsored and planned mass killings, or genocide.
safavid empire
- The Battle of Chaldiran (Persian: جنگ چالدران; Turkish: Çaldıran Muharebesi) took place on 23 August 1514 and ended with a decisive victory for the Ottoman Empire over the Safavid Empire. As a result, the Ottomans annexed eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq from Safavid Iran. It marked the first Ottoman expansion into eastern Anatolia, and the halt of the Safavid expansion to the west. Despite the Iranians briefly reconquering the area over the course of the centuries, the battle marked the first event that would eventually, through many wars and treaties later, lead to its permanent conquest, until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire centuries later. By the Chaldiran war the Ottomans also gained temporary control of northwestern Iran. The battle, however, was just the beginning of 41 years of destructive war, which only ended in 1555 with the Treaty of Amasya. Though Mesopotamia and Eastern Anatolia (Western Armenia) were eventually taken back by the Safavids under the reign of king Abbas I (r. 1588–1629), they would be permanently lost to the Ottomans by the 1639 Treaty of Zuhab.The battle is one of major historical importance because it not only negated the idea that the Murshid of the Shia-Qizilbash was infallible, but it also fully defined the Ottoman-Safavid borders with the Ottomans gaining northwestern Iran, and led Kurdishchiefs to assert their authority and switch their allegiance from the Safavids to the Ottomans.
persia
- The Ottoman–Persian War of 1743–1746 was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Afsharid dynasty of Iran. Persia attempted to ratify the Treaty of Constantinople (1736), by demanding that the Ja'fari, also known as the Imamiyyah was to be accepted as a fifth legal sect of Islam. In 1743, Nader Shah declared war on the Ottoman Empire. He demanded the surrender of Baghdad. The Persians had captured Baghdad in 1623 and Mosul in 1624, but the Ottomans had recaptured Mosul in 1625 and Bagdad in 1638. The Treaty of Zuhab in 1639 between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empirehad resulted in peace for 85 years. After the fall of the Safavid Dynasty, Russia and the Ottoman Empire agreed to divide the northwest and the Caspian region of Persia, but with the advent of Nader Shah, the Russians and the Turks withdrew from the region. Nader Shah waged war against the Ottomans from 1730 to 1736 but it ended with a stalemate. Nader Shah afterwards turned east and declared war on the Moghul Empire and invaded India, in order to refund his wars against the Ottomans. In 1746 peace was made. The boundaries were unchanged and Baghdad remained in Ottoman hands. Nader Shah dropped his demand for Ja'fari recognition. The Porte was pleased and dispatched an ambassador but before he could arrive, Nader Shah was assassinated by his own officers.
- The Ottoman–Persian War of 1775–1776 was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Zand dynasty of Persia. The Persians, ruled by Karim Khan and led by his brother Sadeq Khan Zand, invaded southern Iraq and after besieging Basra for a year, took the city from the Ottomans in 1776. The Ottomans, unable to send troops, were dependent on the Mamluk governors to defend that region.In an attempt to raise troops and provisions for this war, Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid I, made Suleiman al-Jalili mubayaaci (official of provisions), ordering him to send provisions to Baghdad, which he ignored, instead he restricted merchants from selling their goods. As a result, the Persians held Basra until 1779 when the Ottomans, under Sulayman Agha, retook the city, following Karim Khan's death.
- After the final fall of Constantinople in 1453, Greece fell into Ottoman hands and was ruled by Ottoman sultans until the early 1800s. By 1460, Byzantine rule (as in rule by the families who formerly ran the Empire) was no more, with some of the remaining family members joining the Sultanate. The Eastern Christians either fled to the West, moved to the mountains or remained depending on their status and wherewithal. Given that Greece was the Byzantine homeland, most stayed on as vassals of their Ottoman rulers. Many Greeks thrived under the new empire, becoming great mariners and traders. The Sultanate was very tolerant of the Greek Orthodox Church, and they were awarded the protection of the sultans. So in some ways, life as usual for most of the peasantry and ordinary people; the former rulers of Byzantine, not so much.https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-Byzantines-after-the-fall-of-their-empire
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Byzantine-empire-evolve-into-the-Ottoman-Empire
- https://www.quora.com/How-close-was-the-Ottoman-Empire-to-conquering-Europe
- 除了陸軍強大外，蘇萊曼一世亦建立了海軍部隊，任命「紅鬍子」巴巴羅薩（Hayreddin Barbarossa）為海軍總司令，並在1538年擊敗西班牙艦隊，又多次擊敗熱那亞（Genoa）海軍名將安德烈亞．多里亞（Andrea Doria），使鄂圖曼帝國一度稱霸東地中海，1542年更派了200艘船支援法國，法王法蘭索瓦一世（Francis I）直接把土倫港（Toulon）讓出，給鄂圖曼海軍做指揮部。派200艘戰船去支援，在當時是一個什麼樣的概念？我們來看看1571年的勒班陀海戰（Battle of Lepanto），即西班牙聯軍擊敗鄂圖曼艦隊的決定性一仗，西班牙聯軍的戰船就由西班牙、威尼斯、教皇國、熱那亞等國組成，集結多國力量也才200艘， 可想而知蘇萊曼一世一口氣派200艘戰船去支援，是有多財大氣粗。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/04/07/a22-0407.pdf
- hungary
- Sultan Suleyman has a special connection to Hungary unlike General Jelalic.
He died of natural death in the surroundings of Szigetvár; Hungary. The Croatian general died in Zagreb. His essential organs (including his heart) were buried near a Dervish convent in the Hungarian region to prevent his body from decaying. The people and the soldiers were not notified of his death, for it was war time and it would have decreased the army’s morale.The Hungarian-Turkish park and both monuments of Sultan Suleyman and Miklós Zrínyi were funded by the Turkish government for a total price of USD 269.000; adjusted to inflation this would be about 500k in 2019. It was also the initiative of the Turkish government to start the project. Technically the park is Turkish territory, as it is being leased to the Turkish department of tourism for 1 HUF per 99 years. - https://www.quora.com/Why-does-Hungary-have-a-monument-of-Ottoman-Sultan-Suleiman-but-not-of-Croatian-General-Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87
Turhan Hatice Sultan (c. 1627 – 4 August 1683; Turhan meaning "Of mercy"), was Haseki Sultan of the Ottoman Sultan Ibrahim (reign 1640–48) and Valide Sultan as the mother of Mehmed IV (reign 1648–87). Turhan Hatice was prominent for the regency of her young son and her building patronage. She and her mother-in-law, Kösem Sultan, are the only two women in Ottoman history to be regarded as official regents and had supreme control over the Ottoman Empire. Turhan Hatice herself was the only one in Ottoman history to equally share the power of running the entire empire with Ottoman Sultan legally, although in fact she transferred her political power to the grand vizier. As a result, Turhan became one of the prominent figures during the era known as Sultanate of Women.Turhan Hatice, whose original name is unknown, was believed to be of East Slavicorigin (Russian or Ukrainian). She was captured as a child during a Crimean slave raid in Rus' and sold into slavery in the Ottoman Empire. When she was about 12 years old, Turhan was sent to the Imperial Harem at the Topkapı Palace as a gift, from the Khan of Crimea, to the mother of Sultan Ibrahim, Kösem Sultan.
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-commander-of-the-Ottoman-troops-after-the-Battle-of-Vienna-in-1683 After the defeat at Vienna, the commander of the Army and the Grand Vizier of the Turkish Empire, Kara Mustafa Paşa of Merzifon (who was an adopted member of the Köprülü noble family) was executed in Belgrade, then an important Turkish dominion. Before his death, he was planning to reorganise what was left from the imperial Turkish army (Ordu-yi Hümayun) and getting ready for a counter-attack. He was a stubborn paşa who had many political enemies in the court. He couldn’t escape the public rage caused by the defeat.
Following the Battle of Vienna, Turkish dominions and possessions in Hungary diminished to a small land around Temesvar within few decades. Buda fell in 1686 to the Duke of Lorraine and Eugene of Savoy. Turkish fortresses of Eğri (Eger), Kanije (Nagykanisza), Segedin (Szeged), Esztergom and Ciğerdelen were lost to Austrians.
Selim III (Ottoman Turkish: سليم ثالث Selīm-i sālis) (24 December 1761 – 28 July 1808) was the reform-minded Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1789 to 1807. The Janissaries eventually deposed and imprisoned him, and placed his cousin Mustafa on the throne as Mustafa IV. Selim was subsequently killed by a group of assassins. Selim III was the son of Sultan Mustafa III and his wife Mihrişah Sultan. His mother Mihrişah Sultan originated in Georgia and when she became the Valide Sultan, she participated in reforming the government schools and establishing political corporations. His father Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III was very well educated and believed in the necessity of reforms. Mustafa III attempted to create a powerful army during the peacetime with professional, well-educated soldiers. This was primarily motivated by his fear of a Russian invasion. During the Russo-Turkish War he fell ill and died of a heart attack in 1774. Sultan Mustafa was aware of the fact that a military reform was necessary. He declared new military regulations and opened maritime and artillery academies. Sultan Mustafa was very influenced by mysticism. Oracles predicted his son Selim would be a world-conqueror, so he organized a joyous feast lasting seven days. Selim was very well educated in the palace. Sultan Mustafa III bequeathed his son as his successor; however, Selim's uncle Abdul Hamid I ascended the throne after Mustafa's death. Sultan Abdul Hamid I took care of Selim and put great emphasis on his education. After Abdul Hamid's death Selim succeeded him on 7 April 1789, not yet 27 years old. Sultan Selim III was very fond of literature and calligraphy; many of his works were put on the walls of mosques and convents. He wrote many poems, especially about Crimea's occupation by Russia. He spoke Arabic and Persian fluently. Selim III was very religious, and very patriotic. He was a poet, a musician and very fond of fine arts.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Ottoman-Empire-not-join-the-Napoleonic-Wars-on-either-side
Mahmud II (Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثانى Mahmud-u s̠ānī, محمود عدلى Mahmud-u Âdlî; Turkish: İkinci Mahmut; 20 July 1785 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. His reign is recognized for the extensive administrative, military, and fiscal reforms he instituted, which culminated in the Decree of Tanzimat ("reorganization") that was carried out by his sons Abdulmejid I and Abdülaziz. Often described as "Peter the Great of Turkey", Mahmud's reforms included the 1826 abolition of the conservative Janissary corps, which removed a major obstacle to his and his successors' reforms in the Empire. The reforms he instituted were characterized by political and social changes, which would eventually lead to the birth of the modern Turkish Republic.Notwithstanding his domestic reforms, Mahmud's reign was also marked by nationalist uprisings in Ottoman-ruled Serbia and Greece, leading to significant loss of territory for the Empire following the emergence of an independent Greek state.
