A latifundium is a very extensive parcel of privately owned land. The latifundia (Latin: latus, "spacious" and fundus, "farm, estate")[1] of Roman history were great landed estatesspecializing in agriculture destined for export: grain, olive oil, or wine. They were characteristic of Magna Graecia and Sicily, Egypt, Northwest Africa and Hispania Baetica. The latifundia were the closest approximation to industrialized agriculture in Antiquity, and their economics depended upon slavery. During the modern colonial period, the European monarchies often rewarded services with extensive land grants in their empires. The forced recruitment of local laborers allowed by colonial law made these land grants particularly lucrative for their owners. These grants, fazendas (in Portuguese) or haciendas (in Spanish), were also borrowed as loanwords, Portuguese latifúndios and Spanish latifundios or simply fundos. Agrarian reforms aimed at ending the dominance of the latifundia system are still a popular goal of several national governments around the world.第2ポエニ戦争後の、古代ローマの支配領域拡大期において、属州で広く行われた。ローマが新たな領土を獲得した際に、多くの農地が国有地としてローマが所有する事となった。その国有地はローマ市民に貸し出されたが、その多くは奴隷を多数所有、あるいは新たに購入できる貴族が借り受けた。そして貴族は実質上の大土地所有者となった。形成期には奴隷による反乱が頻発した。全ての貴族が大土地所有者となった訳ではなく、ラティフンディウムの利が得られず没落する貴族もいれば、平民でラティフンディウムに参画し経済的にのし上がった者もいる。これによりローマの貴族階級は、従来の貴族層であるパトリキに、従来の平民から勃興した階層を加え、新貴族階層であるノビレスの形成を見る。ラティフンディウムでは主に、果樹や穀物が生産されたが、その目的が自給生産か商品生産かはまだ学会でも意見が分かれている（その双方、とも考えられる）。奴隷を労働力に頼ったラティフンディウムは、征服地の減少に伴う奴隷供給の低下とともに経営が行き詰まった。従来、安価な奴隷を使い捨てのように酷使して多大な収益を上げてきたのだが、奴隷が高価になると使い捨てる事が不可能になったのである。そのため、奴隷の代わりに没落農民を労働力とする「コロナートゥス」の制度が代わって属州で進行する。これがやがて中世における農奴制へとつながっていく。
- The landscape of the Greek mainland does not lend itself to large estates.[4] Olive oil and wine for trade were typically produced by many small groves and vineyards, concentrated in fewer hands at the presses and shipping ports. The grasslands of Thessaly and Macedon were pasture for grazing horses. Meat was not a staple in Mediterranean diets. During the Hellenistic period, latifundia were typical of the export-oriented agriculture of coastal Syria and the Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt.
- In the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the largely self-sufficient villa-system of the latifundia remained among the few political-cultural centres of a fragmented Europe. These latifundia had been of great importance economically, until the long-distance shipping of wine and oil, grain and garum disintegrated, but extensive lands controlled in a single pair of hands still constituted power: it can be argued that the latifundia formed part of the economic basis of the European social, however there is no evidence of this. The gift of a villa, or of a series of them, owned by a powerful patron was at the basis of all the great monasteries and abbeys founded in Western Europe until the time of Charlemagne, when the land-gifts, significantly, tended to be of forest instead.
- In the 6th century, Cassiodorus was able to apply his own latifundia to support his short-lived Vivarium in the heel of Italy. Shortly thereafter, Monte Cassino was founded in a former Imperial villa. But in the 10th century, Cluny Abbey in nearby Burgundy was founded on a gift of the Duke of Aquitaine's chase (hunting forest). In Sicily, latifundia dominated the island from medieval times. They were abolished by sweeping land reform mandating smaller farms in 1950–1962, funded from the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, the Italian government's development fund for southern Italy (1950–1984).- In the Iberian Peninsula, the Castilian Reconquista of Muslim territories provided the Christian kingdom with sudden extensions of land, which the kings ceded as rewards to nobility, mercenaries and military orders to exploit as latifundia, which had been first established as the commercial olive oil and grain latifundia of Roman Hispania Baetica. The gifts finished the traditional small private ownership of land, eliminating a social class that had also been typical of the al-Andalus period. In the Iberian peninsula, the possessions of the Church did not pass to private ownership until the ecclesiastical confiscations of Mendizábal (Spanish: desamortización), the "secularization" of church-owned latifundia, which proceeded in pulses through the 19th century. Big areas of Andalusia are still populated by an underclass of jornaleros, landless peasants who are hired by the latifundists as "day workers" for specific seasonal campaigns. The jornalero class has been fertile ground for socialism and anarchism. Still today, among the main Andalusian trade unions is the Rural Workers Union (Sindicato Obrero del Campo), a far-left group famous for their squatting campaigns in the town of Marinaleda, Province of Seville.
- Following the Union of Lublin in 1569, large expanses of land in Ukraine came under the control of the Polish Crown, which allowed for their exploitation by the Polish nobility. Over the course of the 17th century, these lands came to be mainly concentrated in vast estates, now commonly referred to as Latifundia, which were owned by a small number of magnate families which came to be the dominant political and social group in the commonwealth. These estates were diminished following the Cossack uprisings of the 17th century and largely disappeared following Russia's annexation of the Lithuanian lands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth at the close of the 18th century.
*******Le colonat est une notion du droit romain. Colon (colonus en latin) serait à l'origine des cultivateurs immigrés, venus d'ailleurs pour cultiver (latin : colere) une terre en location à laquelle ils sont attachés et doivent leur condition. Didier Bondue1 lui donne quatre sens dans lequel il est employé : les colons romains, les colons latins, les colons auxiliaires et les colons des domaines privés. Les colons étaient des paysans libres (tenanciers) selon la constitution romaine de Caracalla et des citoyens romains. Mais ils sont chargés d’impôts et le IVe siècle va marquer une dégradation de leur statut. Ils forment un statut intermédiaire entre l'esclave et l'homme libre. Valentinien Ier les fixe au sol en 371 - en 332, Constantin avait établi qu’un colon appartenant à un autre devrait être rendu à son lieu d’origine, celui qui sera confondu sera ainsi lié à sa terre par des entraves de fer et asservi -2.
À côté du terme colonus on trouve d’autre mots en usage dans le latin romain : tributarius, adscriptius, inquilinus, originarius, casarii. Ils reflètent un statut entre la liberté et l’asservissement. En 319, une loi distingue colonus et tributarius3, un colon simple et un autre qui paient des impôts à leur propriétaire ou à l’État. À cela on peut ajouter les originarius et les adscriptius, à savoir ceux attachés à leur lieu de naissance, et ceux attachés au dominus en lui versant un droit. Une loi de 349 parle d’ascriptus du cens4, et une autre de 366 de coloni originales. Au Ve siècle la main d’œuvre se raréfie, et des terres sont abandonnés, l’attachement à la terre retrouve ici de son importance. Ainsi des Inquilini qui seraient légués sans leur terres serait un legs nul5. Restent les asservis chasés, un texte de 369 parle de casarii vel coloni6. La situation des colons finit par se dégrader pour se confondre avec celle des mancipia ruraux. Les colons sont identifiés à leur détriment aux servus n'étant pas considérés comme propriétaires mais asservis aux domaines de leurs terres, fait dû à l'effondrement de la distinction entre domaine public et privé et de la perte de subtilité dans le droit romain. La notion de colonat va subsister dans la société du Haut Moyen-Âge, ils garderont ce statut d'un homme libre mais asservi par la terre où il est attaché et soumis à un dominusqui est leur possesseur7.コロナートゥス（ラテン語:colonatus）は、古代ローマにおける大規模所領での農業形態の一つである。この前の形態であるラティフンディウムは、奴隷を多数所有する大貴族による大土地所有であった。古代ローマの拡大期においては、戦争捕虜などで安価な奴隷が多数供給され、また同時に領土獲得によって多数の農地がローマの国有地となった。その安価な奴隷を貴族が多数購入し、国有地を借り受け奴隷を使役する事によって低コストで収益をあげた。そしてその収益はいわゆる「パンとサーカス」によって、大土地所有者ではないローマ市民にも還元された。
- no english wiki version
Serfdom is the status of many peasants under feudalism, specifically relating to manorialism, and similar systems. It was a condition of debt bondage and indentured servitude, which developed during the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages in Europe and lasted in some countries until the mid-19th century.As with slaves, serfs could be bought, sold, or traded (with some limitations as they generally could be sold only together with land, with the exception of the kholopsin Russia and villeins in gross in England who could be traded like regular slaves), abused with no rights over their own bodies, could not leave the land they were bound to, and could marry only with their lord's permission. Serfs who occupied a plot of land were required to work for the lord of the manor who owned that land. In return they were entitled to protection, justice, and the right to cultivate certain fields within the manor to maintain their own subsistence. Serfs were often required not only to work on the lord's fields, but also in his mines and forests and to labor to maintain roads. The manor formed the basic unit of feudal society, and the lord of the manor and the villeins, and to a certain extent serfs, were bound legally: by taxation in the case of the former, and economically and socially in the latter.The decline of serfdom in Western Europe has sometimes been attributed to the widespread plague epidemic of the Black Death, which reached Europe in 1347 and caused massive fatalities, disrupting society.[2] The decline had begun before that date. Serfdom became increasingly rare in most of Western Europe after the medieval renaissance at the outset of the High Middle Ages. But, conversely it grew stronger in Central and Eastern Europe, where it had previously been less common (this phenomenon was known as "later serfdom").In Eastern Europe the institution persisted until the mid-19th century. In the Austrian Empire serfdom was abolished by the 1781 Serfdom Patent; corvée continued to exist until 1848. Serfdom was abolished in Russia in the 1860s.[3] In Finland, Norway and Sweden, feudalism was never fully established, and serfdom did not exist; however, serfdom-like institutions did exist in both Denmark (the stavnsbånd, from 1733 to 1788) and its vassal Iceland (the more restrictive vistarband, from 1490 until 1894).According to medievalist historian Joseph R. Strayer, the concept of feudalism can also be applied to the societies of ancient Persia, ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt (Sixthto Twelfth dynasty), Islamic-ruled Northern and Central India, China (Zhou dynasty and end of Han dynasty) and Japan during the Shogunate. However, Wu Ta-k'un argued that the Shang-Zhou fengjian were kinship estates, quite distinct from feudalism.[4] James Lee and Cameron Campbell describe the Chinese Qing dynasty(1644–1912) as also maintaining a form of serfdom.Melvyn Goldstein described Tibet as having had serfdom until 1959,[6][7] but whether or not the Tibetan form of peasant tenancy that qualified as serfdom was widespread is contested by other scholars.[8][9] Bhutan is described by Tashi Wangchuk, a Bhutanese civil servant, as having officially abolished serfdom by 1959, but he believes that less than or about 10% of poor peasants were in copyhold situations.The United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery also prohibits serfdom as a practice similar to slavery.The word serf originated from the Middle French serf and was derived from the Latin servus ("slave"). In Late Antiquity and most of the Middle Ages, what are now called serfs were usually designated in Latin as coloni. As slavery gradually disappeared and the legal status of servi became nearly identical to that of the coloni, the term changed meaning into the modern concept of "serf". The word "serf" is first recorded in English in the late 15th century, and came to its current definition in the 17th century. Serfdom was coined in 1850.