Abdul Hamid II (Ottoman Turkish: عبد الحميد ثانی, `Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i sânî; Turkish: İkinci Abdülhamit; 21 September 1842 – 10 February 1918) was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the last Sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a period of decline. He ruled from 31 August 1876 until he was deposed shortly after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, on 27 April 1909. In accordance with an agreement made with the republican Young Ottomans, he promulgated the first Ottoman constitution of 1876 on 23 December 1876, which was a sign of progressive thinking that marked his early rule. Later, however, he noticed Western influence on Ottoman affairs and citing disagreements with Parliament, suspended both the short-lived constitution and Parliament in 1878 accomplished highly effective power and control. Modernization of the Ottoman Empire occurred during his reign, including reform of the bureaucracy, the extension of the Rumelia Railway and Anatolia Railway and the construction of the Baghdad Railway and Hejaz Railway. In addition, a system for population registration and control over the press was established along with the first local modern law school in 1898. The most far-reaching of these reforms were in education: many professional schools were established, including Law School, School of Arts, School of Trades, Civil Engineering School, The Veterinarian School, The Customs School, The Farming School, The Linguistic School, and more. The University of Istanbul, although shut down by Abdul Hamid in 1881, was reopened in 1900, and a network of secondary, primary, and military schools was extended throughout the empire. Railway and telegraph systems were developed by primarily German firms. Between 1871 and 1908, the Sublime Porte thus "reached a new degree of organizational elaboration and articulation.",
Moreover, Abdul Hamid was first nicknamed the Red Sultan by Western journalists because of the massacres committed against Armenians during his rule and claiming the use of secret police to silence dissent and republicanism. These initiatives led to a failed assassination attempt in 1905.
As a result of the worsening state of the Ottoman Empire after the deposition of Abdul Hamid, Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı, who was a member of the Committee of Union and Progress, which dethroned Abdul Hamid II, wrote a poem called "İstimdad" which shows the Turk's regret concerning Abdul Hamid's deposition.
- Abdul Hamid II was born at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul (Constantinople), the capital of the Ottoman Empire, on 21 September 1842. He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid and Tirimüjgan Kadınefendi (Circassia, 16 August 1819 – Beylerbeyi Palace, 2 November 1853), originally named Virjin.
- philippines
- Sultan Abdul Hamid II, after being approached by American minister to Turkey, Oscar Straus, sent a letter to the Moros of the Sulu Sultanate telling them not to resist American takeover and cooperate with the Americans at the start of the Moro Rebellion. The Sulu Moros complied with the order.
- German government officials were brought in to reorganise the Ottoman government's finances. Germany's friendship was not altruistic; it had to be fostered with railway and loan concessions. In 1899, a significant German desire, the construction of a Berlin-Baghdad railway, was granted. Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany also requested the Sultan's help when having trouble with Chinese Muslim troops. During the Boxer Rebellion, the Chinese Muslim Kansu Braves fought against the German Army, routing them, along with the other Eight Nation Alliance forces. The Muslim Kansu Braves and Boxers defeated the Alliance forces led by the German Captain von Usedom at the Battle of Langfang in the Seymour Expedition in 1900 and besieged the trapped Alliance forces during the Siege of the International Legations. It was only on the second attempt in the Gasalee Expedition, that the Alliance forces managed to get through to battle the Chinese Muslim troops at the Battle of Peking. Kaiser Wilhelm was so alarmed by the Chinese Muslim troops that he requested that Abdul Hamid find a way to stop the Muslim troops from fighting. Abdul Hamid agreed to the Kaiser's demands and sent Enver Pasha to China in 1901, but the rebellion was over by that time. Because the Ottomans did not want conflict against the European nations and because Germany was being brown nosed for assistance by the Ottoman Empire, an order imploring Chinese Muslims to avoid assisting the Boxers was issued by the Ottoman Khalifa and reprinted in Egyptian and Indian Muslim newspapers in spite of the fact that the predicament the British found themselves in the Boxer Rebellion was gratifying to Indian Muslims and Egyptians.
- Abdul Hamid believed that the ideas of Tanzimat could not bring the disparate peoples of the empire to a common identity, such as Ottomanism. He adopted a new ideological principle, Pan-Islamism; since Ottoman sultans beginning with 1517 were also nominally Caliphs, he wanted to promote that fact and emphasized the Ottoman Caliphate. He saw the huge diversity of ethnicities in the Ottoman Empire and knew that Islam is the only way to unite his Muslim people.He encouraged Pan-Islamism, meaning that Muslims shall unite and aid each other against the European colonization. This threatened European countries, namely Austria through Albanian Muslims, and Russia through Tatars and Kurds, and France through Moroccan Muslims, and Britain through Indian Muslims. The privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire, which were an obstacle to an effective government, were curtailed. He also built the strategically important Constantinople-Baghdad Railway, the Constantinople-Medina Railway, making the trip to Mecca for Hajj more efficient. Missionaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the Caliph's supremacy. During his rule, Abdul Hamid refused Theodor Herzl's offers to pay down a substantial portion of the Ottoman debt (150 million pounds sterling in gold) in exchange for a charter allowing the Zionists to settle in Palestine.
- hkej 28aug17 shum article
Mehmed VI Vahideddin (Ottoman Turkish: محمد السادس Meḥmed-i sâdis, وحيد الدين Vahideddin, Turkish: Vahideddin or Altıncı Mehmet), who is also known as Şahbaba (meaning "Emperor-father") among his relatives, (14 January 1861 – 16 May 1926) was the 36th and last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from July 4, 1918 until November 1, 1922 when the Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I and became the nation of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923. The brother of Mehmed V, he became heir to the throne after the 1916 suicide of Abdülaziz's son Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin as the eldest male member of the House of Osman. He acceded to the throne after the death of Mehmed V. He was girded with the Sword of Osman on 4 July 1918, as the thirty-sixth padishah. His father was Sultan Abdulmejid I and mother was Gülüstü Hanım (1830 – 1865), an ethnic Abkhazian, daughter of Prince Tahir Bey Çaçba and his wife Afişe Lakerba, originally named Fatma Çaçba. Mehmed was removed from the throne when the Ottoman sultanate was abolished in 1922.The Grand National Assembly of Turkey abolished the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, and Mehmed VI was expelled from Constantinople. Leaving aboard the British warship Malaya on 17 November, he went into exile in Malta; Mehmed later lived on the Italian Riviera.
On 19 November 1922, Mehmed's first cousin and heir Abdulmejid Efendi was elected caliph, becoming the new head of the Imperial House of Osman as Abdulmejid II before the Caliphate was abolished by the Turkish Grand National Assembly in 1924. Mehmed died on 16 May 1926 in Sanremo, Italy, and was buried at the Tekkiye Mosque of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in Damascus.
- https://www.quora.com/The-last-Sultan-of-the-Ottoman-Empire-Mehmed-VI-abdicated-and-fled-Anatolia-Where-did-he-go-What-was-the-rest-of-his-life-like-Did-he-have-a-family-Are-there-any-more-living-heirs-to-the-Ottoman-Empire
The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908) of the Ottoman Empire was when the Young Turks movement restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and ushered in multi-party politics in a two stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. More than three decades earlier, in 1876, constitutional monarchy had been established under Sultan Abdul Hamid II during a period of time known as the First Constitutional Era, which only lasted for two years before Abdul Hamid suspended it and restored autocratic powers to himself. On 24 July 1908, Abdul Hamid capitulated and announced the restoration of Constitution, which established the Second Constitutional Era. After an attempted monarchist counterrevolution in favor of Abdul Hamid the following year, he was deposed and his brother Mehmed V ascended the throne. Once underground, organizations (named committee, group, etc.) established (declared) their parties. Among them "Committee of Union and Progress" (CUP), and "Freedom and Accord Party" also known as the Liberal Union or Liberal Entente (LU) were major parties. There were smaller parties such as Ottoman Socialist Party. On the other end of the spectrum were the ethnic parties which included; People's Federative Party (Bulgarian Section), Bulgarian Constitutional Clubs, Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion), Al-Fatat, and Armenians organized under Armenakan, Hunchakian and Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF). ARF, previously outlawed, became the main representative of the Armenian community in the Ottoman Empire, replacing the pre-1908 Armenian elite, which had been composed of merchants, artisans, and clerics who had seen their future in obtaining more privileges within the boundaries of the state's version of Ottomanism.
- The Ottoman constitution of 1876 (Ottoman Turkish: قانون اساسى; Turkish: Kanûn-u Esâsî; English: "basic law") was the first constitution of the Ottoman Empire. Written by members of the Young Ottomans, particularly Midhat Pasha, during the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (1876–1909), the constitution was only in effect for two years, from 1876 to 1878 in a period known as the First Constitutional Era. Later it was put back into effect and amended to transfer more power from the sultan and the appointed Senate to the generally elected Chamber of Deputies after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, initiating a period known as the Second Constitutional Era.
In the course of their studies in Europe, some members of the new Ottoman elite concluded that the secret of Europe's success rested not just with its technical achievements but also with its political organizations. Moreover, the process of reform itself had imbued a small segment of this elite with the belief that constitutional government would be a desirable check on autocracy and provide them with a better opportunity to influence policy. Sultan Abdul Aziz's chaotic rule led to his deposition in 1876 and, after a few troubled months, to the proclamation of an Ottoman constitution that the new sultan, Abdul Hamid II, pledged to uphold.- hkej 28aug17 shum article
Ottoman Syria refers to divisions of the Ottoman Empire within the Levant. Ottoman Syria became organized by the Ottomans upon conquest from the Mamluks in the early 16th century as a single eyalet(province) of Damascus Eyalet. In 1534, the Aleppo Eyalet was split into a separate administration. The Tripoli Eyalet was formed out of Damascus province in 1579 and later the Adana Eyalet was split from Aleppo. In 1660, the Eyalet of Safed was established and shortly afterwards renamed Sidon Eyalet; in 1667, the Mount Lebanon Emirate was given special autonomous status within the Sidon province, but was abolished in 1841 and reconfigured in 1861 as the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. The Syrian eyalets were later transformed into the Syria Vilayet, the Aleppo Vilayet and the Beirut Vilayet, following the 1864 Tanzimat reforms. Finally, in 1872, the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was split from the Syria Vilayet into an autonomous administration with special status.
- usa
- William McClure Thomson (31 December 1806, in Springdale, Ohio – 8 April 1894, in Denver, Colorado) was an American Protestant missionary working in Ottoman Syria. After spending 25 years in the area he published a best-selling description of what he had seen in his travels. He used his observations as a means of illustrating and illuminating passages from the Bible.Thomson was the son of a Presbyterian minister. He was a graduate of Miami University, Ohio. In 1835, with Rev. Story Hebard, he established a boarding school for boys. In August 1840 all the American missionaries in Beirut were evacuated by the USS Cyane. They witnessed the commencement of the naval bombardment of Beirut by a combined British, Austrian and Turkish fleet of 51 vessels under the command of Charles Napier. The bombardment lasted a month and resulted in the retreat of Ibrahim Pasha's army. In the same year fighting broke out between Lebanon's Druze and Maronites. In 1843 he, with Cornelius Van Alen Van Dyck, founded a boys seminary at Abeih. There was another outbreak of violence in 1845. Thomson was involved in organising a local truce. In 1851 he moved to Sidon where he remained until 1857, when he returned to America for two years. In 1860 full scale civil warbroke out in Lebanon. The conflict lasted sixty days and spread to Damascus. Thomson supervised the distribution of £30,000 of money, food and clothing amongst the thousands of destitute refugees.At a Beirut Mission Meeting on 23 January 1862 he proposed the establishment of a college with Daniel Bliss as its President. The Syrian Protestant College was established in 1866 with 16 students. This college was to evolve into the American University of Beirut.
people
- Ahmed Şefik Midhat Pasha (18 October 1822 – 26 April 1883) was one of the leading Ottoman statesmen during the late Tanzimat era. He is most famous for leading the Ottoman constitutional movement of 1876 and introducing the First Constitutional Era, but was also a leading figure of reform in the educational and provincial administrations. He was part of a governing elite which recognized the crisis the Empire was in and considered reform to be a dire need. Midhat Pasha is described as a person with a liberal attitude and is often considered as one of the founders of the Ottoman Parliament. He was described by Caroline Finkel as "a true representative of Tanzimat optimism, who believed that separatist tendencies could be best countered by demonstrating the benefits of good government." For the British, his reforming zeal was an aberration, based on individual strength of personality. They believed Midhat Pasha could not succeed, citing the inefficient and corrupt nature of the Ottoman state, and the fractured nature of its society.The Midhat Pasha Souq in Damascus still bears his name.Midhat Pasha was born in Istanbul in the Islamic month of Safar, 1238 AH (which began on 18 October 1822), into a well-established family of Muslim scholars. Born into an ilmiyye family, he received a private and medrese education. His father was Hadjdji 'Air Efendi-Zade Hadjdji Hafiz Mehemmed Eshref Efendi, a native of Ruse. The family seem to have been professed Bektashis.
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- syria
- The intervention of the British led to his appointing as governor again, and he became governor of the Vilayet of Syria on 22 November 1878, a post he held until 31 August 1881. During his tenure he endeavoured to reform the province.[1] He used a charitable association for education, which had been formed by some of Beirut's prominent Muslim citizens, into a centrepiece of his educational reform, and encouraged the formation of similar associations in Damascus and elsewhere. He admitted many Arabs in the civil service, including in the positions of qaimaqam and mutasarrif, and gave minorities broad representation in the administration. He encouraged the development of the press, and the number of newspapers rose to more than twelve. He took an interest in the construction of roads, and in the maintenance of security. He involved local notables in the financing of local projects, such as the tramway system in Tripoli and the founding of the Beirut Chamber of Commerce.
- Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ (Ottoman Turkish: معمار سينان, "Sinan Agha the Grand Architect"; Modern Turkish: Mimar Sinan, pronounced [miːˈmaːɾ siˈnan], "Sinan the Architect") (c. 1488/1490 – July 17, 1588) was the chief Ottoman architect (Turkish: mimar) and civil engineer for Sultans Suleiman the Magnificent, Selim II, and Murad III. He was responsible for the construction of more than 300 major structures and other more modest projects, such as schools. His apprentices would later design the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul, Stari Most in Mostar, and help design the Taj Mahal in the Mughal Empire. The son of a stonemason, he received a technical education and became a military engineer. He rose rapidly through the ranks to become first an officer and finally a Janissary commander, with the honorific title of ağa.[1] He refined his architectural and engineering skills while on campaign with the Janissaries, becoming expert at constructing fortifications of all kinds, as well as military infrastructure projects, such as roads, bridges and aqueducts.[2] At about the age of fifty, he was appointed as chief royal architect, applying the technical skills he had acquired in the army to the "creation of fine religious buildings" and civic structures of all kinds.[2] He remained in this post for almost fifty years. His masterpiece is the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne, although his most famous work is the Suleiman Mosque in Istanbul. He headed an extensive governmental department and trained many assistants who, in turn, distinguished themselves, including Sedefkar Mehmed Agha, architect of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque. He is considered the greatest architect of the classical period of Ottoman architecture and has been compared to Michelangelo, his contemporary in the West.
wives, concubines
- In 1512, Sinan was conscripted into Ottoman service under the devshirme system. He was sent to Constantinople to be trained as an officer of the Janissary Corps and converted to Islam.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Ottoman-caliphs-often-have-Balkan-or-Caucasian-wives-but-never-Arabs-Was-there-a-particular-reason-for-this Most Arabs were Muslims and if an Ottoman sultan begat a child with a Muslim woman, her tribe/clan would also be elevated and have some degree of nobility and possibly a stake in running the empire. It could well fracture the authority of the Ottoman Sultanate for multiple families to have claims on the future of an Islamic Caliphate.
Conversely, having a Christian bear the sultan a child came with no such possibility of her family coming to lead the empire. Christians were banned from numerous positions of power, so there was no risk. Additionally, while people don’t often talk about it, there was racism in the Islamic World and while this did not manifest in different legal treatment (other than how slaves were segregated in their tasks) it did mean the lighter skin was more prized and seen as more attractive.
Rumelia (Ottoman Turkish: روم ايلى, Rūm-ėli; Modern Turkish: Rumeli; Greek: Ρωμυλία), etymologically "Land of the Romans", was the name of a historical region in Southeast Europe that was administered by the Ottoman Empire, mainly the Balkan Peninsula (the word was also used to refer to all Ottoman possessions in the Balkans). Rumelia included the provinces of Thrace, Macedonia and Moesia, today's Bulgaria and Turkish Thrace, bounded to the north by the rivers Sava and Danube, west by the Adriatic coast, and south by the Morea. In 1844, Rumelia spanned 325,805 km² – an area larger than mainland Norway. Owing to administrative changes between 1870 and 1875, the name ceased to correspond to any political division. Eastern Rumelia was constituted as an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. Today, in Turkey, the word Trakya (Thrace) has mostly replaced Rumeli (Rumelia) when referring to the part of Turkey which is in Europe (provinces of Edirne, Kırklareli, Tekirdağ, the northern part of Çanakkale Province and the western part of Istanbul Province), though Rumelia remains in use in some historical and geographic contexts.
- The Balkans were the economic, political and cultural heartland of the empire, and Anatolia never even competed in any of these sectors. The only other province of the empire that could stand with Rumeli (i.e. European Turkey) for importance would be Misr (Egypt) for its economic contribution: but it was always in a shaky - autonomous relationship with the rest of the empire (Egypt was the only province to get its own separate parliament). Meanwhile, Rumeli was the location of both imperial capitals - Edirne and Istanbul. Indeed, Egypt’s own economic ties with the empire depended on its connection with the Balkan economy, not on the Asiatic regions.The Balkans were the focus of Ottoman economic activity and manufacturing from start to finish: even during periods of economic downturn, Rumeli was generally the only region to be counted on to do reasonably well, and the governor of Rumeli (unique among provincial officials) got special honours and precedence at court. It was a post often given to the Sultan’s most trusted men, or to the “power behind the throne”.Anatolia, by contrast, was very often on bad terms with the sovereign authority. The Ottomans were a European empire, and this was reflected in the amount of attention paid to their provinces: Anatolia was typically among the worse off, and its typically unruly Turkmen, Alevi and Kurdish populations were treated at best as sources of ready manpower. At worst, they were nomadic liabilities that might tacitly support foreign powers against the state. Much of Anatolia sometimes slipped out of Imperial control, and passed under Turkish beylical families: Rumeli was under a much tighter leash, particularly the Salonika-Edirne-Constantinople axis that formed the core region of the Ottoman state.https://www.quora.com/Which-area-was-more-important-to-the-Ottoman-empire-the-Balkans-or-Anatolia
- The Vilayets (Turkish pronunciation: [vilaːˈjet]) of the Ottoman Empire were the first-order administrative division, or provinces, of the later empire, introduced with the promulgation of the Vilayet Law (Turkish: Teşkil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi) of 21 January 1867. The reform was part of the ongoing administrative reforms that were being enacted throughout the empire, and enshrined in the Imperial Edict of 1856. The reform was at first implemented experimentally in the Danube Vilayet, specially formed in 1864 and headed by the leading reformist Midhat Pasha. The reform was gradually implemented, and not until 1884 was it applied to the entirety of the Empire's provinces.The term vilayet is derived from the Arabic word wilayah or wilaya. While in Arabic, the word wilaya is used to denote a province or region or district without any specific administrative connotation, the Ottomans used it to denote a specific administrative division. The Ottoman Empire had already begun to modernize its administration and regularize its provinces (eyalets) in the 1840s, but the Vilayet Law extended this to the entire Ottoman territory, with a regularized hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, headed by a vali, was subdivided into sub-provinces (sanjak) under a mütesarrif, further into districts (kaza or liva) under a kaimakam, and into communes (nahiye) under a müdir. The vali was the representative of the Sultan in the vilayet and hence the supreme head of the administration. He was assisted by secretaries in charge of finances (defterdar), correspondence and archives (mektubci), dealings with foreigners, public works, agriculture and commerce, nominated by the respective ministers. Along with the chief justice (mufettiş-i hukkam-i Şeri'a), these officials formed the vilayet's executive council. In addition, there was an elected provincial council of four members, two Muslims and two non-Muslims. The governor of the chief sanjak (merkez sanjak), where the vilayet's capital was located, deputized for the vali in the latter's absence. A similar structure was replicated in the lower hierarchical levels, with executive and advisory councils drawn from the local administrators and—following long-established practice—the heads of the various local religious communities.