- Serfs had a specific place in feudal society, as did barons and knights: in return for protection, a serf would reside upon and work a parcel of land within the manor of his lord. Thus the manorial system exhibited a degree of reciprocity.One rationale held that serfs and freemen "worked for all" while a knight or baron "fought for all" and a churchman "prayed for all"; thus everyone had a place. The serf was the worst fed and rewarded, but at least he had his place and, unlike slaves, had certain rights in land and property.A lord of the manor could not sell his serfs as a Roman might sell his slaves. On the other hand, if he chose to dispose of a parcel of land, the serfs associated with that land stayed with it to serve their new lord; simply speaking, they were implicitly sold in mass and as a part of a lot. This unified system preserved for the lord long-acquired knowledge of practices suited to the land. Further, a serf could not abandon his lands without permission, nor did he possess a saleable title in them.
- The social class of the peasantry can be differentiated into smaller categories. These distinctions were often less clear than suggested by their different names. Most often, there were two types of peasants:
- freemen, workers whose tenure within the manor was freehold
- villein
Lower classes of peasants, known as cottars or bordars, generally comprising the younger sons of villeins;[15][16] vagabonds; and slaves, made up the lower class of workers.Colonus system used in the late Roman Empire can be considered as predecessor of European feudal serfdom.In the late Roman Empire and the Early Middle Ages a colonus (plural: coloni) was a tenant farmer. Known collectively as the "colonate", these farmers operated as sharecroppers, paying landowners with a portion of their crops in exchange for use of their farmlands. The coloni's tenant-landlord relationship eventually degraded into one of debt and dependence. As a result, the colonus system became a new type of land tenancy, placing the occupants in a state between freedom and slavery. Colonus system can be considered as predecessor of European feudal serfdom.
- https://www.quora.com/Was-life-as-a-peasant-in-the-Middle-Ages-always-an-agony-or-did-he-also-have-good-times Peasants, not being slaves, did NOT work all the time. They were essentially farmers and there were seasons (planting and harvest) when the hours were long, but there were also seasons when there was very little to do at all. Furthermore, there were roughly 100 Holy Days — read holidays — every year. Not just every Sunday, but 12 days at Christmas, Easter Week, Ascension Day, Pentecost, etc. etc. etc. — adding up, as I said, to 100 or more.Holidays were a time for singing, dance, games, pantomimes and plays, not to mention sport and competitions such as archery contests. Even on ordinary days there was the village tavern, a institution selling (depending on location) beer, ale and/or wine. Even the smallest villages usually had one.
- Until the late 18th century, indentured servitude was very common in British North America. It was often a way for poor Europeans to immigrate to the American colonies: they signed an indenture in return for a costly passage. After their indenture expired, the immigrants were free to work for themselves or another employer. It has been argued by at least one economist that indentured servitude occurred largely as "an institutional response to a capital market imperfection".In some cases, the indenture was made with a ship's master, who sold the indenture to an employer in the colonies. Most indentured servants worked as farm laborers or domestic servants, although some were apprenticed to craftsmen.The terms of an indenture were not always enforced by American courts, although runaways were usually sought out and returned to their employer.Between one-half and two-thirds of white immigrants to the American colonies between the 1630s and American Revolution came under indentures.[2] However, while almost half the European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies were indentured servants, at any one time they were outnumbered by workers who had never been indentured, or whose indenture had expired, and thus free wage labor was the more prevalent for Europeans in the colonies.[3] Indentured people were numerically important mostly in the region from Virginia north to New Jersey. Other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was about 500,000; of these 55,000 were involuntary prisoners. Of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48% were indentured.[4] About 75% of these were under the age of 25. The age of adulthood for men was 24 years (not 21); those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about 3 years.[5] Regarding the children who came, Gary Nash reports that "many of the servants were actually nephews, nieces, cousins and children of friends of emigrating Englishmen, who paid their passage in return for their labor once in America."
- In 1838, with the abolition of slavery at its onset, the British were in the process of transporting a million Indians out of India and into the Caribbean to take the place of the African slaves(freed in 1833) in indentureship. Women, looking for what they believed would be a better life in the colonies, were specifically sought after and recruited at a much higher rate than men due to the high population of men already in the colonies.
- The Indian indenture system was a system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of large Indian diaspora, which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. Réunion and Mauritius) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. Fiji), as well as the growth of Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African population.The British wanted Indians to work in Natal as workers. But the Indians refused, and as a result, the British introduced the indenture system. On 18 January 1826, the Government of the French Indian Ocean island of Réunion laid down terms for the introduction of Indian labourers to the colony. Each man was required to appear before a magistrate and declare that he was going voluntarily. The contract was for five years with pay of ₹8 (12¢ US) per month and rations provided labourers had been transported from Pondicherry and Karaikal. The first attempt at importing Indian labour into Mauritius, in 1829, ended in failure, but by 1834, with abolition throughout most of the British Empire, transportation of Indian labour to the island gained pace. By 1838, 25,000 Indian labourers had been shipped to Mauritius.After the end of slavery, the West Indian sugar colonies tried the use of emancipated slaves, families from Ireland, Germany and Malta and Portuguese from Madeira.
- Convicts transported to the Australian colonies before the 1840s often found themselves hired out in a form of indentured labor.[26] Indentured servants also emigrated to New South Wales.[27] The Van Diemen's Land Company used skilled indentured labor for periods of seven years or less.[28] A similar scheme for the Swan River area of Western Australia existed between 1829 and 1832.During the 1860s planters in Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, and the Samoa Islands, in need of laborers, encouraged a trade in long-term indentured labor called "blackbirding". At the height of the labor trade, more than one-half the adult male population of several of the islands worked abroad.
- A significant number of construction projects, principally British, in East Africa and South Africa, required vast quantities of labor, exceeding the availability or willingness of local tribesmen. Coolies from India were imported, frequently under indenture, for such projects as the Uganda Railway, as farm labor, and as miners. They and their descendants formed a significant portion of the population and economy of Kenya and Uganda, although not without engendering resentment from others. Idi Amin's expulsion of the "Asians" from Uganda in 1972 was an expulsion of Indo-Africans.
Corvée (French: [kɔʁve] ) is a form of unpaid, unfree labour, which is intermittent in nature and which lasts limited periods of time: typically only a certain number of days' work each year. Statute labour is a corvée imposed by a state for the purposes of public works. As such it represents a form of levy (taxation). Unlike other forms of levy, such as a tithe, a corvée does not require the population to have land, crops or cash. It was thus favored in historical economies in which barter was more common than cash transactions or circulating money was in short supply. The obligation for tenant farmers to perform corvée work for landlords on private landed estates was widespread throughout history before the Industrial Revolution. The term is most typically used in reference to medieval and early modern Europe, where work was often expected by a feudal landowner (of their vassals), or by a monarch of their subjects. However, the application of the term is not limited to that time or place; corvée has existed in modern and ancient Egypt, ancient Israel under Solomon,ancient Rome, China and Japan, everywhere in continental Europe, the Incancivilization, Haiti under Henri Christophe and under American occupation (1915–1934), and Portugal's African colonies until the mid-1960s. Forms of statute labour officially existed until the early twentieth century in Canada and the United States.The word "corvée" itself has its origins in Rome, and reached the English language via France. In the Late Roman Empire the citizens performed opera publica in lieu of paying taxes; often it consisted of road and bridge work. Roman landlords could also demand a number of days' labour from their tenants, and also from the freedmen; in the latter case the work was called opera officialis. In Medieval Europe, the tasks that serfs or villeins were required to perform on a yearly basis for their lords were called opera riga. Plowing and harvesting were principal activities to which this work was applied. In times of need, the lord could demand additional work called opera corrogata (Latin corrogare, "to requisition"). This term evolved into coroatae, then corveiae, and finally corvée, and the meaning broadened to encompass both the regular and exceptional tasks. This Medieval agricultural corvée was not entirely unpaid: by custom the workers could expect small payments, often in the form of food and drink consumed on the spot. Corvée sometimes included military conscription, and the term is also occasionally used in a slightly divergent sense to mean forced requisition of military supplies; this most often took the form of cartage, a lord's right to demand wagons for military transport. Because corvée labour for agriculture tended to be demanded by the lord at exactly the same times that the peasants needed to attend to their own plots – e.g. planting and harvest – the corvée was an object of serious resentment. By the 16th century its use in agricultural setting was on the wane; it became increasingly replaced by money payments for labour. It nevertheless persisted in many areas of Europe until the French Revolution and beyond. The word survives in modern usage, meaning any kind of "inevitable or disagreeable chore".
- Corvée labour was essential in the feudal economic system of the Habsburg monarchy – later Austrian Empire – and most German states that have belonged to the Holy Roman Empire. Farmers and peasants were obliged to do hard agricultural work for their nobility. When a cash economy became established, the duty was gradually replaced by the duty to pay taxes. After the Thirty Years' War, the demands for corvée labour grew too high and the system became dysfunctional. The official decline of corvée is linked to the abolition of serfdom by Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor and Habsburg ruler, in 1781. Corvée labour continued to exist, however, and was only abolished during the revolutions of 1848, along with the legal inequality between the nobility and common people. Bohemia (or Czech lands) were a part of the Holy Roman Empire as well as the Habsburg monarchy and corvée labour itself was called "robota" in Czech. In Russian and other Slavic languages, "robota" denotes any work but in Czech, it specifically refers to unpaid unfree work, corvée labour, serf labor, or drudgery. The Czech word was imported to a part of Germany where corvée labour was known as Robath, and into Hungarian as robot. The word "robota" turned out to be optimal for Czech writer Karel Čapek who, after a recommendation by his brother Josef Čapek, introduced the word "robot" for (originally anthropomorphic) machines that do unpaid work for their owners in his 1920 play R.U.R..
- From the Egyptian Old Kingdom (ca 2613 BC) onward, (the 4th Dynasty), corvée labour helped in 'government' projects; during the times of the Nile River floods, labour was used for construction projects such as pyramids, temples, quarries, canals, roads, and other works.
- In France the corvée existed until August 4, 1789, shortly after the beginning of the French Revolution, when it was abolished along with a number of other feudal privileges of the French landlords. In these later times it was directed mainly towards improving the roads. It was greatly resented, and is considered an important cause of the Revolution. Counterrevolution revived the corvée in France, in 1824, 1836, and 1871, under the name prestation; every able bodied man had to give three days' labour or its money equivalent in order to be allowed to vote. The corvée also continued to exist under the Seigneurial system in what had been New France, in British North America. In 1866, during the French occupation of Mexico the French army under Marshal Bazaine set up the corvée to provide labor for public works in place of a system of fines
- Corvée-style labour called yō (庸) was found in pre-modern Japan. During the 1930s, it was common practice to import Corvée labourers from both China and Korea to work in coal mines. This practice continued until the end of World War II.
- France annexed Madagascar as a colony in the late 19th century. Governor-General Gallieni then implemented a hybrid corvée and poll tax, partly for revenue, partly for labour resources (the French had just abolished slavery there), and partly to move away from a subsistence economy; the last feature involved paying small amounts for the forced labour.
- The system of forced labour otherwise known as polo y servicios evolved within the framework of the encomienda system, introduced into the South American colonies by the Spanish government.
- In Portugal's African colonies (e.g. Mozambique), the Native Labour Regulations of 1899 stated that all able bodied men must work for six months of every year, and that "They have full liberty to choose the means through which to comply with this regulation, but if they do not comply in some way, the public authorities will force them to comply."
- In Romania, the corvée was called "clacă". Karl Marx describes the corvée system of the Danubian Principalities as a pre-capitalist form of compulsory over-work. The labour of the peasant needed for his own maintenance is distinctly marked off from the work he supplies to the land-owner (the boyar, or boier, in Romanian) as surplus labour. The 14 days of labour due to the land-owner – as prescribed by the code of the corvée in the Règlement organique – actually amounted to 42 days, because the working day was considered the time required for the production of an average daily product, "and that average daily product is determined in so crafty a way that no Cyclops would be done with it in 24 hours."[16] The code of the corvée was supposed to abolish serfdom, but it couldn't achieve anything in regard to this goal. A land reform took place in 1864, after the Danubian Principalities became unified and formed The United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, which abolished the corvée and turned the peasants into free proprietors. The former owners were promised compensation, which was to be paid from a fund the peasants had to contribute to for 15 years. Besides the annual fee, the peasants also had to pay for the newly owned land, although at a price below market value. These debts made many peasants return to a life of semi-serfdom.