- Devshirme (Ottoman Turkish: دوشيرمه, devşirme, literally "lifting" or "collecting"), also known as the blood tax or tribute in blood,[2] was chiefly the practice where by the Ottoman Empire sent military officers to take boys, ages 8 to 18, from their families in Eastern and Southeastern Europe in order that they be raised to serve the state.[3] This tax of sons was imposed only on the Christian subjects of the empire, in the villages of the Balkans and Anatolia.[4][better source needed] The boys were then forcibly converted to Islam[5] with the primary objective of selecting and training the ablest children and teenagers for the military or civil service of the empire, notably into the Janissaries. Devshirme started in the mid 1300s under Murad I as a means to counteract the growing power of the Turkish nobility. According to Alexander Mikaberidze the practice violated Islamic law.[7] Mikaberidze argues that the boys were "effectively enslaved" under the devshirme system, and that this was a violation of the dhimmi protections guaranteed under Islamic law. This is disputed by scholars of Ottoman history, including Halil İnalcık, who argues that the devshirme were not slaves. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the practice formally came to an end. An attempt to re-institute it in 1703 was resisted by its Ottoman members who coveted its military and civilian posts. Finally in the early days of Ahmet III's reign, the practice of devshirme was abolished.
- At first, the soldiers serving in these corps were selected from the slaves captured during war. However, the system commonly known as devshirme was soon adopted. In this system children of the rural Christian populations of the Balkans were conscripted before adolescence and were brought up as Muslims. Upon reaching adolescence, these children were enrolled in one of the four imperial institutions: the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious and the Military. Those enrolled in the Military would become either part of the Janissary corps, or part of any other corps.[12] The brightest were sent to the Palace institution (Enderun), and were destined for a career within the palace itself where the most able could aspire to attain the very highest office of state, that of Grand Vizier, the Sultan's immensely powerful chief minister and military deputy.
- In a 1910 book William Ainger Wigram used the term melet in application to the Persian Sassanid Empire, arguing that the situation there was similar to the Ottoman millet system and no other term was readily available to describe it. Some other authors have also adopted this usage. The early Christians there were forming the Church of the East (later known as the Nestorian Church after the Nestorian schism). The Church of the East's leader, the Catholicos or Patriarch of the East, was responsible to the Persian king for the Christians within the Empire. This system of maintaining the Christians as a protected religious community continued after the Islamic conquest of the Sassanids, and the community of Nestorian Christians flourished and was able to send missionaries far past the Empire's borders, reaching as far as China and India.
- New millets were created in the 19th century for several Uniate and Protestant Christian communities, then for the separate Eastern Orthodox Bulgarian Church, recognized as a Bulgar Millet by an Ottoman firman in 1870 and excommunicated two years later by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as adherents of phyletism (national or ethnic principle in church organization).[citation needed] In the period before World War I there were seventeen millets within the Empire.
- Before the turn of the 19th century, the millets had a great deal of power – they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. Tanzimat reforms aimed to encourage Ottomanism among the secessionist subject nations and stop the rise of nationalist movements within the Ottoman Empire, but failed to succeed despite trying to integrate non-Muslims and non-Turks more thoroughly into the Ottoman society with new laws and regulations. With the Tanzimat era the regulation called "Regulation of the Armenian Nation" (Turkish: "Nizâmnâme−i Millet−i Ermeniyân") was introduced on 29 March 1863, over the Millet organization, which granted extensive privileges and autonomy concerning self−governance. The Armenian Nation, "Millet−i Ermeniyân", which is considered here, is the Armenian Orthodox Gregorian nation (millet) of that time. In a very short time, the Ottoman Empire passed another regulation over "Nizâmnâme−i Millet−i Ermeniyân" developed by the Patriarchate Assemblies of Armenians, which was named as the Islahat Fermânı (Firman of the Reforms). The "Firman of the Reforms" gave immense privileges to the Armenians, which formed a "governance in governance" to eliminate the aristocratic dominance of the Armenian nobles by development of the political strata in the society.[19] These two reforms, which were theoretically perfect examples of social change by law, brought serious stress over Ottoman political and administrative structure.
- The Ottoman System lost the mechanisms of its existence from the assignment of protection of citizen rights of their subjects to other states. People were not citizens of the Ottoman Empire anymore but of other states, due to the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empireto European powers, protecting the rights of their citizens within the Empire. The Russiansbecame formal Protectors of Eastern Orthodox groups, the French of Roman Catholics and the British of Jews and other groups. Russia and England competed for the Armenians; the Eastern Orthodox perceived American Protestants, who had over 100 missionaries established in Anatolia by World War I, as weakening their own teaching. These religious activities, subsidized by the governments of western nations, were not devoid of political goals, such in the case of candlestick wars of 1847, which eventually led in 1854[20] to the Crimean War.[21] Tension began among the Catholic and Orthodox monks in Palestine with France channeling resources to increase its influence in the region from 1840. Repairs to shrines were important for the sects as they were linked to the possession of keys to the temples. Notes were given by the protectorates, including the French, to the Ottoman capital about the governor; he was condemned as he had to defend the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by placing soldiers inside the temple because of the candlestick wars, eliminating the change of keys. Successive Ottoman governments had issued edicts granting primacy of access to different Christian groups which vied for control of Jerusalem's holy sites.
- Today the millet system is still used at varying degrees in some post-Ottoman countries like Iraq, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian Authority, Egypt, and Greece (for religious minorities). It is also in use in states like India, Iran, Pakistan and Bangladesh which observe the principle of separate personal courts and/or laws for every recognized religious community and reserved seats in the parliament.
- the hotel amanruya (https://www.aman.com/resorts/amanruya) in turkey has mediterranean-ottoman patrician villas in local terracotta and acajou wood
- [m&p] the ruling class consisted of army officers, senior civil servants and men of religion - the muftis and leading ulama (muslim scholars). Beneath them were the rayas (rai' yah in arabic - the flock or shepherded people), which consisted of the mass of peasant farmers and some of the craftsmen of towns. Originally the term raya applied to all subjects of a muslim ruler, but it was later limited to those non-muslims, unlike the muslims, paid the poll tax. They formed the majority of the population in empire's european provinces and provided the bulk of its revenues. They were organised into millets or self-governing communities headed by their patriarch or bishop. They lacked any political power and were not allowed to join the army or civil service, but in time they gained increasing commercial and economic influence. The muslim arabs in empire's middle eastern and north african provinces were not treated as second-class citizens in this institutional manner, but in syria/palestine and iraq an ottoman ruling class of governors and administrators was imposed upon them. The members of this ruling class not only remained turkish-speaking but also, in contrast to their mamluke predecessors, failed to put down roots where they were living. There was no turkish colonization of the land. Officials were frequently moved to other provinces of the empire (which might not be arabic-speaking) and normally expected to retire to the turkish heartland. There was no attempt to turkify non-turkish muslims, only a very small minority adopted turkish as their first language and entered the ottoman ruling class. Only a few turkish words entered their language, mostly related to army or cuisine. Mount lebanon, inhabited by maronites and druze, remained especially untouched. Ottomans recognised the lebanese emirs in their hereditary fiefs and allowed them the same autonomous privileges as they had enjoyed under the mamlukes. Hence lebanon was the only part of empire in which something similar to european feudalism flourished. Charles issawi, the noted economic historian, has suggested that this is why the lebanese alone among arabs have made a marked success of capitalism. The empire was feudal in so far as much of the best land was allocated as fiefs to ottoman military aristocracy; but only in rare cases could this land be inherited, and thus the empire never developed a european kind of feudal nobility to balance the power of the monarch. The lack of a landed aristocracy meant that the early empire was socially egalitarian. Not only muslims but also christians and jews - ex-slaves and mem of humblest birth - could riase to the highest offices of state, provided that they converted to islam. Sulaiman's grand vivizier ibrahim was born a christian greek. In egypt, an ottoman governor or pasha was appointed. Mamluke emirs were left in charge of 12 sanjaks or provinces of egypt and they enjoyed a high degree of autonomy, which enabled them to treat their territories as personal fiefs. There was constant struggle bw the pashas and mamluke aristocracy of emirs and beys. Ottoman admin and mamluke beys competed to squeeze egyptians for taxes by use of kurbaj (whip). No public works were carried out, irrigation canals stilted up and famine and disease were rampant. Egyptians look on this period as a dark age. For syria, a pasha with his court ruled from baghdad, there was little attempt to incorporate tribes into the state. Janissaries provided security.
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-Turkish-harem-really-the-way-its-portrayed-in-Western-depictions-or-was-it-a-lot-more-orderly-and-far-less-sensual-in-day-to-day-life
army
- Los jenízaros 耶尼切里军团 The Janissaries (Ottoman Turkish: يڭيچرى yeñiçeri [jeniˈtʃeɾi], meaning "new soldier") were elite infantry units that formed the Ottoman Sultan's household troops, bodyguards and the first modern standing army in Europe. The corps was most likely established during the reign of Murad I (1362–89). They began as an elite corps of slaves made up of kidnapped young Christian boys who were converted to Islam,[6] and became famed for internal cohesion cemented by strict discipline and order. Unlike typical slaves, they were paid regular salaries. Forbidden to marry or engage in trade, their complete loyalty to the Sultan was expected.[7] By the seventeenth century, due to a dramatic increase in the size of the Ottoman standing army, the corps' initially strict recruitment policy was relaxed. Civilians bought their way into it in order to benefit from the improved socioeconomic status it conferred upon them. Consequently, the corps gradually lost its military character, undergoing a process that has been described as 'civilianization'.[8] The corps was abolished by Sultan Mahmud II in 1826 in the Auspicious Incident in which 6,000 or more were executed.
- The formation of the Janissaries has been dated to the reign of Murad I (r. 1362–1389), the third ruler of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans instituted a tax of one-fifth on all slaves taken in war, and it was from this pool of manpower that the sultans first constructed the Janissary corps as a personal army loyal only to the sultan. From the 1380s to 1648, the Janissaries were gathered through the devşirme system, which was abolished in 1638.[10] This was the taking (enslaving) of non-Muslim boys,[11] notably Anatolian and Balkan Christians; Jews were never subject to devşirme, nor were children from Turkic families. According to the Encyclopedia Britannica, "in early days, all Christians were enrolled indiscriminately. Later, those from Albania, Bosnia, and Bulgaria were preferred." The Janissaries were kapıkulları (sing. kapıkulu), "door servants" or "slaves of the Porte", neither freemen nor ordinary slaves (köle).[13] They were subjected to strict discipline, but were paid salaries and pensions upon retirement and formed their own distinctive social class.[14] As such, they became one of the ruling classes of the Ottoman Empire, rivalling the Turkish aristocracy. The brightest of the Janissaries were sent to the palace institution, Enderun. Through a system of meritocracy, the Janissaries held enormous power, stopping all efforts at reform of the military.
- Portrait of a janissary, standing before an encampment; and Portrait of a Turkish guard before an encampment https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/the-rafael-valls-sale-online/follower-of-jean-baptiste-van-mour-portrait-of-a
A dragoman was an interpreter, translator, and official guide between Turkish, Arabic, and Persian-speaking countries and polities of the Middle East and Europeanembassies, consulates, vice-consulates and trading posts. A dragoman had to have a knowledge of Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and European languages. In Arabic the word is ترجمان (tarjumān), in Turkish tercüman. Deriving from the Semitic quadriliteral root t-r-g-m, it appears in Akkadian as "targumannu," in Ge'ez (Classical Ethiopic) as t-r-gw-m, and in Aramaic as targemana. Hebrew makes a distinction between מתרגם (metargem)—referring to a translator of written texts—and מתורגמן (meturgeman) referring to an interpreter of spoken conversation or speeches. The latter is obviously more closely related to the other languages mentioned, though both are derived from the same Semitic root. There has been speculation of a Hittite origin of the term (Salonen, p. 12; Rabin, pp. 134–136). During the Middle Ages the word entered European languages: in Middle English as dragman, from Old French drugeman, from Medieval Latin as dragumannus, from Middle Greek δραγομάνος, dragoumanos. Later European variants include the German trutzelmann, the French trucheman or truchement (in modern French it is drogman), the Italian turcimanno, and the Spanish trujamán, trujimán and truchimán; these variants point to a Turkish or Arabic word "turjuman", with different vocalization. Webster's Dictionary of 1828 lists dragoman as well as the variants drogman and truchman in English. Consequently, the plural, in English, is "dragomans" (not "dragomen"). The family name of Franjo Tudjman, the first post-Communist President of Croatia, indicates that one of his ancestors might have been a dragoman.
- cyprus
- the office of dragoman was introduced in cyprus at the start of ottoman rule and was abolished in 1821 with the greek revolution. Dragomans acted as liaisons between the pasha and the occupied population and were the most important political figures after the pasha. During the first years of the ottoman rule the dragoman were foreigners or greek speaking franks and later on orthodox greek cypriots.
- Hadijgeorgakis kornesios was the most prominent of all the dragomans of cyprus.
- the house of hadjigeorgakis kornesios - ethnological museum (18th c building) was once his residence
- christofakis konstantinou built the agios georgios arperas church, cyprus in 1745 and has a fresco depicting himself and his family as founders. The church contains many icons signed by painter loannikios
language
- diplomatic
- https://www.quora.com/Greek-was-used-as-a-diplomatic-language-by-the-Ottomans-in-the-early-16th-century-When-did-it-lose-its-prominence-in-the-imperial-court Greek wasn’t a prominent diplomatic language in Ottoman, Persian was especially in relations with Eastern states, such as Safavis, Babur Empire…etc. Yet Greek was used because considerable amount of Greeks were employed as translators (dragoman) in Ottoman bureaucracy especially in diplomatic relations with the West. Dragoman (translator) positions mostly held by Greek people until 19th century. So it is safe to speculate until than language preserved its presence at some degree. However after establishment of Greece in 1821, Greek subjects of the empire no longer considered trustworthy enough to hold these important positions. So they were replaced by other people therefore Greek no longer used in Ottoman bureaucracy.
Classes
- Çavuş, also anglicized Chaush and Chiaus (from Turkish: çavuş, "messenger") was an Ottoman title used for two separate soldier professions, both acting as messengers although differing in levels.[2] It was a rank below agha and kethüda in units such as the Janissaries and Sipahi, and was also a term for members of the specialized unit of çavuşān (also çavuşiyye,[3] çavuş(an)-i divan(i)[2]) consisting of combined cavalry and infantry serving the Imperial Council (as in Ottoman Egypt).[3] The leaders of the council's çavuş were titled çavuşbaşı (or başçavuş).[4] The çavuşbaşı was an assistant (or deputy) to the Grand Vizier,[5]dealing with security matters,[6] accompanying ambassadors visiting the Grand Vizier,[2] and also carried out the first examination of petitions submitted to the Council, and led council meetings when the Grand Vizier was not present.[6] The title has its origin in Uyghur use, where it was the title of ambassadors, and then entered Seljuq use for Byzantine imperial messengers, and Persian and Arabic use for various court attendants. The word gave rise to surnames, such as Çavuş (Turkish), Çavuşoğlu (Turkish),[7] Čaušević (Serbo-Croatian),[8] Čaušić (Serbo-Croatian),[9] Baščaušević (Serbo-Croatian),[10] Çaushaj (Albanian), Ceaușu (Romanian), Ceaușescu (Romanian), and others. It is also the stem of place names, such as Çavuş (in Turkey), Çavuşlu (in Turkey), Çavuşlar (in Turkey), Çavuşköy (in Turkey), Çavuşbayırı (in Turkey), Čauševac (in Bosnia),[11] Čauševići (in Bosnia[12] and Serbia), Čaušev Do (in Bosnia), Čauševina (in Bosnia),[10] Čaušlije (in Bosnia),[10] Čaušlija (in Macedonia), Çaushi (in Albania), and others. In the past in former Yugoslavia, the word čauš was also sometimes applied to the wedding-planner.
- A rayah or reaya (from Arabic: رعايا ra`aya, a plural of رعيّة ra`iya "flock, subject", also spelled raya, raja, raiah, re'aya; Ottoman Turkish رعايا [ɾeˈʔaːjeː]; Modern Turkish râya [ɾaːˈja] or reaya) was a member of the tax-paying lower class of Ottoman society, in contrast to the askeri(upper class) and kul (slaves). The rayah made up over 90% of the general population and the millet communities. In the Muslim world, rayah is literally subject of a government or sovereign. The rayah (literally 'members of the flock') included Christians, Muslims, and Jews who were 'shorn' (i.e. taxed) to support the state and the associated 'professional Ottoman' class. However, both in contemporaneous and in modern usage, it refers to non-Muslim subjects in particular, also called zimmi.[2][3][4] The word is sometimes mistranslated as 'cattle' rather than 'flock' or 'subjects' to emphasize the inferior status of the rayah. In the early Ottoman Empire, rayah were not eligible for military service, but from the late 16th century, Muslim rayah became eligible, to the distress of some of the ruling class.
- An odalisque (Turkish: Odalık) was a chambermaid or a female attendant in a Turkish seraglio, particularly the court ladies in the household of the Ottoman sultan. The word "odalisque" is French in form and originates from the Turkish odalık, meaning "chambermaid", from oda, "chamber" or "room". It can also be transliterated odahlic, odalisk, and odaliq.
Joan DelPlato has described the term's shift in meaning from Turkish to English and French:
An odalisque was not a concubine of the harem, but a maid, although it was possible that she could become one. An odalık was ranked at the bottom of the social stratification of a harem, serving not the man of the household, but rather, his concubines and wives as personal chambermaids. Odalık were usually slaves given as gifts to the sultan by wealthy Turkish men. Generally, an odalık was never seen by the sultan but instead remained under the direct supervision of his mother, the Valide Sultan. If an odalık was of extraordinary beauty or had exceptional talents in dancing or singing, she would be trained as a possible concubine. If selected, an odalık trained as a court lady would serve the sultan sexually and only after such sexual contact would she change in status, becoming thenceforth one of the consorts of the sultan. In contrast to European depictions of nude harem women, they more often wore androgynous robes resembling those worn by the male pages of the palace. The conditions of the Ottoman harem "resembled a monastery for young girls more than the bordello of European imagination."
- W. S. Gilbert refers to the "Grace of an odalisque on a divan" in Colonel Calverley's song "If You Want A Receipt For That Popular Mystery" from the Gilbert and Sullivan opera Patience.
- During the 19th century, odalisques became common fantasy figures in the artistic movement known as Orientalism, being featured in many erotic paintings from that era.
race of ruling class, elite
- ******The Ottoman Empire was founded by the son of Ertugrul, named Ataman (English Ottoman/ Arabic Osman), who was Turkish and his supporters were Turkish. The women of the Sultan’s harem though were all slaves, and it was forbidden to enslave Muslims, they were largely from the Caucasus but also the Balkans, Ukraine and even at least one French lady. Therefore generation after generation the royal family became less and less biologically Turkish. Meanwhile the women of the Sultan’s Harem were not the only slaves, there was a thing called the Devshirme, where a ‘tithe’ of young male children were collected across the Balkans. The best and brightest were chosen and given an education and they held many, in fact, most important administrative positions in the State and often established Vakifs (foundations) to support their families across the generations. The majority of the slave boys though were sent out as farm workers and ‘Turkified’ and then become the Imperial army, the Janissaries. Together this means that very few people in the ruling class or army of the Ottoman Empire had any significant amount of Turkish genetic ancestry. To this you can add general converts, particularly in Anatolia and the Balkans,
Effectively the ‘core ethnicity’ of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish speaking, as a first or second language, Sunni Muslim, with some heterodox Shia Alevis, and a blending of Balkan, Anatolian and Turkish ancestory. And to be honest the Ottomans didn’t care all that much about ethnicity - Sunni Muslims were the key ‘class’ and the Anatolian and Balkan Turkish and Turkified Muslims shared a common cultural continuum ranging from food to music and dance. The Arabs were largely Sunni Muslim so they fit into the ‘caste’ of the Sunni Muslim elite - but there was a definite sense that the Empire ‘belonged’ to the mixed continuum of Turkic influenced mixed ethnicity Anatolian and Balkan population.https://www.quora.com/Were-the-Ottomans-really-Turkish-or-were-Turks-the-biggest-group-under-the-hegemony-of-the-Ottoman-dynasty-in-a-class-beneath-the-Arabs
history- territory
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-reason-the-Ottomans-pretty-much-had-the-exact-same-territorial-footprint-as-the-Byzantine-s "Ottoman dream" was a Mediterranean Empire just like Roman Empire. Everybody thinks Ottomans invaded Europe because of "Jihad" but no. Ottomans used Jihad to stop hostile Turkish tribes and then they united them.First they took Constantinople and made their state an Empire.Then they invaded Italy and took Otranto. But when Emperor died they had to go back.Then they marched into Vienna because they couldn't invade Italy from sea again.If they could get these lands, next conquest would be Iberia. Full control of Mediterranean, succesor of Rome.