- In the Russian Tsardom and the Russian Empire there were a number of permanent corvees called тяглые повинности: carriage corvée (подводная повинность), coachman corvée (ямская повинность), lodging corvée (постоялая повинность), etc.In the context of the history of Russia, the term corvée is also sometimes used to translate the terms barshchina (барщина) or boyarshchina (боярщина), which refer to the obligatory work that the Russian serfs performed for the pomeshchik (Russian landed nobility) on the pomeshchik's land. While no official government regulation to the extent of barshchina existed, a 1797 ukase by Paul I of Russia described a barshchina of three days a week as normal and sufficient for the landowner's needs.
- Corvée was used in several states in North America especially for road maintenance and this practice persisted to some degree in the United States. Its popularity with local governments gradually waned after the American Revolution with the increasing development of the monetary economy. After the American Civil War, some Southern states, with money in short supply, commuted taxing their inhabitants with obligations in the form of labour for public works, or let them pay a fee or a little bit higher tax to avoid it. The system proved unsuccessful because of the poor quality of work; in 1894, the Virginia state supreme court ruled that corvée violated the state constitution[20], and in 1913 Alabama became among the last states to abolish it.
In plautus' pseudolus, name ending in "-um" is characteristic of slaves and suggests a less than human status
Manumission, or affranchisement, is the act of an owner freeing their slaves. Different approaches developed, each specific to the time and place of a particular society. Jamaican historian Verene Shepherd states that the most widely used term is gratuitous manumission, "the conferment of freedom on the enslaved by enslavers before the end of the slave system".The motivations for manumission were complex and varied. Firstly, it may present itself as a sentimental and benevolent gesture. One typical scenario was the freeing in the master's will of a devoted servant after long years of service. A trusted bailiff might be manumitted as a gesture of gratitude. For those working as agricultural laborers or in workshops, there was little likelihood of being so noticed.Such feelings of benevolence may have been of value to slave owners themselves as it allowed them to focus on a "humane component" in the human traffic of slavery. In general, it was more common for older slaves to be given freedom once they had reached the age at which they were beginning to be less useful. Legislation under the early Roman Empire put limits on the number of slaves that could be freed in wills (Lex Fufia Caninia, 2 BCE), which suggests that it had been widely used.Freeing slaves could serve the pragmatic interests of the owner. The prospect of manumission worked as an incentive for slaves to be industrious and compliant. Roman slaves were paid a wage (peculium), which they could save up to buy themselves freedom. Manumission contracts found, in some abundance at Delphi (Greece), specify in detail the prerequisites for liberation.
united nations
- International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition, August 23 of each year, the day designated by UNESCO to memorialize the transatlantic slave trade. That date was chosen by the adoption of resolution 29 C/40 by the Organization's General Conference at its 29th session. Circular CL/3494 of July 29, 1998, from the Director-General invited Ministers of Culture to promote the day. The date is significant because, during the night of August 22 to August 23, 1791, on the island of Saint Domingue (now known as Haiti), an uprising began which set forth events which were a major factor in the abolition of the transatlantic slave trade. UNESCO Member States organize events every year on that date, inviting participation from young people, educators, artists and intellectuals. As part of the goals of the intercultural UNESCO project, "The Slave Route", it is an opportunity for collective recognition and focus on the "historic causes, the methods and the consequences" of slavery.
- The Slave Route Project is a UNESCO initiative that was officially launched in 1994 in Ouidah, Benin. It is rooted in the mandate of the Organization, which believes that ignorance or concealment of major historical events constitutes an obstacle to mutual understanding, reconciliation and cooperation among peoples.
usa
- John McDonogh (December 29, 1779 – October 26, 1850) was an American entrepreneur whose adult life was spent in south Louisiana and later in Baltimore. He made a fortune in real estate and shipping, and as a slave owner, he supported the American Colonization Society, which organized transportation for freed people of color to Liberia. He had devised a manumission scheme whereby the people he held as enslaved could "buy" their own freedom, which took them some 15 years. In his will he provided large grants for the public education of children of poor whites and freed people of color in New Orleans and Baltimore, and by the 1970s some 20 schools in the New Orleans public school system were named for him.McDonogh was also active in, and contributed to, the American Colonization Society, which enabled freed black slaves to emigrate back to Africa.[4][8][9] McDonogh used the Society to provide passage to Liberia for many of the people he had once enslaved.
- Archer Alexander (c. 1810, Virginia – December 8, 1880, St. Louis, Missouri)[1] was a former slave who served as the model for the slave in the Emancipation Memoriallocated in Lincoln Park. He was also the subject of a biography, The Story of Archer Alexander, written by William Greenleaf Eliot.
- economist 6apr19 "after abolition" the sons of slaveholders quickly recovered their fathers' wealth
- Georgetown University students are voting Thursday on a proposed student fee that would fund reparations for descendants of slaves once sold by the school. If it is passed and implemented by Georgetown, it would be the first reparations policy at any major institution in America. The referendum would add a fee of $27.20 to be paid by every Georgetown undergraduate once a semester. A new board of trustees would allocate those funds to the descendants of the "GU272" — the 272 slaves Georgetown sold in 1838 to boost the university's finances. There are an estimated 4,000 living descendants of those enslaved people.https://www.cbsnews.com/news/georgetown-students-could-approve-first-slavery-reparations-fund-in-us/
- 在一六○○至一八六○年代，估計有近三十九萬名非洲人被運往美洲為奴。美國雖在一八○八年禁止入口黑奴，但南部不少農田主對奴隸的需求不減，更有人試圖暗中重啟販奴市場。在一八五五年建造的雙桅帆船「Clotilda」，被普遍認為是最後一艘運載黑奴抵美的船隻。Clotilda的故事起源於當地富商兼農田主馬爾，與數名北部商人打賭稱，他能在聯邦官員眼皮底下，將一船非洲黑奴偷運入莫比爾灣。馬爾於是租借了該船，並令船長福斯特前往維達港（現為西非國家貝寧）購買俘虜。福斯特最終在一八六○年帶回一百一十名年輕男女及小孩，並刻意將船沉沒以毀滅證據。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190525/00180_033.html
- 美國賓夕凡尼亞州一間非牟利機構自上周五起於費城特拉華河舉行展覽，以燈光及水投影出一艘長達二十七米的「鬼船」3D圖像。機構冀能讓民眾探索水路的重要性，理解一七○○年代河上奴隸貿易歷史，並反思該段歷史對現今社會的影響。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191008/00180_036.html
- ********The Missouri Compromise was the legislation that provided for the admission of Maine to the United States as a free state along with Missouri as a slave state, thus maintaining the balance of power between North and South in the United States Senate. As part of the compromise, slavery was prohibited north of the 36°30′ parallel, excluding Missouri. The 16th United States Congress passed the legislation on March 3, 1820, and President James Monroe signed it on March 6, 1820.Earlier, on February 1819, Representative James Tallmadge Jr., a Jeffersonian Republican from New York, submitted two amendments to Missouri's request for statehood, which included restrictions on slavery. Southerners objected to any bill which imposed federal restrictions on slavery, believing that slavery was a state issue settled by the Constitution. However, with the Senate evenly split at the opening of the debates, both sections possessing 11 states, the admission of Missouri as a slave state would give the South an advantage. Northern critics including Federalists and Democratic-Republicans objected to the expansion of slavery into the Louisiana Purchase territory on the Constitutional inequalities of the three-fifths rule, which conferred Southern representation in the federal government derived from a states' slave population. Jeffersonian Republicans in the North ardently maintained that a strict interpretation of the Constitution required that Congress act to limit the spread of slavery on egalitarian grounds. "[Northern] Republicans rooted their antislavery arguments, not on expediency, but in egalitarian morality";[2] and "The Constitution [said northern Jeffersonians], strictly interpreted, gave the sons of the founding generation the legal tools to hasten [the] removal [of slavery], including the refusal to admit additional slave states.".When free-soil Maine offered its petition for statehood, the Senate quickly linked the Maine and Missouri bills, making Maine admission a condition for Missouri entering the Union with slavery unrestricted. Senator Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois added a compromise proviso, excluding slavery from all remaining lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36° 30' parallel. The combined measures passed the Senate, only to be voted down in the House by those Northern representatives who held out for a free Missouri. Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky, in a desperate bid to break the deadlock, divided the Senate bills. Clay and his pro-compromise allies succeeded in pressuring half the anti-restrictionist House Southerners to submit to the passage of the Thomas proviso, while maneuvering a number of restrictionist House northerners to acquiesce in supporting Missouri as a slave state.[4][5] The Missouri question in the 15th Congress ended in stalemate on March 4, 1819, the House sustaining its northern antislavery position, and the Senate blocking a slavery restricted statehood.The Missouri Compromise was controversial at the time, as many worried that the country had become lawfully divided along sectional lines. The bill was effectively repealed in the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, and declared unconstitutional in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857). This increased tensions over slavery and eventually led to the Civil War.
- https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/05/conspiracy-theories-civil-war/612283/
venezuela
- [hm tarver] african slaves (kongos, dahomeyans, fanti-ahsantis and mandingos) introduced in 16thc; racial mixing bw white men and black women created the mulato or pardo ethnic group, bw indian men and black women created zambo or sambo ethnic group
brazil
- The Brazilian government has been accused of reducing its ability to protect workers from slave-like labour conditions after abruptly changing the rules. Campaigners, commentators and prosecutors said the move was a “social regression” aimed at buying the support of a powerful agribusiness lobby ahead of a crucial vote in congress that could cost President Michel Temer his mandate. A government directive by the ministry of labour published on Monday redefined what the government defines as “slave-like work” – even though Brazil’s efforts to stop abusive labour conditions were praised as recently as last year by the United Nations. The ministry will no longer automatically publish its “dirty list” of employers whose workers were kept under abusive conditions. Instead it will only appear if the current minister decides to make it public. Many of the employers on the list are farmers.https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/oct/17/fewer-people-will-be-freed-brazil-accused-of-easing-anti-slavery-rules; The new decree, sought by Brazil’s powerful farm lobby, would derail enforcement efforts that have freed 50,000 workers from slave-like conditions since 1995, according to federal prosecutors and labour inspectors.Responding to the criticism, President Michel Temer said the decree would be modified but not revoked.http://www.scmp.com/news/world/americas/article/2116410/brazils-president-bows-farm-lobby-pressure-rework-controversial
- *******Chico Rei is a semi-mythic heroic figure from the slave trade in Brazil.According to oral tradition, in about 1740, Galanga, a tribal leader from the Congo, was taken along with a large part of his tribe and sold as a slave. They were brought from Africa to Brazil in a slave ship and during this journey his authority amongst his compatriots was noticed by the Portuguese slave traders who nicknamed him "Chico Rei". In Brazil he was set to work in the gold mines of Minas Gerais. By hiding flakes of gold about his body and in his hair, he amassed sufficient funds to allow him, after 5 years or so, to buy his son's freedom and later his own. He was also able to acquire the Encardideira gold mine in Vila Rica (now Ouro Preto). Profits from the mine were used to help other slaves to buy their freedom and to build the church of Santa Efigênia, also in Vila Rica. The Encardideira mine has been disused since 1888 when slavery was abolished in Brazil and it is now open to the public.The legend of Chico Rei has become part of the Brazilian folklore and his admirable tale of fight for freedom has captured the imagination of many Brazilian storytellers. His story is often told in Brazilian folklore tales books, and it has been told both in theater and cinema as well.