- education
- https://www.quora.com/How-is-Ottoman-Empire-seen-or-told-in-Arab-countries-and-their-history-books
ethnic groups
- https://www.quora.com/Why-do-Greek-Cypriots-call-themselves-Greek-if-they-do-not-want-to-be-a-part-of-Greece-Arent-people-from-Greece-called-Greeks note the map showing the distribution of ethnic population
jews
- sephardi
- http://www.farhi.org/genealogy/index.html This site contains the genealogy of the major sephardi families from the Ottoman Empire and beyond, documents as submitted by members of the Fleurs de l'Orient, a bibliography list, links to other genealogy websites. The genealogy databases include all families that are related to them by marriage regardless of their country of origin & religion. Each additional branch is listed with its own ancestors and descendants.
christians
- harry oscar odell http://www.farhi.org/wc78/wc78_295.htm
- 歐德禮是璇宮戲院（皇都前身）創辦人，致力為港引入國際級音樂表演，60年代The Beatles訪港亦由他促成。他的80多歲媳婦Molly Odell應邀由美國回港探望前人心血結晶，她憶述歐以港為家，醉心娛樂事業，惟港人對他認識不多，最驚訝是戲院竟逃過清拆，屹立逾半世紀，盼保育戲院，讓瑰寶留給下一代。早前團體「活現香港」在網頁上載一幀Molly與歌手張敬軒在他寓所薄扶林百年大宅Old Alberose的合照引起不少迴響。原來大宅正是歐德禮（Harry Odell）舊居，Molly曾與丈夫David Odell（歐的三子）同住大宅內，一幢古宅連繫兩代演藝人。將87歲Molly帶回港的，還有這幢67歲的一級歷史建築皇都戲院，Molly早前探訪「老朋友」，感覺既熟悉又陌生。她在1949年嫁入Odell家族，歐德禮於52年創辦皇都前身璇宮戲院，開幕時她剛巧不在港，但形容當時對整個家族來說一件重要的事https://hk.news.appledaily.com/local/daily/article/20190202/20604920, see also http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200715/PDF/b6_screen.pdf
- 新世界發展於2018年就北角皇都戲院大廈申請強拍令，土地審裁處昨批出項目的強拍令，意味着新世界可統一業權進行重建，底價47.76億元，成為本港歷來最大金額的強拍紀錄，當中包括屹立北角約68年，因獨特的飛拱建築特色獲古物諮詢委員會列為一級歷史建築的前皇都戲院。資料顯示，陸海通陳氏家族以 HONG KONG ENTERPRISES LTD 在1958年以約150萬元一籃子購入項目的戲院及商舖部分，持貨61年易手賬面賺約7.355億元，物業升值約490倍。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/08/25/b02-0825.pdf
- 一九三三年，香港第一代音樂 廳的皇家劇院，隨着舊大會堂讓路給 滙豐銀行總行而拆卸。自此所有演藝 活動在戲院、酒店、學校以至教堂舉 行。戰後百廢待興，在香港文化沙漠 綻開的第一棵綠蔭，正是一九五二年 的璇宮戲院，揭幕後引來一眾音樂、 芭蕾、話劇等國際頂級演藝家及團體 登台演出，也成為香港著名必到景點 。一九五四年奧斯卡最佳男主角威廉 ‧荷頓到訪璇宮，翌年再度來港拍攝 講述韓素音戀愛故事的著名電影《生 死戀》。 一九五九年大年初一改名為皇 都戲院之前的璇宮時期，那五、六年 的光景是該院的黃金歲月。它不但是 香港只此一家的高雅文化殿堂，為中 西表演藝術提供平台，也帶出一系列 文化活動。例如一九五五年四月首屆 藝術節，中英樂團（即香港管弦樂團 的前身）、戲劇等都在璇宮演出。該 一年一度的藝術節是為了正填海興建 的大會堂作前期準備，培養藝術氛圍 、聽眾，發展購票、推廣等軟件。璇 宮所扮演文化先行者角色，為一九六 二年開幕的大會堂提供不可多得的藝 術實踐，功德無量。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20201102/PDF/b3_screen.pdf
- The Holy League (Latin: Liga Sancta, Spanish: Liga Santa, Italian: Lega Santa) of 1571 was arranged by Pope Pius V and included the major Catholic maritime states in the Mediterranean except France. It was intended to break the Ottoman Empire’s control of the eastern Mediterranean Sea and was formally concluded on 25 May 1571. Its members were:
- the Papal States under Pius V,
- Habsburg Spain under Philip II (including Naples and Sicily),
- the Republic of Venice,
- the Republic of Genoa,
- the Knights of Malta,
- the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Order of Saint Stephen under Cosimo I de' Medici,
- the Duchy of Savoy under Emmanuel Philibert,
- the Duchy of Urbino under Guidobaldo II della Rovere,
- the Duchy of Parma under Ottavio Farnese.[citation needed]
- The Holy League (Latin: Sacra Ligua) of 1684 was an alliance organized by Pope Innocent XI to oppose the Ottoman Empire in the Great Turkish War. The League's initial members were the Papal States, the Holy Roman Empire under Habsburg Emperor Leopold I, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of John III Sobieski, and the Venetian Republic; the Tsardom of Russia joined the League in 1686. The alliance lasted until the Treaty of Karlowitz brought an end to the war in 1699. Pope Innocent was aided by Capuchin Friar Marco d'Aviano during the formation of the League, and the Friar was prominent in defending Vienna. The events to the League's creation and the 1683 Battle of Vienna.
- The Great Turkish War (German: Großer Türkenkrieg) or the War of the Holy League (Turkish: Kutsal İttifak Savaşları) was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League consisting of the Habsburg Monarchy, Poland-Lithuania, Venice and Russia. Intensive fighting began in 1683 and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. The war was a defeat for the Ottoman Empire, which for the first time lost large amounts of territory. It lost lands in Hungary and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, as well as part of the western Balkans. The war was also significant in that it marked the first time Russia was involved in a western European alliance.On September 11, 1697, the Battle of Zenta was fought just south of the then-Ottoman city of Zenta. During the battle, Habsburg Imperial forces routed the Ottoman forces while the Ottomans were crossing the Tisa River (which is near the city). This resulted in the Habsburg forces killing over 30,000 Ottomans and dispersing the rest. This crippling defeat was the ultimate factor of the Ottoman Empire signing the Treaty of Karlowitz on January 22, 1699, ending the Great Turkish War. This treaty resulted in the transfer of most of Ottoman Hungary to the Habsburgs, and prompted the Ottomans to adopt a more defensive military policy in the following century.
arabs
- history
[m&p] In arab speaking provinces of middle east and north africa, where muslims were the great majority, turkish leadership of muslim umma or nation was accepted. The most notable exception was in middle of 18thc in nejd, where religious reformer muhammad ibn abd al walhab spreading essential doctrine of tawhid or uniqueness of god , calling for a return to purity of early islam. He formed alliance with a local tribal dynasty house of saud. Selim iii became sultan in 1789 (year of outbreak of french revolution), he had been conducting secret correspondence with king louis xvi before the revolution. He imported french instructors into his new military and naval schools, where french was made a compulsory subject. He advocated election of own mayors and councillors, ending illegal extortion and tax-farming. His reforms did not extend to arab provinces of the empire, where power was largely in hands of local rulers. Damascus for most of 18thc was ruled by governors of azm family; sidon district was governed by a ruthless bosnian ahmad al-hazzar and his band of mamlukes. They controlled the janissaries and kept the predatory bedouin at bay. While cities prospered, peasant farmers in countryside were squeezed for taxes. Agriculture flourished only in mountainous areas controlled by local maronite and druze emirs.
- The Arab Congress of 1913 (also known as the "Arab National Congress,[1]" "First Palestinian Conference," the "First Arab Congress," and the "Arab-Syrian Congress") met in a hall of the French Geographical Society (Société de Géographie) at 184 Boulevard Saint-Germain, Paris from June 18–23 in Paris to discuss reforms to grant the Arabs living under the Ottoman Empire more autonomy. The Arab National Congress, was established by 25 official Arab Nationalists delegates to discuss desired reforms to grant Arabs more autonomy under the Ottoman Empire. It took place at a time of uncertainty and change in the Ottoman Empire: in the years leading up to World War I, the Empire had undergone a revolution (1908) and a coup (1913) by the Young Turks, and had been defeated in two wars against Italy and the Balkan states. The Arabs were agitating for more rights under the fading empire and early glimmers of Arab nationalism were emerging. A number of dissenting and reform-oriented groups formed in Greater Syria, Palestine, Constantinople, and Egypt. Under Zionist influence, Jewish immigration to Palestine was increasing, and England and France were expressing interest in the region, competing for spheres of influence.
armenians
- As the Ottoman Empire suffered its first losses in the First World War, the “Young Turk” government rounded up intellectuals and political leaders from its Christian Armenian minority. It then went one step further - ordering the community’s expulsion from Anatolia to Syria. Across eastern Turkey, long columns of Armenians were ambushed by soldiers and Kurdish gangs, who slaughtered them by the hundreds of thousand. Instructions from provincial Ottoman officials, notably the governor of Diyarbakir province Mehmed Reshid, gave impunity to the attackers, many of whom plundered and looted Armenian property.
The killings were carried out under the glare of international publicity, including from missionaries - America was yet to join the war, and dramatic witness accounts of hundreds of people being killed, or even burned alive, appeared in the western press. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/armenia/11559779/Armenian-massacres-What-happened-during-the-genocide-and-why-does-Turkey-deny-it.html With onslaught of World War I, the Ottoman Empire and Russian Empire engaged during the Caucasus and Persian Campaigns, and the CUP began to look on the Armenians with distrust and suspicion. This was due to the fact that the Russian army contained a contingent of Armenian volunteers. On 24 April 1915, Armenian intellectuals were arrested by Ottoman authorities and, with the Tehcir Law (29 May 1915), eventually a large proportion of Armenians living in Western Armenia perished in what has become known as the Armenian Genocide. There was local Armenian resistance in the region, developed against the activities of the Ottoman Empire. The events of 1915 to 1917 are regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians and even some Turkish writers and historians like Taner Akçam and Orhan Pamuk to have been state-sponsored and planned mass killings, or genocide.
- Since 2010, after decades of frenzied denial, the tragedy has been publicly commemorated in Turkey as well. Today in Istanbul, where the bulk of Turkey’s shrunken Armenian population, numbering around 60,000, resides, small crowds gathered to honor the dead at organized events. They carried black banners reading, “Armenian Genocide: Recognize, Apologize, Compensate.”Read more: http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/04/armenian-genocide-anniversary-erdogan.html#ixzz4fFaAjzSD
- French presidential hopeful Emmanuel Macron has marked the 102nd anniversary of the mass killings of Armenians by Ottoman Turks in a brief ceremony in Paris. http://www.euronews.com/2017/04/24/macron-vows-to-fight-on-for-armenians
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Ottomans-decide-to-wipe-out-Armenians-who-have-been-their-more-loyal-minority
france
- [m&p] In 1798 napoleon bonaparte marched up nile and defeated the mamluke army at the battle of pyramids. The two ottoman-appointed mamluke beys fled to upper egypt. This marked first non-muslim invasion of heartlands of islam since the time of crusades. Bonaparte went out his way to show his respect for islam, trying to convince egyptians that his quarrel was not with the ottoman sultan but with the mamlukes, from whose tyranny had come to deliver them. He treated the egyptian shaikhs and notables as political leaders, appointing them to diwans or councils to administer large cities, with a french commissary as chairman and adviser. It was an enlightened form of indirect colonial rule. Al-jabarti, sheikh of al-azhar and a historian, described it as beginning of reversal of natural order. He was alarmed by the promotion of christian copts and greeks as officials and tax collectors, and training of christians for the army. Claim by french to uphold the authority of sultan was not believed.
portugal
- Once the Ottomans took over Egypt in 1517, they gained control of the Red Sea, and not long after that they conquered Mesopotamia, giving them access to the Persian Gulf. Both of those connected them to the Indian Ocean, which means the Portuguese were sailing through their back yard. What followed in the middle of the 16th century was a series of conflicts between the Ottomans and the Portuguese, with a number of allies on each side (Goa, Ethiopia, Persia, Hormuz, etc.).These wars eventually ended in something like stalemate. While control of allied territories went back and forth, the Ottomans could never score decisive victories over the Portuguese at sea, which the Portuguese were never able to make any inroads into the Ottoman empire proper. Ultimately, both sides backed off from direct conflict. The Ottomans retained control over land routes through the Middle East, while the Portuguese were able to continue their sea trade around Africa.https://www.quora.com/Why-didnt-the-Ottoman-Empire-stop-Portuguese-trade-with-the-Far-East
safavid empire
- The Battle of Chaldiran (Persian: جنگ چالدران; Turkish: Çaldıran Muharebesi) took place on 23 August 1514 and ended with a decisive victory for the Ottoman Empire over the Safavid Empire. As a result, the Ottomans annexed eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq from Safavid Iran. It marked the first Ottoman expansion into eastern Anatolia, and the halt of the Safavid expansion to the west. Despite the Iranians briefly reconquering the area over the course of the centuries, the battle marked the first event that would eventually, through many wars and treaties later, lead to its permanent conquest, until the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire centuries later. By the Chaldiran war the Ottomans also gained temporary control of northwestern Iran. The battle, however, was just the beginning of 41 years of destructive war, which only ended in 1555 with the Treaty of Amasya. Though Mesopotamia and Eastern Anatolia (Western Armenia) were eventually taken back by the Safavids under the reign of king Abbas I (r. 1588–1629), they would be permanently lost to the Ottomans by the 1639 Treaty of Zuhab.The battle is one of major historical importance because it not only negated the idea that the Murshid of the Shia-Qizilbash was infallible, but it also fully defined the Ottoman-Safavid borders with the Ottomans gaining northwestern Iran, and led Kurdishchiefs to assert their authority and switch their allegiance from the Safavids to the Ottomans.
persia
- The Ottoman–Persian War of 1743–1746 was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Afsharid dynasty of Iran. Persia attempted to ratify the Treaty of Constantinople (1736), by demanding that the Ja'fari, also known as the Imamiyyah was to be accepted as a fifth legal sect of Islam. In 1743, Nader Shah declared war on the Ottoman Empire. He demanded the surrender of Baghdad. The Persians had captured Baghdad in 1623 and Mosul in 1624, but the Ottomans had recaptured Mosul in 1625 and Bagdad in 1638. The Treaty of Zuhab in 1639 between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empirehad resulted in peace for 85 years. After the fall of the Safavid Dynasty, Russia and the Ottoman Empire agreed to divide the northwest and the Caspian region of Persia, but with the advent of Nader Shah, the Russians and the Turks withdrew from the region. Nader Shah waged war against the Ottomans from 1730 to 1736 but it ended with a stalemate. Nader Shah afterwards turned east and declared war on the Moghul Empire and invaded India, in order to refund his wars against the Ottomans. In 1746 peace was made. The boundaries were unchanged and Baghdad remained in Ottoman hands. Nader Shah dropped his demand for Ja'fari recognition. The Porte was pleased and dispatched an ambassador but before he could arrive, Nader Shah was assassinated by his own officers.
- The Ottoman–Persian War of 1775–1776 was fought between the Ottoman Empire and the Zand dynasty of Persia. The Persians, ruled by Karim Khan and led by his brother Sadeq Khan Zand, invaded southern Iraq and after besieging Basra for a year, took the city from the Ottomans in 1776. The Ottomans, unable to send troops, were dependent on the Mamluk governors to defend that region.In an attempt to raise troops and provisions for this war, Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid I, made Suleiman al-Jalili mubayaaci (official of provisions), ordering him to send provisions to Baghdad, which he ignored, instead he restricted merchants from selling their goods. As a result, the Persians held Basra until 1779 when the Ottomans, under Sulayman Agha, retook the city, following Karim Khan's death.
- During the Persian siege of Basra in 1775–79, Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and were partly instrumental in the expansion of Kuwait's boat-building and trading activities. As a result, Kuwait's maritime commerce boomed, as the Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo, Smyrna and Constantinople were diverted to Kuwait during this time. The East India Company was diverted to Kuwait in 1792. The East India Company secured the sea routes between Kuwait, India and the east coasts of Africa. After the Persians withdrew from Basra in 1779, Kuwait continued to attract trade away from Basra.
- After the final fall of Constantinople in 1453, Greece fell into Ottoman hands and was ruled by Ottoman sultans until the early 1800s. By 1460, Byzantine rule (as in rule by the families who formerly ran the Empire) was no more, with some of the remaining family members joining the Sultanate. The Eastern Christians either fled to the West, moved to the mountains or remained depending on their status and wherewithal. Given that Greece was the Byzantine homeland, most stayed on as vassals of their Ottoman rulers. Many Greeks thrived under the new empire, becoming great mariners and traders. The Sultanate was very tolerant of the Greek Orthodox Church, and they were awarded the protection of the sultans. So in some ways, life as usual for most of the peasantry and ordinary people; the former rulers of Byzantine, not so much.https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-Byzantines-after-the-fall-of-their-empire
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Byzantine-empire-evolve-into-the-Ottoman-Empire
- https://www.quora.com/How-close-was-the-Ottoman-Empire-to-conquering-Europe
- **********https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Byzantine-Serbs-and-Bulgars-fail-to-take-advantage-of-the-Ottoman-Interregnum-to-eliminate-the-Turkish-threat-altogether-and-recover-all-their-lost-territories The Byzantines, Serb and Bulgarians all took advantage of the Ottoman defeat in the Battle of Ankara on 20 June 1402 and the Ottoman Interregnum that followed. They were not the only ones to do so. Many of the other Christian kingdoms of Europe also took advantage of the Ottoman defeat. However, they were unable to push the Ottomans completely out of the Balkans. No real attempt was made for such a move, as it had little chance of success. The Byzantine Empire actually did take advantage of the Ottoman defeat. This came in the form of the Treaty of Gallipoli signed in early 1403. In this treaty, the Ottomans had to make major concessions to the Christian powers. The Byzantine Empire was not the only one to take advantage of the weak Ottoman position in Europe. The participants of this treaty were Süleyman Çelebi, Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos (and his regent John VII Palaiologos), the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice.As mentioned before, the Ottoman prince Süleyman had to make major concessions to these powers. The reason for this was that he was in a weak position and surrounded by threats. Not to mention that he was engaged in a succession war over the Ottoman throne against his brothers.The Ottoman prince had to make true peace with many of the Christian powers. These being the Byzantine Empire, the Venetians, the Genoese, the Knights Hospitallers and some of their allies. He even referred to the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II Palaiologos as his father, which indicates an acceptance of his superiority. This must have been a hard pill for the Ottoman prince to swallow. Many of the coastal regions of the European side of Ottoman holdings were returned to the Byzantine Empire. Some territories were to be given to the Republic of Genoa and Venice. The Byzantine were allowed to build fortresses as and where they chose once more. Some of the forts on the Anatolian coast were returned as well. Tribute payments were halted. The Venetians and Genoese managed to get themselves better trading deals with the Ottomans.A very interesting clause of this treaty was that in the event of an attack on Constantinople by Timur, the Ottoman prince Suleiman would join in an alliance for its defense. This shows us that while the Christian powers may have considered the Ottomans as a threat, they were terrified of an invasion by Timur.The Byzantines would take part in this decade long succession conflict between the Ottoman princes by playing the different sides. The Treaty of Gallipoli was re-confirmed by Mehmed after he won the succession war in 1413. This would be followed by the Ottomans till his death in 1421.The Byzantine Emperor tried to interfere with the Ottoman succession upon the death of Sultan Mehmed I. This was to gain further concessions and territory from their chosen Ottoman prince, Mustafa. However, this badly backfired. Sultan Murad II took the throne and punished the Byzantine Empire for their actions against him and the interference into Ottoman affairs. Most of the gains made in the Treaty of Gallipoli were lost by the declining Byzantine empire.