uk
- association
- The Zong massacre was the mass killing of 133 African slaves by the crew of the British slave ship Zong in the days following 29 November 1781.[note 1] The Gregson slave-trading syndicate, based in Liverpool, owned the ship and sailed her in the Atlantic slave trade. As was common business practice, they had taken out insurance on the lives of the slaves as cargo. When the ship ran low on potable water following navigational mistakes, the crew threw slaves overboard into the sea to drown, partly in order to ensure the survival of the rest of the ship's passengers, and in part to cash in on the insurance on the slaves, thus not losing money on the slaves who would have died from the lack of drinking water. After the slave ship reached port at Black River, Jamaica, Zong's owners made a claim to their insurers for the loss of the slaves. When the insurers refused to pay, the resulting court cases (Gregson v Gilbert (1783) 3 Doug. KB 232) held that in some circumstances, the deliberate killing of slaves was legal and that insurers could be required to pay for the slaves' deaths. The judge, Lord Chief Justice, the Earl of Mansfield, ruled against the syndicate owners in this case, due to new evidence being introduced suggesting the captain and crew were at fault. Following the first trial, freed slave Olaudah Equiano brought news of the massacre to the attention of the anti-slavery campaigner Granville Sharp, who worked unsuccessfully to have the ship's crew prosecuted for murder. Because of the legal dispute, reports of the massacre received increased publicity, stimulating the abolitionist movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; the Zong events were increasingly cited as a powerful symbol of the horrors of the Middle Passage of slaves to the New World. The non-denominational Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787. The next year Parliament passed the first law regulating the slave trade, to limit the number of slaves per ship. Then in 1791, Parliament prohibited insurance companies from reimbursing ship owners in cases in which slaves were thrown overboard. The massacre has also inspired works of art and literature. It was commemorated in London in 2007, among events to mark the bicentenary of the British Slave Trade Act 1807, which abolished the African slave trade. A monument to the killed slaves on Zong was installed at Black River, Jamaica, their intended port.
- The International Slavery Museum is a museum located in Liverpool, England that focuses on the history and legacy of the transatlantic slave trade. The museum which forms part of the Merseyside Maritime Museum, consists of three main galleries which focus on the lives of people in West Africa, their eventual enslavement, and their continued fight for freedom. Additionally the museum discusses slavery in the modern day as well as topics on racism and discrimination.
- https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/modern-slavery-ring-victims-human-trafficking-uk-poland-a8990151.html A human trafficking ring which made £2m by exploiting hundreds of vulnerable victims has been dismantled following the UK’s largest modern slavery investigation. More than 400 people – many of them homeless, ex-prisoners or alcoholics – were forced to work for almost nothing after being lured to the west midlands by a well-organised Polish gang. The ringleaders told victims they would earn good money in the UK but instead placed them in cramped, rat-infested accommodation and forced them to work on farms, rubbish recycling centres and poultry factories. They were paid as little as 50p an hour for their labour and in one case a worker was given just coffee and a chicken for redecorating a house. The victims – aged between 17 and 60 – had to use soup kitchens and food banks to eat, while one man was forced to wash in a canal because he had no other access to water.
- 英國格拉斯哥大學去年調查發現，大學曾在十八至十九世紀從蘇格蘭奴隸商人手上，收取了介乎現今市值一千六百萬至一億九千八百萬英鎊的款項。作為賠償，大學上周五聯合西印度群島大學設立「重建公義計劃」，撥出二千萬英鎊（約二億港元）作為成立發展研究中心未來廿年的資金，以促進公眾對奴隸制度歷史的認識。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190825/00180_020.html
- https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/aug/13/museum-slavery-not-solve-problem-racism-britain Sadiq Khan has given his backing to a proposal from the Fabian Society to establish a British slavery museum in London in order “to deepen our understanding of the past and strengthen our commitment to fight racism and hatred in all its forms”. Britain’s role in transatlantic slavery is one of the most misrepresented in the national memory – a tale littered with lies told to hide the dark side of the island’s story.When David Cameron declared Britain should be proud to be the country “that abolished slavery”, he was merely indulging the national myth. As the 2007 celebrations of the act that abolished the slave trade demonstrated, little attention is paid to much other than white saviours such as William Wilberforce. Truly understanding how Britain’s dominant role in slavery built the nation is essential for any progressive understanding of the present.
- https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/people/article/3041020/they-stole-my-mothers-organs-vietnamese-human-trafficking-victim Nguyen, now his early 20s, was held captive in Vietnam and then smuggled to Britain, where he was forced to work on cannabis farms and in a restaurant before eventually being rescued by the British authorities. He was among the hundreds of children who were
trafficked every year from Vietnam to Britain, where the authorities are currently processing his request for asylum. Nguyen did not learn how to read or write as a child and had to use the harvest seasons and the Chinese New Year celebrations as his time references. So he isn’t sure how old he was when he witnessed a group of men kill his mother.She had been trying to help him escape the house where they were being held captive when the men caught them. As punishment, his mother’s organs were removed to be sold.“I was then taken to another very big house – they all spoke foreign languages, I believe Chinese … In this new house, my job was similar. I was doing cleaning work and cooking,” he recalls. “One day, someone put me on the phone with a Vietnamese voice. It was the security guard of the previous boss saying that I should keep working very hard, otherwise I would have my organs removed like my mum had. I stayed in this house for a few years – I had no idea about time.”
spain
- Encomienda (Spanish pronunciation: [eŋkoˈmjenda]) was a labor system in Spain and its empire. It rewarded conquerors with the labor of particular groups of subject people. It was first established in Spain during the Roman period, but used also following the Christian conquest of Muslim territories. It was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Philippines. Conquered peoples were considered vassals of the Spanish monarch. The Crown awarded an encomienda as a grant to a particular individual. In the conquest era of the sixteenth century, the grants were considered to be a monopoly on the labor of particular groups of Indians, held in perpetuity by the grant holder, called the encomendero, and his descendants. In the encomienda, the Spanish Crown granted a person a specified number of natives from a specific community. Indigenous leaders were charged with mobilizing the assessed tribute and labor. In turn, encomenderos were to ensure the native people were given instruction in the Christian faith and Spanish language, and protect them from warring tribes or pirates; they had to suppress rebellion against Spaniards, and maintain infrastructure. In return, the natives would provide tributes in the form of metals, maize, wheat, pork, or other agricultural products.With the ouster of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish crown sent a royal governor, Fray Nicolás de Ovando, who established the formal encomienda system. In many cases natives were forced to do hard labor and subjected to extreme punishment and death if they resisted. However, Queen Isabella of Castile forbade Indian slavery and deemed the indigenous to be "free vassals of the crown". Various versions of the Leyes de Indias or Laws of the Indies from 1512 onwards attempted to regulate the interactions between the settlers and natives. Both natives and Spaniards appealed to the Real Audiencias for relief under the encomienda system. Encomiendas had often been characterized by the geographical displacement of the enslaved and breakup of communities and family units, but in Mexico, the encomienda ruled the free vassals of the crown through existing community hierarchies, and the natives were allowed to keep in touch with their families and homes. This system was similar to the labor that the former indigenous Inca Empire and its predecessors had earlier required from subject peoples.The heart of encomienda and encomendero lies in the Spanish verb encomendar, "to entrust". The encomienda was based on the reconquista institution in which adelantados were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled. The encomienda system traveled to America as the result of the implantation of Castilian law over the territory.
ancient greece
According to Eliot, Alexander was born in approximately 1815 on the plantation of the Ferrell family in Fincastle, Virginia.
- Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. (/ˈkæʃəs/) (muhammad ali) was born on January 17, 1942 in Louisville, Kentucky.[25] He had a sister and four brothers.[26][27] He was named after his father, Cassius Marcellus Clay Sr. (1912–1990), who himself was named in honor of the 19th-century Republican politician and staunch abolitionist Cassius Marcellus Clay, also from the state of Kentucky. Clay's father's paternal grandparents were John Clay and Sallie Anne Clay; Clay's sister Eva claimed that Sallie was a native of Madagascar.[28] He was a descendant of slaves of the antebellum South, and was predominantly of African descent, with smaller amounts of Irish[29] and English family heritage.[30][31] Ali's maternal grandfather, Abe Grady, emigrated from Ennis, Co. Clare, Ireland.[32][33] DNA testing performed in 2018 showed that, through his paternal grandmother, Ali was a descendant of the former slave Archer Alexander.
- economist 6apr19 "after abolition" the sons of slaveholders quickly recovered their fathers' wealth
- Georgetown University students are voting Thursday on a proposed student fee that would fund reparations for descendants of slaves once sold by the school. If it is passed and implemented by Georgetown, it would be the first reparations policy at any major institution in America. The referendum would add a fee of $27.20 to be paid by every Georgetown undergraduate once a semester. A new board of trustees would allocate those funds to the descendants of the "GU272" — the 272 slaves Georgetown sold in 1838 to boost the university's finances. There are an estimated 4,000 living descendants of those enslaved people.https://www.cbsnews.com/news/georgetown-students-could-approve-first-slavery-reparations-fund-in-us/
- 在一六○○至一八六○年代，估計有近三十九萬名非洲人被運往美洲為奴。美國雖在一八○八年禁止入口黑奴，但南部不少農田主對奴隸的需求不減，更有人試圖暗中重啟販奴市場。在一八五五年建造的雙桅帆船「Clotilda」，被普遍認為是最後一艘運載黑奴抵美的船隻。Clotilda的故事起源於當地富商兼農田主馬爾，與數名北部商人打賭稱，他能在聯邦官員眼皮底下，將一船非洲黑奴偷運入莫比爾灣。馬爾於是租借了該船，並令船長福斯特前往維達港（現為西非國家貝寧）購買俘虜。福斯特最終在一八六○年帶回一百一十名年輕男女及小孩，並刻意將船沉沒以毀滅證據。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190525/00180_033.html
- 美國賓夕凡尼亞州一間非牟利機構自上周五起於費城特拉華河舉行展覽，以燈光及水投影出一艘長達二十七米的「鬼船」3D圖像。機構冀能讓民眾探索水路的重要性，理解一七○○年代河上奴隸貿易歷史，並反思該段歷史對現今社會的影響。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191008/00180_036.html
- ********The Missouri Compromise was the legislation that provided for the admission of Maine to the United States as a free state along with Missouri as a slave state, thus maintaining the balance of power between North and South in the United States Senate. As part of the compromise, slavery was prohibited north of the 36°30′ parallel, excluding Missouri. The 16th United States Congress passed the legislation on March 3, 1820, and President James Monroe signed it on March 6, 1820.Earlier, on February 1819, Representative James Tallmadge Jr., a Jeffersonian Republican from New York, submitted two amendments to Missouri's request for statehood, which included restrictions on slavery. Southerners objected to any bill which imposed federal restrictions on slavery, believing that slavery was a state issue settled by the Constitution. However, with the Senate evenly split at the opening of the debates, both sections possessing 11 states, the admission of Missouri as a slave state would give the South an advantage. Northern critics including Federalists and Democratic-Republicans objected to the expansion of slavery into the Louisiana Purchase territory on the Constitutional inequalities of the three-fifths rule, which conferred Southern representation in the federal government derived from a states' slave population. Jeffersonian Republicans in the North ardently maintained that a strict interpretation of the Constitution required that Congress act to limit the spread of slavery on egalitarian grounds. "[Northern] Republicans rooted their antislavery arguments, not on expediency, but in egalitarian morality";[2] and "The Constitution [said northern Jeffersonians], strictly interpreted, gave the sons of the founding generation the legal tools to hasten [the] removal [of slavery], including the refusal to admit additional slave states.".When free-soil Maine offered its petition for statehood, the Senate quickly linked the Maine and Missouri bills, making Maine admission a condition for Missouri entering the Union with slavery unrestricted. Senator Jesse B. Thomas of Illinois added a compromise proviso, excluding slavery from all remaining lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36° 30' parallel. The combined measures passed the Senate, only to be voted down in the House by those Northern representatives who held out for a free Missouri. Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky, in a desperate bid to break the deadlock, divided the Senate bills. Clay and his pro-compromise allies succeeded in pressuring half the anti-restrictionist House Southerners to submit to the passage of the Thomas proviso, while maneuvering a number of restrictionist House northerners to acquiesce in supporting Missouri as a slave state.[4][5] The Missouri question in the 15th Congress ended in stalemate on March 4, 1819, the House sustaining its northern antislavery position, and the Senate blocking a slavery restricted statehood.The Missouri Compromise was controversial at the time, as many worried that the country had become lawfully divided along sectional lines. The bill was effectively repealed in the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854, and declared unconstitutional in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857). This increased tensions over slavery and eventually led to the Civil War.
- https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2020/05/conspiracy-theories-civil-war/612283/
venezuela
- [hm tarver] african slaves (kongos, dahomeyans, fanti-ahsantis and mandingos) introduced in 16thc; racial mixing bw white men and black women created the mulato or pardo ethnic group, bw indian men and black women created zambo or sambo ethnic group
brazil
- The Brazilian government has been accused of reducing its ability to protect workers from slave-like labour conditions after abruptly changing the rules. Campaigners, commentators and prosecutors said the move was a “social regression” aimed at buying the support of a powerful agribusiness lobby ahead of a crucial vote in congress that could cost President Michel Temer his mandate. A government directive by the ministry of labour published on Monday redefined what the government defines as “slave-like work” – even though Brazil’s efforts to stop abusive labour conditions were praised as recently as last year by the United Nations. The ministry will no longer automatically publish its “dirty list” of employers whose workers were kept under abusive conditions. Instead it will only appear if the current minister decides to make it public. Many of the employers on the list are farmers.https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/oct/17/fewer-people-will-be-freed-brazil-accused-of-easing-anti-slavery-rules; The new decree, sought by Brazil’s powerful farm lobby, would derail enforcement efforts that have freed 50,000 workers from slave-like conditions since 1995, according to federal prosecutors and labour inspectors.Responding to the criticism, President Michel Temer said the decree would be modified but not revoked.http://www.scmp.com/news/world/americas/article/2116410/brazils-president-bows-farm-lobby-pressure-rework-controversial
- *******Chico Rei is a semi-mythic heroic figure from the slave trade in Brazil.According to oral tradition, in about 1740, Galanga, a tribal leader from the Congo, was taken along with a large part of his tribe and sold as a slave. They were brought from Africa to Brazil in a slave ship and during this journey his authority amongst his compatriots was noticed by the Portuguese slave traders who nicknamed him "Chico Rei". In Brazil he was set to work in the gold mines of Minas Gerais. By hiding flakes of gold about his body and in his hair, he amassed sufficient funds to allow him, after 5 years or so, to buy his son's freedom and later his own. He was also able to acquire the Encardideira gold mine in Vila Rica (now Ouro Preto). Profits from the mine were used to help other slaves to buy their freedom and to build the church of Santa Efigênia, also in Vila Rica. The Encardideira mine has been disused since 1888 when slavery was abolished in Brazil and it is now open to the public.The legend of Chico Rei has become part of the Brazilian folklore and his admirable tale of fight for freedom has captured the imagination of many Brazilian storytellers. His story is often told in Brazilian folklore tales books, and it has been told both in theater and cinema as well.
uk
- association
- The Anti-Slavery Society was the everyday name of two different British organisations. The first was founded in 1823 and was committed to the abolition of slavery in the British Empire. Its official name was the Society for the Mitigation and Gradual Abolition of Slavery Throughout the British Dominions. This objective was substantially achieved in 1838 under the terms of the Slavery Abolition Act 1833. A successor organisation, the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society, was formed in 1839 to fight for global abolition. After the end of slavery in the United States, the British organisation re-focussed. Through mergers and name changes, it is now known as Anti-Slavery International.The elimination of slavery throughout the world was frequently in the mind of early abolitionists. The Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade, which established the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade in 1787, campaigned for an end to the Transatlantic slave trade from Western Africa to the New World, which Britain dominated by then. The Slave Trade Act 1807 made the trade illegal in the British Empire, but brought no change to the condition of enslaved people. Following this, British abolitionists turned their attention to abolishing slavery itself, first in British colonies, and later in the US and the colonies of other European powers (e.g., in South America), and in parts of the world where it had long been legal, such as in the Middle East, Africa, and China.
- scmp remember a day on a 26aug1979 report - Hong Kong and six other countries and regions were mentioned for the exploitation of child labour by the London-based Anti-Slavery Society. India topped the list, which was submitted to the United Nations. The other places were Colombia, Morocco, Taiwan, Italy and Thailand.https://www.scmp.com/news/hong-kong/society/article/3024932/killer-rabbits-lost-peruvian-tribe-and-two-martini-lunches
- The Zong massacre was the mass killing of 133 African slaves by the crew of the British slave ship Zong in the days following 29 November 1781.[note 1] The Gregson slave-trading syndicate, based in Liverpool, owned the ship and sailed her in the Atlantic slave trade. As was common business practice, they had taken out insurance on the lives of the slaves as cargo. When the ship ran low on potable water following navigational mistakes, the crew threw slaves overboard into the sea to drown, partly in order to ensure the survival of the rest of the ship's passengers, and in part to cash in on the insurance on the slaves, thus not losing money on the slaves who would have died from the lack of drinking water. After the slave ship reached port at Black River, Jamaica, Zong's owners made a claim to their insurers for the loss of the slaves. When the insurers refused to pay, the resulting court cases (Gregson v Gilbert (1783) 3 Doug. KB 232) held that in some circumstances, the deliberate killing of slaves was legal and that insurers could be required to pay for the slaves' deaths. The judge, Lord Chief Justice, the Earl of Mansfield, ruled against the syndicate owners in this case, due to new evidence being introduced suggesting the captain and crew were at fault. Following the first trial, freed slave Olaudah Equiano brought news of the massacre to the attention of the anti-slavery campaigner Granville Sharp, who worked unsuccessfully to have the ship's crew prosecuted for murder. Because of the legal dispute, reports of the massacre received increased publicity, stimulating the abolitionist movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; the Zong events were increasingly cited as a powerful symbol of the horrors of the Middle Passage of slaves to the New World. The non-denominational Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in 1787. The next year Parliament passed the first law regulating the slave trade, to limit the number of slaves per ship. Then in 1791, Parliament prohibited insurance companies from reimbursing ship owners in cases in which slaves were thrown overboard. The massacre has also inspired works of art and literature. It was commemorated in London in 2007, among events to mark the bicentenary of the British Slave Trade Act 1807, which abolished the African slave trade. A monument to the killed slaves on Zong was installed at Black River, Jamaica, their intended port.
- Olaudah Equiano (c. 1745 – 31 March 1797),[5] known in his lifetime as Gustavus Vassa(/ˈvæsə/),[6] was a writer and abolitionist from the Igbo region of what is today southeastern Nigeria according to his memoir, or from South Carolina according to other sources. Enslavedas a child, he was taken to the Caribbean and sold as a slave to a captain in the Royal Navy, and later to a Quaker trader. Eventually, he earned his own freedom in 1766 by intelligent trading and careful savings. In London, Equiano (identifying as Gustavus Vassa during his lifetime) was part of the Sons of Africa, an abolitionist group composed of well-known Africans living in Britain, and he was active among leaders of the anti-slave trade movement in the 1780s. He published his autobiography, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano (1789), which depicted the horrors of slavery. It went through nine editions and aided passage of the British Slave Trade Act of 1807, which abolished the African slave trade.
- Dido Elizabeth Belle (1761 – July 1804) was born into slavery as the natural daughter of Maria Belle, an enslaved African woman in the British West Indies, and Sir John Lindsay, a British career naval officer who was stationed there. He was later knighted and promoted to admiral.[2] Lindsay took Belle with him when he returned to England in 1765, entrusting her raising to his uncle William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield, and his wife Elizabeth Murray, Countess of Mansfield. The Murrays educated Belle, bringing her up as a free gentlewoman at their Kenwood House, together with their niece, Lady Elizabeth Murray, whose mother had died. Belle lived there for 30 years. In his will of 1793, Lord Mansfield confirmed her freedom and provided an outright sum and an annuity to her, making her an heiress. In these years, her great-uncle, in his capacity as Lord Chief Justice, ruled in two significant slavery cases, finding in 1772 that slavery had no precedent in common law in England, and had never been authorized under positive law. This was taken as the formal end of slavery in Britain. In the Zong massacre, a case related to the slave trade, he narrowly ruled that the owners of the ship were not due insurance payments for the loss of slaves they had thrown overboard during a voyage, as their killing appeared to be related to errors by the officers.
- 英國在1833年廢除奴隸制，約80萬黑奴獲得自由，約4.6萬名奴隸主合共獲得相當於現今170億英鎊(約2,052億港元)的賠償。倫敦大學學院耗時5年搜集奴隸主身份，其中大部分住在大西洋彼岸的西印度群島，他們的後人包括英國首相卡梅倫夫婦、著名小說《1984》作者奧威爾等。當年接受政府賠償最多的是19世紀首相格萊德斯通的父親，他擁有9個甘蔗種植莊園、逾2,500名奴隸，獲賠10.67萬英鎊，相當於現時8,000萬英鎊(約9.7億港元)。奧威爾的曾祖父亦獲得逾4,400英鎊，相當於現今300萬英鎊(約3,600萬港元)。研究發現當年有10%英國人從奴隸制度獲利，精英階層中更有15%與奴隸貿易有關。奴隸主除上流社會人士外，還包括大量教區牧師、鐵匠等中產階級。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2015/07/14/a24-0714.pdf
- http://www.telegraph.co.uk/films/2016/07/06/dido-belle-britains-first-black-aristocrat/
- The International Slavery Museum is a museum located in Liverpool, England that focuses on the history and legacy of the transatlantic slave trade. The museum which forms part of the Merseyside Maritime Museum, consists of three main galleries which focus on the lives of people in West Africa, their eventual enslavement, and their continued fight for freedom. Additionally the museum discusses slavery in the modern day as well as topics on racism and discrimination.
- https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/modern-slavery-ring-victims-human-trafficking-uk-poland-a8990151.html A human trafficking ring which made £2m by exploiting hundreds of vulnerable victims has been dismantled following the UK’s largest modern slavery investigation. More than 400 people – many of them homeless, ex-prisoners or alcoholics – were forced to work for almost nothing after being lured to the west midlands by a well-organised Polish gang. The ringleaders told victims they would earn good money in the UK but instead placed them in cramped, rat-infested accommodation and forced them to work on farms, rubbish recycling centres and poultry factories. They were paid as little as 50p an hour for their labour and in one case a worker was given just coffee and a chicken for redecorating a house. The victims – aged between 17 and 60 – had to use soup kitchens and food banks to eat, while one man was forced to wash in a canal because he had no other access to water.