greeks
- https://www.quora.com/What-role-did-Greeks-play-within-the-Ottoman-Empire-To-what-extent-were-they-influential
- Giorgos or George Seferis (/səˈfɛrɪs/; Greek: Γιώργος Σεφέρης [ˈʝorɣos seˈferis]), the pen name of Georgios Seferiades(Γεώργιος Σεφεριάδης; March 13 [O.S. February 29] 1900 – September 20, 1971), was a Greek poet-diplomat. He was one of the most important Greek poets of the 20th century, and a Nobel laureate. He was a career diplomat in the Greek Foreign Service, culminating in his appointment as Ambassador to the UK, a post which he held from 1957 to 1962.Seferis was born in Vourla near Smyrna in Asia Minor, Ottoman Empire (now İzmir, Turkey). His father, Stelios Seferiadis, was a lawyer, and later a professor at the University of Athens, as well as a poet and translator in his own right. He was also a staunch Venizelist and a supporter of the demotic Greek language over the formal, official language (katharevousa). Both of these attitudes influenced his son. In 1914 the family moved to Athens, where Seferis completed his secondary school education. He continued his studies in Paris from 1918 to 1925, studying law at the Sorbonne. While he was there, in September 1922, Smyrna/Izmir was taken by the Turkish Army after a two-year Greek military campaign on Anatolian soil. Many Greeks, including Seferis' family, fled from Asia Minor. Seferis would not visit Smyrna again until 1950; the sense of being an exile from his childhood home would inform much of Seferis' poetry, showing itself particularly in his interest in the story of Odysseus. Seferis was also greatly influenced by Kavafis, T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound. He returned to Athens in 1925 and was admitted to the Royal Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the following year. This was the beginning of a long and successful diplomatic career, during which he held posts in England (1931–1934) and Albania (1936–1938). He married Maria Zannou ('Maro') on April 10, 1941 on the eve of the German invasion of Greece. During the Second World War, Seferis accompanied the Free Greek Government in exile to Crete, Egypt, South Africa, and Italy, and returned to liberated Athens in 1944. He continued to serve in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and held diplomatic posts in Ankara, Turkey (1948–1950) and London (1951–1953). He was appointed minister to Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq (1953–1956), and was Royal Greek Ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1961, the last post before his retirement in Athens. Seferis received many honours and prizes, among them honorary doctoral degrees from the universities of Cambridge (1960), Oxford (1964), Thessaloniki (1964), and Princeton (1965). In 1936, Seferis published a translation of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land.
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Greek-people-make-a-mistake-in-separating-from-the-Ottoman-Empire-as-stated-by-Prof-Dimitri-Kitsikis
saudi arabia
greeks
- https://www.quora.com/What-role-did-Greeks-play-within-the-Ottoman-Empire-To-what-extent-were-they-influential
- Giorgos or George Seferis (/səˈfɛrɪs/; Greek: Γιώργος Σεφέρης [ˈʝorɣos seˈferis]), the pen name of Georgios Seferiades(Γεώργιος Σεφεριάδης; March 13 [O.S. February 29] 1900 – September 20, 1971), was a Greek poet-diplomat. He was one of the most important Greek poets of the 20th century, and a Nobel laureate. He was a career diplomat in the Greek Foreign Service, culminating in his appointment as Ambassador to the UK, a post which he held from 1957 to 1962.Seferis was born in Vourla near Smyrna in Asia Minor, Ottoman Empire (now İzmir, Turkey). His father, Stelios Seferiadis, was a lawyer, and later a professor at the University of Athens, as well as a poet and translator in his own right. He was also a staunch Venizelist and a supporter of the demotic Greek language over the formal, official language (katharevousa). Both of these attitudes influenced his son. In 1914 the family moved to Athens, where Seferis completed his secondary school education. He continued his studies in Paris from 1918 to 1925, studying law at the Sorbonne. While he was there, in September 1922, Smyrna/Izmir was taken by the Turkish Army after a two-year Greek military campaign on Anatolian soil. Many Greeks, including Seferis' family, fled from Asia Minor. Seferis would not visit Smyrna again until 1950; the sense of being an exile from his childhood home would inform much of Seferis' poetry, showing itself particularly in his interest in the story of Odysseus. Seferis was also greatly influenced by Kavafis, T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound. He returned to Athens in 1925 and was admitted to the Royal Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the following year. This was the beginning of a long and successful diplomatic career, during which he held posts in England (1931–1934) and Albania (1936–1938). He married Maria Zannou ('Maro') on April 10, 1941 on the eve of the German invasion of Greece. During the Second World War, Seferis accompanied the Free Greek Government in exile to Crete, Egypt, South Africa, and Italy, and returned to liberated Athens in 1944. He continued to serve in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and held diplomatic posts in Ankara, Turkey (1948–1950) and London (1951–1953). He was appointed minister to Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq (1953–1956), and was Royal Greek Ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1961, the last post before his retirement in Athens. Seferis received many honours and prizes, among them honorary doctoral degrees from the universities of Cambridge (1960), Oxford (1964), Thessaloniki (1964), and Princeton (1965). In 1936, Seferis published a translation of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land.
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Greek-people-make-a-mistake-in-separating-from-the-Ottoman-Empire-as-stated-by-Prof-Dimitri-Kitsikis
saudi arabia
- The land, which is now called ‘Saudi Arabia’ contains the Muslim’s two holiest cities: Mecca and Medina. Therefore, this land was viewed as sacred for the Ottoman Turks. To give you context I will give you a historical fact from one of the most important Ottoman sultans and officially the first caliph of the Ottoman reign; Yavuz Sultan Selim Khan (May God have mercy on his soul). After Sultan Selim’s conquest of Egypt and Syria, defeating the Mamluks (another Turco-Islamic empire that held the title of caliph at the time). He was on his journey back to the capital of the Ottomans (Istanbul) basking in his new found glory, Sultan Selim entered the city of Aleppo and was announced as the new ruler of Mecca and Medina by an Imam at a mosque in those lands. Sultan Selim objected and corrected the Imam and istated the following ‘Seek refuge in God and correct your statement, I am only a mere servant to these holy lands not a ruler’. The Sultan’s that succeeded him continued Sultan Selim’s legacy as the ‘Servants of the two holy cities’ and never claimed to be the ‘rulers’ of this sacred land.So in a political sense these lands were controlled by the Ottoman Sultans/Caliphs but they never found it appropriate to declare themselves as the rulers but only servants to the lands that held the Kaaba and Al Masjid an Nabawi (Prophet Muhammad PBUH’s mosque). This showed their sensitivity towards their religion and is a major factor for their long reign as the Caliphs of the Muslim ummah.https://www.quora.com/Did-Sunni-Ottoman-Turks-rule-Saudi-Arabia-before-Al-Saud-s-family-How-was-the-rule-under-Ottoman-Turks
africa
africa
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Ottoman-Empire-never-conquer-and-explore-the-entire-African-continent-as-a-reaction-to-the-Western-world-conquering-the-America
legacy
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Ottoman-empire-contribute-to-civilization-in-any-way Charity Foundations started with the Ottomans.Cannons were invented by the Ottomans.Alms stones. Invented by the Ottomans so that the giver and the taker would not see each other.Bird Homes on the walls of buildings.Public baths so that people would wash themselves in running water not still water which was considered filthy.Assyliums where the patients were treated with music and comfort.Ayran invented by the Turks is the healtiest drink so far.Vaccination against smallpox was invented by the Ottoman.
legacy
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Ottoman-empire-contribute-to-civilization-in-any-way Charity Foundations started with the Ottomans.Cannons were invented by the Ottomans.Alms stones. Invented by the Ottomans so that the giver and the taker would not see each other.Bird Homes on the walls of buildings.Public baths so that people would wash themselves in running water not still water which was considered filthy.Assyliums where the patients were treated with music and comfort.Ayran invented by the Turks is the healtiest drink so far.Vaccination against smallpox was invented by the Ottoman.
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Ottomans-do-anything-good-or-did-they-invent-anything-useful-How-beneficial-was-the-Ottoman-Empire-to-the-world
trivial
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-creepy-facts-about-the-Ottoman-Empire
- https://www.quora.com/What-land-would-the-Ottoman-Empire-get-had-the-Central-Powers-won
- https://www.quora.com/How-do-we-know-that-the-Ottoman-Empire-was-not-a-continuation-of-the-Roman-Empire
trivial
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-creepy-facts-about-the-Ottoman-Empire
- https://www.quora.com/What-land-would-the-Ottoman-Empire-get-had-the-Central-Powers-won
- https://www.quora.com/How-do-we-know-that-the-Ottoman-Empire-was-not-a-continuation-of-the-Roman-Empire
- https://www.quora.com/Why-were-the-Ottomans-such-successful-conquerors The Ottomans had one thing most imperial people do not.They had the foresight to know they were not administrators.The Ottoman Turks were formidable in combat, relentless and brutally efficient in occupation, ruthless when necessary. One thing they were not, was good administrators and book-keepers. But they knew that.
When the Ottomans made the step from a raiding kingdom to Imperial holding, they understood they needed to find someone to administer all this for them. Thus they gave some autonomy to their conquered people (most of which were not really that good warriors but definitely better scholars) and used them for the task the Ottomans were ill-suited for. They obviously kept the most important positions for themselves, but the could delegate some responsibilities.It is not surprising that in the Ottoman Empire (as in almost all succesful Empires) you could find every conquered people represented in the command structure. Sometimes even Beys’ and Pashas’ were at least partly member of the conquered population (but always Muslim).They also undestood that Unity is very important in an Empire, so they went to great lengths to unite the population under their religion. Unfortunately, their aggresive nature led them to use some more… well aggresive measures, causing the conquered population to respond in kind and therefore the measures were not as successful as they could be.
So all in all, the Ottomans stuck to what they were good at, fighting, and left the tedious day-to-day management to mostly others. That delegation of duties (centuries before it was put to paper by economists) made the Ottoman Empire so successful (and also caused its downfall later, but…. these things happen).https://www.quora.com/Why-were-the-Ottomans-such-successful-conquerors
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