- 英國格拉斯哥大學去年調查發現，大學曾在十八至十九世紀從蘇格蘭奴隸商人手上，收取了介乎現今市值一千六百萬至一億九千八百萬英鎊的款項。作為賠償，大學上周五聯合西印度群島大學設立「重建公義計劃」，撥出二千萬英鎊（約二億港元）作為成立發展研究中心未來廿年的資金，以促進公眾對奴隸制度歷史的認識。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190825/00180_020.html
- https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/aug/13/museum-slavery-not-solve-problem-racism-britain Sadiq Khan has given his backing to a proposal from the Fabian Society to establish a British slavery museum in London in order “to deepen our understanding of the past and strengthen our commitment to fight racism and hatred in all its forms”. Britain’s role in transatlantic slavery is one of the most misrepresented in the national memory – a tale littered with lies told to hide the dark side of the island’s story.When David Cameron declared Britain should be proud to be the country “that abolished slavery”, he was merely indulging the national myth. As the 2007 celebrations of the act that abolished the slave trade demonstrated, little attention is paid to much other than white saviours such as William Wilberforce. Truly understanding how Britain’s dominant role in slavery built the nation is essential for any progressive understanding of the present.
- https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/people/article/3041020/they-stole-my-mothers-organs-vietnamese-human-trafficking-victim Nguyen, now his early 20s, was held captive in Vietnam and then smuggled to Britain, where he was forced to work on cannabis farms and in a restaurant before eventually being rescued by the British authorities. He was among the hundreds of children who were
trafficked every year from Vietnam to Britain, where the authorities are currently processing his request for asylum. Nguyen did not learn how to read or write as a child and had to use the harvest seasons and the Chinese New Year celebrations as his time references. So he isn’t sure how old he was when he witnessed a group of men kill his mother.She had been trying to help him escape the house where they were being held captive when the men caught them. As punishment, his mother’s organs were removed to be sold.“I was then taken to another very big house – they all spoke foreign languages, I believe Chinese … In this new house, my job was similar. I was doing cleaning work and cooking,” he recalls. “One day, someone put me on the phone with a Vietnamese voice. It was the security guard of the previous boss saying that I should keep working very hard, otherwise I would have my organs removed like my mum had. I stayed in this house for a few years – I had no idea about time.”
spain
- Encomienda (Spanish pronunciation: [eŋkoˈmjenda]) was a labor system in Spain and its empire. It rewarded conquerors with the labor of particular groups of subject people. It was first established in Spain during the Roman period, but used also following the Christian conquest of Muslim territories. It was applied on a much larger scale during the Spanish colonization of the Americas and the Philippines. Conquered peoples were considered vassals of the Spanish monarch. The Crown awarded an encomienda as a grant to a particular individual. In the conquest era of the sixteenth century, the grants were considered to be a monopoly on the labor of particular groups of Indians, held in perpetuity by the grant holder, called the encomendero, and his descendants. In the encomienda, the Spanish Crown granted a person a specified number of natives from a specific community. Indigenous leaders were charged with mobilizing the assessed tribute and labor. In turn, encomenderos were to ensure the native people were given instruction in the Christian faith and Spanish language, and protect them from warring tribes or pirates; they had to suppress rebellion against Spaniards, and maintain infrastructure. In return, the natives would provide tributes in the form of metals, maize, wheat, pork, or other agricultural products.With the ouster of Christopher Columbus, the Spanish crown sent a royal governor, Fray Nicolás de Ovando, who established the formal encomienda system. In many cases natives were forced to do hard labor and subjected to extreme punishment and death if they resisted. However, Queen Isabella of Castile forbade Indian slavery and deemed the indigenous to be "free vassals of the crown". Various versions of the Leyes de Indias or Laws of the Indies from 1512 onwards attempted to regulate the interactions between the settlers and natives. Both natives and Spaniards appealed to the Real Audiencias for relief under the encomienda system. Encomiendas had often been characterized by the geographical displacement of the enslaved and breakup of communities and family units, but in Mexico, the encomienda ruled the free vassals of the crown through existing community hierarchies, and the natives were allowed to keep in touch with their families and homes. This system was similar to the labor that the former indigenous Inca Empire and its predecessors had earlier required from subject peoples.The heart of encomienda and encomendero lies in the Spanish verb encomendar, "to entrust". The encomienda was based on the reconquista institution in which adelantados were given the right to extract tribute from Muslims or other peasants in areas that they had conquered and resettled. The encomienda system traveled to America as the result of the implantation of Castilian law over the territory.
- The system was created in the Middle Ages and was pivotal to allow for the repopulation and protection of frontier land during the reconquista. The encomienda established a relationship similar to a feudal relationship, in which military protection was traded for certain tributes or by specific work. It was especially prevalent among military orders that were entrusted with the protection of frontier areas. The king usually intervened directly or indirectly in the bond, by guaranteeing the fairness of the agreement and intervening militarily in case of abuse. The encomienda system in Spanish America differed from the Peninsular institution. The encomenderos did not own the land on which the natives lived. The system did not entail any direct land tenure by the encomendero; Indian lands were to remain in the possession of their communities. This right was formally protected by the crown of Castile because the rights of administration in the New World belonged to this crown and not to the Catholic monarchs as a whole.
- At the conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession, the Treaty of Utrecht gave to Great Britain a thirty-year asiento or contract, to send one merchant ship to the Spanish port of Portobelo, furnishing 4800 slaves to the Spanish colonies. This provided British traders and smugglers with inroads into the supposedly closed Spanish markets in America. Disputes connected with it led to the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739).Britain gave up its rights to the asiento after the war, in the 1750 Treaty of Madrid. Similar patents in the English system were the Virginia Company, the Levant Company and the Merchant Adventurers' patent of trade with the United Provinces (essentially concurrent with the modern day Netherlands). A detailed and well written overview of the English system is given by Robert Brenner in "Merchants and Revolution".
ancient greece
- Wealthy Classical-age Athenians had slaves called anagnōstai ‘readers’read to them aloud (fun fact: Plato used to teasingly call Aristotle anagnōstēs, because the latter often stayed at home to read by himself instead of going to the Academy). It’s believed that this changed only during the Roman-Byzantine era, when silent reading became prevalent.https://www.quora.com/How-were-Greeks-able-to-orally-pass-down-the-Iliad-and-Odyssey-despite-there-being-nearly-28-000-total-lines-of-metered-poetry-between-them-Without-memorizing-the-words-verbatim-they-would-have-had-difficulty
- A History of Ancient Greece explains that in the context of Ancient Greece, affranchisement came in many forms.[3] A master choosing to free his slave would most likely do so only "at his death, specifying his desire in his will". In rare cases, slaves who were able to earn enough money in their labour were able to buy their own freedom and were known as choris oikointes. Two 4th-century bankers, Pasion and Phormio, had been slaves before they bought their freedom. A slave could also be sold fictitiously to a sanctuary from where a god could enfranchise him. In very rare circumstances, the city could affranchise a slave. A notable example is that Athens liberated everyone who was present at the Battle of Arginusae (406 BCE). Even once a slave was freed, he was not generally permitted to become a citizen, but would become a metic. The master then became a prostatès.[3][4][5] The former slave could be bound to some continuing duty to the master[4] and was commonly required to live near the former master (paramone).[6] Breaches of these conditions could lead to beatings, prosecution at law and re-enslavement.[citation needed] Sometimes, extra payments were specified by which a freed slave could liberate himself from such residual duties.[citation needed] However, ex-slaves were able to own property outright, and their children were free of all constraint.
roman empire
- according to mcgrath, "chrestus" was a common name for slaves at the time of jesus
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-of-the-ancient-Roman-practices-that-would-be-disgusting-today
- The Roman Empire was basically a slave-owning society with very little to speak of human rights, dignity or judicial safety. Nice to be the top dog in such society - but as a woman, it strikes me that women had absolutely no rights in the Roman society. Heck, women did not even have a right to a first name! Almost all Christian female names we use today are Greek, Hebrew or Aramaic - but not Roman. Woman’s name was derived from her father’s cognomen and an ordinal number. So the eldest daughter of Publius Cornelius Scipio would be Cornelia Prima. And the chances would be 98% you wouldn’t be the top dog. https://www.quora.com/Would-you-prefer-to-be-noble-in-late-medieval-Europe-or-in-the-Roman-Empire
- The Romans used slaves who trod on water wheels to drain mines in Hispania, Wales and Cornwall. But slavery was banned in 1066. It was upheld by the 1772 Stuart versus Somerset case. Horses needed to be fed with oats. But Newcomen's Atmospheric Engine burned coal itself. So it was used to drain coal mines. https://www.quora.com/Why-did-it-take-nearly-5000-years-for-civilized-humans-to-reach-the-Industrial-Revolution
ottoman empire
- Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a legal and significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and society. The main sources of slaves were war captives and organized enslavement expeditions in North and East Africa, Eastern Europe, the Balkans and the Caucasus. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves fell after large military operations. Enslavement of Caucasians was banned in the early 19th century, while slaves from other groups were allowed. In Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), the administrative and political center of the Empire, about a fifth of the population consisted of slaves in 1609. Sixteenth- and 17th-century customs statistics suggest that Istanbul's additional slave import from the Black Sea may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700. Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.[6] Sexual slavery was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution. A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a kul in Turkish, could achieve high status. Harem guards and janissaries are some of the better known positions a slave could hold, but slaves were actually often at the forefront of Ottoman politics. The majority of officials in the Ottoman government were bought slaves[citation needed] raised free, and integral to the success of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century into the 19th. Many officials themselves owned a large number of slaves, although the Sultan himself owned by far the most.[6] By raising and specially training slaves as officials in palace schools such as Enderun, the Ottomans created administrators with intricate knowledge of government and fanatic loyalty.
- [tr berg] during the time of mercator (cartographer) , dutch readers were familiar with a map included in lutheran bibles published in antwerp from year 1526. The map was drawn by lucas cranach, a friend of martin luther; its main motif was the journey of israelites from egypt to holy land. The map broke with traditional catholic imagery, which only illustrated certain scenes from the text. The reformers like the map because it symbolised movement from slavery into freedom; from ignorance to knowledge of god. For them, egypt represented the corrupt papacy from which they were trying to break free.
africa
- 這件文物名為「馬尼拉貨幣」。一般人可能覺得奇怪，貨幣不是圓形硬幣或紙幣的麼？怎麼會是手鐲的模樣呢？這些手鐲的確曾是錢幣，大約於公元十五至十八世紀出土於非洲尼日利亞，共五十枚，以青銅及黃銅製造。「馬尼拉」，葡萄牙語是「手鐲」之意，式樣和大小都跟一般手鐲無異。這件珍貴文物最近出現於香港文化博物館的「百物看世界—大英博物館藏品展」，為大英博物館借出展覽的一百件文物中其中一件（組）。「馬尼拉貨幣」負載着殖民主義與奴隸買賣的沉重和血腥內容。銅手鐲錢幣，是那時富人佩戴在手上以炫耀財富的象徵。那時候的非洲，奴隸貿易很普遍，五十枚「馬尼拉」，即五十枚這樣的銅手鐲，就能買下一個黑人奴隸。「馬尼拉」主要在歐洲製造，歐洲人用它來與西非商人交換香料、珊瑚、象牙等，也用於贖買人質和戰俘。殖民主義者為了經營美洲殖民地，起初以契約形式僱用白人在種植園和礦山工作，及後發現人手嚴重短缺，白人價貴，也不好管理，便想到用價廉且易於管理的非洲黑人，買賣黑奴便視為「理所當然」的醜惡勾當。其實，自公元一四四一年起，一支葡萄牙探險隊在非洲西部擄掠了十二名非洲黑人，帶回葡萄牙里斯本出售，就開始了殖民主義國家對黑非洲奴隸的買賣。歐洲資本家從中獲得巨額財富，促進了歐洲的經濟繁榮。奴隸買賣延續四個世紀，使億萬黑人賠上了生命。這些文物由青銅和黃銅製成。金、銅，古時中國和歐洲都視之為錢。漢語有「金錢」，古人稱「銅」為「金」；十九世紀英國作家查爾斯．狄更斯在《董貝父子》中有一個情節：董貝的兒子問他什麼是錢，董貝說：金子、銀子和銅就是錢。在當時的非洲，銅被視為「赤色黃金」。青銅鑄造性好，耐磨且化學性質穩定；黃銅的機械性能和耐磨性能都很好，適合於製造精密儀器如槍炮彈殼、船舶零件、硬幣等。黃銅也能造鑼、鈸、鈴、號、銅管等樂器，此因黃銅的聲音別具一格。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190620/PDF/b8_screen.pdf
- [gc pang and h toth] transatlantic slave trade began in 1530 and organised by portuguese in africa
tunisia
- Slavery in Tunisia was a specific manifestation of the Arab slave trade, which was formally abolished on 23 January 1846 by Ahmed I Bey, however, Shari'a courts would continue enforcing slavery until 1890. Tunisia was in a similar position to that of Algeria, with a geographic position which linked it the main Trans-Saharan routes. It received caravans from Fezzan and Ghadamès, which consisted solely, in the eighteenth century, of gold powder and slaves, according to contemporary witnesses. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, slaves arrived annually in numbers ranging between 500 and 1,200. From Tunisia they were carried on to the ports of the Levant.
ghana
- https://www.reuters.com/article/us-africa-slavery-journey-widerimage/retracing-a-slave-route-in-ghana-400-years-on-idUSKCN1UR4JV This month marks 400 years since the first recorded African slaves arrived in North America to work plantations in English colonies. In the centuries after, European slave traders shipped millions of African men, women and children across the Atlantic Ocean. Many died in horrific conditions on the slave boats, while survivors endured a life of misery and backbreaking farm work.
For some of them, the terrible journey began here, deep inside Ghana. Captured by slavers, they were marched along dirt tracks for 200 kilometers (125 miles) to slave castles perched on the Atlantic Coast, where they boarded ships for North America. They never saw their homeland again. From here in Adidwan, the slaves were forced south, passing through the gold-mining town of Obuasi.But many rulers of West African empires, such as the Ashanti kingdom, whose descendants still live in this part of modern-day Ghana, also profited, selling captured slaves in exchange for guns, cloth, alcohol and other Western manufactured goods. “Our elders exchanged their children for ‘nice things’ like matchboxes,” Agyei says. But once again, his pride in his heritage shows through. “I can say our ancestors were the ones who developed America,” he says.
australia
- !!!! A Malaysian journalist who went undercover to expose exploitation in Victoria’s fruit picking industry said workers were “brainwashed” with religion and trapped in debt to keep them on farms.
Saiful Hasam, a reporter with Utusan Malaysia, gave evidence to a modern slavery inquiry on Monday, speaking of the “thousand sad stories” he heard during his two weeks at a fruit farm in Swan Hill, in northern Victoria. Fruit pickers, often working illegally, were lured to Australia with promises of high incomes, Hasam said. When they arrived, they were paid a pittance, kept in overcrowded homes with exorbitant rent and effectively trapped in debt bondage. Hasam warned the inquiry the exploitation was still occurring on a significant scale.https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/30/australian-slavery-inquiry-told-fruit-pickers-brainwashed-and-trapped-in-debt
s e asia
- scmp 25sep19 southeast asia must end slave labour at sea
china
- [handout of 金木水火土：香港文物收藏精品展] slavery was introduced in china during xia/shang period and coming of bronze age
-????中國奴隸社會早在兩千多年前便已土崩瓦解，但奴役思想從未消失。內地近年頻發的強迫勞動案，儼然是奴隸制的現代翻版，不少弱勢人士被非法拘禁奴役，無償工作之餘還要遭百般虐待，如同畜牲，惟當局每每後知後覺，麻木不仁，盛世底下「奴隸王國」林立，恍如重回蠻荒時代。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190122/00182_001.html
- Hukou is a system of household registration used in mainland China. The system itself is more properly called "huji", and has origins in ancient China; hukou is the registration of an individual in the system. A household registration record officially identifies a person as a resident of an area and includes identifying information such as name, parents, spouse, and date of birth. A hukou can also refer to a family register in many contexts since the household register (simplified Chinese: 户口簿; traditional Chinese: 戶口簿; pinyin: hùkǒu bù) is issued per family, and usually includes the births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and moves, of all members in the family. The system descends in part from ancient Chinese household registration systems. The hukou system also influenced similar systems in neighboring East Asian countries—such as one within the public administration structures of Japan (koseki) and Korea (hoju), as well as Vietnam (hộ khẩu).[1][2][3] In South Korea, the hoju system was abolished in January 2008.[4] While unrelated in origin, propiska in the Soviet Union and resident registration in Russia had a similar purpose and served as a model for modern China's hukou system. Due to its connection to social programs provided by the government, which assigns benefits based on agricultural and non-agricultural residency status (often referred to as rural and urban), the hukou system is sometimes likened to a form of caste system.[7][8][9] It has been the source of much inequality over the decades since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, as urban residents received benefits that ranged from retirement pension to education to health care, while rural citizens were often left to fend for themselves. In recent years, the central government has begun to reform the system in response to protests and a changing economic system, but experts speculate as to whether or not these changes have been of substance.According to the Examination of Hukou in Wenxian Tongkao published in 1317, there was a minister for population management during the Zhou Dynasty named Simin (Chinese: 司民), who was responsible for recording births, deaths, emigrations and immigrations. The Rites of Zhou notes that three copies of documents were kept in different places. The administrative divisions in Zhou Dynasty were a function of the distance to the state capital. The top division nearest the capital was named Dubi (Chinese: 都鄙), top division in more distant areas were named Xiang (Chinese: 鄉) and Sui (Chinese: 遂). Families were organized under the Baojia system. Guan Zhong, Prime Minister of the Qi state 7th century BCE, imposed different taxation and conscription policies on different areas.[14] In addition, Guan Zhong also banned immigration, emigration, and separation of families without permission.[15] In the Book of Lord Shang, Shang Yang also described his policy restricting immigrations and emigrations. Xiao He, the first Chancellor of the Han Dynasty, added the chapter of Hu (Chinese: 户律, "Households Code") as one of the nine basic law codes of Han (Chinese: 九章律), and established the hukou system as the basis of tax revenue and conscription.
- 凉山彝族奴隶社会博物馆，是中国民族学专题博物馆，位于四川省凉山彝族自治州首府西昌市东南郊的泸山北坡。于1985年8月4日建成开放。这里是我国第一个民族博物馆，也是世界唯一反映奴隶社会形态的专题博物馆。四川凉山彝族自治州腹心地区，因其特殊的历史、社会、地理等原因，至解放后的1956年实行民主改革前夕仍保持着完整的奴隶社会制度，这在世界上也实属罕见，被有关专家学者视为研究人类奴隶社会形态的活化石。为了让人们更便捷地了解和研究凉山彝族奴隶社会的方方面面，以及增进民族团结、促进社会进步、教育青少年等目的。在国家领导人和国家民委、文化部、四川省、凉山州有关部门和领导的关心与支持下，于 1982 年初在凉山州府——西昌市南6公里的风景名胜区——丛林环绕中的泸山北坡动工兴建凉山彝族奴隶社会博物馆。该馆主要建筑采用红、黄、黑三种彝族绘画的传统色彩，绘以日、月、山、水、羊角、鸟羽、火镰、鱼网等取材于自然的图案。整个建筑具有彝族风格。第四届中国凉山彝族国际火把节彝族古代兵器展、彝族民间手工艺制作展以及凉山百年老照片展，在凉山彝族奴隶社会博物馆正式开展。州委常委、宣传部部长王金铁，州人大常委会副主任薛才全，副州长刘焰，州政协副主席安学发参加了剪彩仪式。
hk
- association
roman empire
- according to mcgrath, "chrestus" was a common name for slaves at the time of jesus
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-of-the-ancient-Roman-practices-that-would-be-disgusting-today
- The Roman Empire was basically a slave-owning society with very little to speak of human rights, dignity or judicial safety. Nice to be the top dog in such society - but as a woman, it strikes me that women had absolutely no rights in the Roman society. Heck, women did not even have a right to a first name! Almost all Christian female names we use today are Greek, Hebrew or Aramaic - but not Roman. Woman’s name was derived from her father’s cognomen and an ordinal number. So the eldest daughter of Publius Cornelius Scipio would be Cornelia Prima. And the chances would be 98% you wouldn’t be the top dog. https://www.quora.com/Would-you-prefer-to-be-noble-in-late-medieval-Europe-or-in-the-Roman-Empire
- The Romans used slaves who trod on water wheels to drain mines in Hispania, Wales and Cornwall. But slavery was banned in 1066. It was upheld by the 1772 Stuart versus Somerset case. Horses needed to be fed with oats. But Newcomen's Atmospheric Engine burned coal itself. So it was used to drain coal mines. https://www.quora.com/Why-did-it-take-nearly-5000-years-for-civilized-humans-to-reach-the-Industrial-Revolution
ottoman empire
- Slavery in the Ottoman Empire was a legal and significant part of the Ottoman Empire's economy and society. The main sources of slaves were war captives and organized enslavement expeditions in North and East Africa, Eastern Europe, the Balkans and the Caucasus. It has been reported that the selling price of slaves fell after large military operations. Enslavement of Caucasians was banned in the early 19th century, while slaves from other groups were allowed. In Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), the administrative and political center of the Empire, about a fifth of the population consisted of slaves in 1609. Sixteenth- and 17th-century customs statistics suggest that Istanbul's additional slave import from the Black Sea may have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700. Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely unabated into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire.[6] Sexual slavery was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution. A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a kul in Turkish, could achieve high status. Harem guards and janissaries are some of the better known positions a slave could hold, but slaves were actually often at the forefront of Ottoman politics. The majority of officials in the Ottoman government were bought slaves[citation needed] raised free, and integral to the success of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century into the 19th. Many officials themselves owned a large number of slaves, although the Sultan himself owned by far the most.[6] By raising and specially training slaves as officials in palace schools such as Enderun, the Ottomans created administrators with intricate knowledge of government and fanatic loyalty.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-were-Balkan-people-allowed-to-reach-the-highest-positions-in-the-Ottoman-Empire It wasnt to allow Balkan people to reach the highest positions in the Ottoman Empire, it was to disallow Turkmen people to reach the highest positions in the Ottoman Empire. Ottomans didnt want their officers to be of noble, even non slave origin. The biggest problem feudal states suffered back in the day was to ensure their officials royalty. Before Ottomans in Turkic kingdoms a king had to connect all the tribal chiefs to himself. Because a Turkic warrior prioritized his tribal chief more than the king. In 1402 battle of Ankara, Ottomans witnessed this first hand. Many of the Turkish Sipahi’s tribal chiefs were with Timur and they were demanding Timur to defeat Ottomans and give their beyligs(chiefdoms)back to them. During battle anatolian sipahi cavalry changed sides and Only janissaries and Serbian cavalry remained royal to Ottoman Sultan. This is the reason Ottomans wanted soldiers with slave origin rather than soldiers who are more linked to their tribal lines. One problem though, islam forbids enslavement of muslims. So you cant enslave Turks and use them. Solution: then enslave Balkan people. Same thing applied not just to soldiers but local governors as well. You send a governor all the way to desert of Fezzan or Egypt. How do you trust him to stay loyal forever ? He can gather an army from locals and declare independence. If he is of slave origin though, his being king claims will be questionable. spoiler: Although successful, even this turned out to be not work after the empires central authority started to collapse later on. Kavalalı Mehmet Ali Pasha, an Albanian, famously found his own kingdom in Egypt and even invaded Ottoman Empire. Though I must say Albanians and Bosnians were not really inside this system, because they converted to islam(they were bogomils before and I heard they were pressured by Orthodox and Catholics both). For the janissaries, even them started taking out sultans and putting those whom they favored. Though after 16th century Turks bribed officers to appoint their children as janissaries(being one was very prestigious obviously) so you cant really say the idea failed, they just failed the idea. One pretty interesting note here: The ancestors of Ottomans, Seljuks also had this slave originated soldiers system. They were called Ghulam, which means owned in Arabic. But unlike janissaries Ghulams were mostly of Turkic descent(because there were still Tengrist Turks and Seljuks werent as strict as Ottomans in terms of islamic laws(therefore all that not enslaving muslims thing)) Seljuks took this system from Ghaznavids after defeating them in battle of Dandanakan. Ghaznavids were a persianized islamified Turkic kingdom. They took the system from Abbasids. And thats the ultimate origin of this system folks. The Abbasid Arabs under the reign of Al-mustasim are the inventors of this system. They enslaved tengrist Turkic nomads as elite cavalry and called them Ghulams, later aka Mamluks. But spoilers: they also didnt stay loyal infinitely and one day they took over the kingdom with a coup and found an interesting meristocratic state in Egypt: Mamluk Sultanate. They called themselves dawlat-ul Türkiyya, the state of the Turks.
- [tr berg] during the time of mercator (cartographer) , dutch readers were familiar with a map included in lutheran bibles published in antwerp from year 1526. The map was drawn by lucas cranach, a friend of martin luther; its main motif was the journey of israelites from egypt to holy land. The map broke with traditional catholic imagery, which only illustrated certain scenes from the text. The reformers like the map because it symbolised movement from slavery into freedom; from ignorance to knowledge of god. For them, egypt represented the corrupt papacy from which they were trying to break free.
africa
- 這件文物名為「馬尼拉貨幣」。一般人可能覺得奇怪，貨幣不是圓形硬幣或紙幣的麼？怎麼會是手鐲的模樣呢？這些手鐲的確曾是錢幣，大約於公元十五至十八世紀出土於非洲尼日利亞，共五十枚，以青銅及黃銅製造。「馬尼拉」，葡萄牙語是「手鐲」之意，式樣和大小都跟一般手鐲無異。這件珍貴文物最近出現於香港文化博物館的「百物看世界—大英博物館藏品展」，為大英博物館借出展覽的一百件文物中其中一件（組）。「馬尼拉貨幣」負載着殖民主義與奴隸買賣的沉重和血腥內容。銅手鐲錢幣，是那時富人佩戴在手上以炫耀財富的象徵。那時候的非洲，奴隸貿易很普遍，五十枚「馬尼拉」，即五十枚這樣的銅手鐲，就能買下一個黑人奴隸。「馬尼拉」主要在歐洲製造，歐洲人用它來與西非商人交換香料、珊瑚、象牙等，也用於贖買人質和戰俘。殖民主義者為了經營美洲殖民地，起初以契約形式僱用白人在種植園和礦山工作，及後發現人手嚴重短缺，白人價貴，也不好管理，便想到用價廉且易於管理的非洲黑人，買賣黑奴便視為「理所當然」的醜惡勾當。其實，自公元一四四一年起，一支葡萄牙探險隊在非洲西部擄掠了十二名非洲黑人，帶回葡萄牙里斯本出售，就開始了殖民主義國家對黑非洲奴隸的買賣。歐洲資本家從中獲得巨額財富，促進了歐洲的經濟繁榮。奴隸買賣延續四個世紀，使億萬黑人賠上了生命。這些文物由青銅和黃銅製成。金、銅，古時中國和歐洲都視之為錢。漢語有「金錢」，古人稱「銅」為「金」；十九世紀英國作家查爾斯．狄更斯在《董貝父子》中有一個情節：董貝的兒子問他什麼是錢，董貝說：金子、銀子和銅就是錢。在當時的非洲，銅被視為「赤色黃金」。青銅鑄造性好，耐磨且化學性質穩定；黃銅的機械性能和耐磨性能都很好，適合於製造精密儀器如槍炮彈殼、船舶零件、硬幣等。黃銅也能造鑼、鈸、鈴、號、銅管等樂器，此因黃銅的聲音別具一格。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190620/PDF/b8_screen.pdf
- [gc pang and h toth] transatlantic slave trade began in 1530 and organised by portuguese in africa
tunisia
- Slavery in Tunisia was a specific manifestation of the Arab slave trade, which was formally abolished on 23 January 1846 by Ahmed I Bey, however, Shari'a courts would continue enforcing slavery until 1890. Tunisia was in a similar position to that of Algeria, with a geographic position which linked it the main Trans-Saharan routes. It received caravans from Fezzan and Ghadamès, which consisted solely, in the eighteenth century, of gold powder and slaves, according to contemporary witnesses. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, slaves arrived annually in numbers ranging between 500 and 1,200. From Tunisia they were carried on to the ports of the Levant.
ghana
- https://www.reuters.com/article/us-africa-slavery-journey-widerimage/retracing-a-slave-route-in-ghana-400-years-on-idUSKCN1UR4JV This month marks 400 years since the first recorded African slaves arrived in North America to work plantations in English colonies. In the centuries after, European slave traders shipped millions of African men, women and children across the Atlantic Ocean. Many died in horrific conditions on the slave boats, while survivors endured a life of misery and backbreaking farm work.
For some of them, the terrible journey began here, deep inside Ghana. Captured by slavers, they were marched along dirt tracks for 200 kilometers (125 miles) to slave castles perched on the Atlantic Coast, where they boarded ships for North America. They never saw their homeland again. From here in Adidwan, the slaves were forced south, passing through the gold-mining town of Obuasi.But many rulers of West African empires, such as the Ashanti kingdom, whose descendants still live in this part of modern-day Ghana, also profited, selling captured slaves in exchange for guns, cloth, alcohol and other Western manufactured goods. “Our elders exchanged their children for ‘nice things’ like matchboxes,” Agyei says. But once again, his pride in his heritage shows through. “I can say our ancestors were the ones who developed America,” he says.
australia
- !!!! A Malaysian journalist who went undercover to expose exploitation in Victoria’s fruit picking industry said workers were “brainwashed” with religion and trapped in debt to keep them on farms.
Saiful Hasam, a reporter with Utusan Malaysia, gave evidence to a modern slavery inquiry on Monday, speaking of the “thousand sad stories” he heard during his two weeks at a fruit farm in Swan Hill, in northern Victoria. Fruit pickers, often working illegally, were lured to Australia with promises of high incomes, Hasam said. When they arrived, they were paid a pittance, kept in overcrowded homes with exorbitant rent and effectively trapped in debt bondage. Hasam warned the inquiry the exploitation was still occurring on a significant scale.https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/30/australian-slavery-inquiry-told-fruit-pickers-brainwashed-and-trapped-in-debt
s e asia
- scmp 25sep19 southeast asia must end slave labour at sea
china
- [handout of 金木水火土：香港文物收藏精品展] slavery was introduced in china during xia/shang period and coming of bronze age
-????中國奴隸社會早在兩千多年前便已土崩瓦解，但奴役思想從未消失。內地近年頻發的強迫勞動案，儼然是奴隸制的現代翻版，不少弱勢人士被非法拘禁奴役，無償工作之餘還要遭百般虐待，如同畜牲，惟當局每每後知後覺，麻木不仁，盛世底下「奴隸王國」林立，恍如重回蠻荒時代。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190122/00182_001.html
- Hukou is a system of household registration used in mainland China. The system itself is more properly called "huji", and has origins in ancient China; hukou is the registration of an individual in the system. A household registration record officially identifies a person as a resident of an area and includes identifying information such as name, parents, spouse, and date of birth. A hukou can also refer to a family register in many contexts since the household register (simplified Chinese: 户口簿; traditional Chinese: 戶口簿; pinyin: hùkǒu bù) is issued per family, and usually includes the births, deaths, marriages, divorces, and moves, of all members in the family. The system descends in part from ancient Chinese household registration systems. The hukou system also influenced similar systems in neighboring East Asian countries—such as one within the public administration structures of Japan (koseki) and Korea (hoju), as well as Vietnam (hộ khẩu).[1][2][3] In South Korea, the hoju system was abolished in January 2008.[4] While unrelated in origin, propiska in the Soviet Union and resident registration in Russia had a similar purpose and served as a model for modern China's hukou system. Due to its connection to social programs provided by the government, which assigns benefits based on agricultural and non-agricultural residency status (often referred to as rural and urban), the hukou system is sometimes likened to a form of caste system.[7][8][9] It has been the source of much inequality over the decades since the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, as urban residents received benefits that ranged from retirement pension to education to health care, while rural citizens were often left to fend for themselves. In recent years, the central government has begun to reform the system in response to protests and a changing economic system, but experts speculate as to whether or not these changes have been of substance.According to the Examination of Hukou in Wenxian Tongkao published in 1317, there was a minister for population management during the Zhou Dynasty named Simin (Chinese: 司民), who was responsible for recording births, deaths, emigrations and immigrations. The Rites of Zhou notes that three copies of documents were kept in different places. The administrative divisions in Zhou Dynasty were a function of the distance to the state capital. The top division nearest the capital was named Dubi (Chinese: 都鄙), top division in more distant areas were named Xiang (Chinese: 鄉) and Sui (Chinese: 遂). Families were organized under the Baojia system. Guan Zhong, Prime Minister of the Qi state 7th century BCE, imposed different taxation and conscription policies on different areas.[14] In addition, Guan Zhong also banned immigration, emigration, and separation of families without permission.[15] In the Book of Lord Shang, Shang Yang also described his policy restricting immigrations and emigrations. Xiao He, the first Chancellor of the Han Dynasty, added the chapter of Hu (Chinese: 户律, "Households Code") as one of the nine basic law codes of Han (Chinese: 九章律), and established the hukou system as the basis of tax revenue and conscription.
- 凉山彝族奴隶社会博物馆，是中国民族学专题博物馆，位于四川省凉山彝族自治州首府西昌市东南郊的泸山北坡。于1985年8月4日建成开放。这里是我国第一个民族博物馆，也是世界唯一反映奴隶社会形态的专题博物馆。四川凉山彝族自治州腹心地区，因其特殊的历史、社会、地理等原因，至解放后的1956年实行民主改革前夕仍保持着完整的奴隶社会制度，这在世界上也实属罕见，被有关专家学者视为研究人类奴隶社会形态的活化石。为了让人们更便捷地了解和研究凉山彝族奴隶社会的方方面面，以及增进民族团结、促进社会进步、教育青少年等目的。在国家领导人和国家民委、文化部、四川省、凉山州有关部门和领导的关心与支持下，于 1982 年初在凉山州府——西昌市南6公里的风景名胜区——丛林环绕中的泸山北坡动工兴建凉山彝族奴隶社会博物馆。该馆主要建筑采用红、黄、黑三种彝族绘画的传统色彩，绘以日、月、山、水、羊角、鸟羽、火镰、鱼网等取材于自然的图案。整个建筑具有彝族风格。第四届中国凉山彝族国际火把节彝族古代兵器展、彝族民间手工艺制作展以及凉山百年老照片展，在凉山彝族奴隶社会博物馆正式开展。州委常委、宣传部部长王金铁，州人大常委会副主任薛才全，副州长刘焰，州政协副主席安学发参加了剪彩仪式。
hk
- association
- mekong club (hk based anti slavery ngo)
- silvia mera, programme director contributed an article to scmp on 3may19
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