bookmark backup: hinduism

Hinduism is the religion of the majority of people in India and Nepal. It also exists among significant populations outside of the sub continent and has over 900 million adherents worldwide. In some ways Hinduism is the oldest living religion in the world, or at least elements within it stretch back many thousands of years. Yet Hinduism resists easy definition partly because of the vast array of practices and beliefs found within it. It is also closely associated conceptually and historically with the other Indian religions Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. Unlike most other religions, Hinduism has no single founder, no single scripture, and no commonly agreed set of teachings. Throughout its extensive history, there have been many key figures teaching different philosophies and writing numerous holy books. For these reasons, writers often refer to Hinduism as 'a way of life' or 'a family of religions' rather than a single religion. The term 'Hindu' was derived from the river or river complex of the northwest, the Sindhu. Sindhu is a Sanskrit word used by the inhabitants of the region, the Aryans in the second millennium BCE. Later migrants and invaders, the Persians in the sixth century BCE, the Greeks from the 4th century BCE, and the Muslims from the 8th century CE, used the name of this river in their own languages for the land and its people. The term 'Hindu' itself probably does not go back before the 15th and 16th centuries when it was used by people to differentiate themselves from followers of other traditions, especially the Muslims (Yavannas), in Kashmir and Bengal. At that time the term may have simply indicated groups united by certain cultural practices such as cremation of the dead and styles of cuisine. The 'ism' was added to 'Hindu' only in the 19th century in the context of British colonialism and missionary activity. The origins of the term 'hindu' are thus cultural, political and geographical. Now the term is widely accepted although any definition is subject to much debate. In some ways it is true to say that Hinduism is a religion of recent origin yet its roots and formation go back thousands of years. Some claim that one is 'born a Hindu', but there are now many Hindus of non-Indian descent. Others claim that its core feature is belief in animpersonal Supreme, but important strands have long described and worshipped a personal God. Outsiders often criticise Hindus as being polytheistic, but many adherents claim to be monotheists. Some Hindus define orthodoxy as compliance with the teachings of theVedic texts (the four Vedas and their supplements). However, still others identify their tradition with 'Sanatana Dharma', the eternal order of conduct that transcends any specific body of sacred literature. Scholars sometimes draw attention to the caste system as a defining feature, but many Hindus view such practices as merely a social phenomenon or an aberration of their original teachings. Nor can we define Hinduism according to belief in concepts such as karma and samsara (reincarnation) because Jains, Sikhs, and Buddhists (in a qualified form) accept this teaching too. Although it is not easy to define Hinduism, we can say that it is rooted in India, most Hindus revere a body of texts as sacred scripture known as theVeda, and most Hindus draw on a common system of values known asdharma. Hinduism originated around the Indus Valley near the River Indus in modern day Pakistan.

About 80% of the Indian population regard themselves as Hindu.
Most Hindus believe in a Supreme God, whose qualities and forms are represented by the multitude of deities which emanate from him.
Hindus believe that existence is a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, governed by Karma.
Hindus believe that the soul passes through a cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the previous life was lived.
The main Hindu texts are the Vedas and their supplements (books based on the Vedas). Veda is a Sanskrit word meaning 'knowledge'. These scriptures do not mention the word 'Hindu' but many scriptures discuss dharma, which can be rendered as 'code of conduct', 'law', or 'duty'
Hindus celebrate many holy days, but the Festival of Lights, Diwali is the best known.
The 2001 census recorded 559,000 Hindus in Britain, around 1% of the population.

Brahmanism is the religion that developed out of the historical Vedic religion in ancient India. The term is different from Brahminism, the latter is sometimes used to identify a ritualistic system led by the Brahmin priests in the Hindu society.The term Brahmanism is derived from the central metaphysical and pantheistic concept ofBrahman that developed during the Vedic era, which was posited as that which existed before the creation of the universe, which constitutes all of existence thereafter, and into which the universe will dissolve into, followed by similar endless creation-maintenance-destruction cycles. The term Brahmanism is considered synonymous with Hinduism, by some scholars. Others consider the transition from ancient Brahmanism into schools of Hinduism that emerged later as a form of evolution, which happened imperceptibly, and one that preserved many of the central ideas and theosophy in the Vedas, and synergistically integrated new ideas. Of the major traditions that emerged from Brahmanism are the sixdarshanas, particular the Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism.

- The Shatapatha Brahmana (IAST: Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, "Brāhmaṇa of one hundred parts") is a prose text describing Vedic rituals, history and mythology associated with the Śukla Yajurveda. The text describes in great detail the preparation of altars, ceremonial objects, ritual recitations, and the Soma libation, along with the symbolic attributes of every aspect of the rituals. It survives in two recensions - Vājasaneyi mādhyandina śākhā and Kāṇva śākhā, with the former having the eponymous 100 adhyāyas (chapters), 7,624 kāṇḍikās (parts) in 14 kāṇḍas (books), and the latter 104 adhyāyas, 6,806 kāṇḍikās in 17 kāṇḍas. The name given to the Vājasaneyi mādhyandina śākhā is due to its origin being ascribed to YājñavalkyaVājasaneya whose opinions are considered authoritative and quoted prolifically in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa, apart from those of Śāṇḍilya. The 14 books of the Madhyandina recension can be divided into two major parts. The first 9 books have close textual commentaries, often line by line, of the first 18 books of the corresponding samhita of the Yajurveda. The following 5 books cover supplementary and ritualistically newer material, besides including the celebrated Bṛhad-Āraṇyaka Upaniṣad as most of the 14th and last book. Among the points of interest in the text are its mythological sections, including the myths of creation and the Deluge of Manu.^[6]^[7] The creation myth has several similarities to other creation myths, including the use of primordial water (similar to the Bible), the explanation of light and darkness, the separation of good and evil, and the explanation of time.

Sanskrit phrase lokapakti in the Satapatha Brahmana, translating it as “cooking the world.” The sacrificial fire of the Brahmins was like the sun that cooks everything, lokapakti.

- brahman

[signet]

OM - this syllable is brahman. The self, whose symbol is OM, is the omniscient lord. 1st aspect - universal person, collective symbol of created beings, in his physical nature vaiswanara, which is awake and conscious only of external objects. He has 7 members, 19 instruments of knowledge, 5 organs of sense, 5 organs of action, 5 functions of breath, he is the enjoyer of pleasures of sense. 2nd aspect -universal person in his mental nature taijasa, which has 7 members and 19 instruments of knowledge. He is dreaming, and is conscious only of his dreams. In this state he is the enjoyer of subtle impressions in his mind of the deeds he has done in the past. 3rd aspect- universal person in dreamless sleep prajna, which dreams not. He is without desire. Since he experiences neither strife nor anxiety, he is said to be blissful,the experiencer of bliss. Prajna is known as iswara, god in his personal aspect. Dreamless sleep is ignorance ( within this exist all three states of consciousness). Iswara, technically, is brahmin associated with maya, or universal ignorance, and individual man is brahmin associated with individual ignorance. The distinction bw god and man is that god controls ignorance, man is controlled by it. 4th aspect - pure unitary consciousness, wherein awareness of the world and of multiplicity is completely obliterated. It is ineffable peace. The syllable is AUM (vaiswanara corresponds to A, taijasa corresponds to U, prajna corresponds to M). The fourth is OM.

the absolute, impersonal existence; when associated with the power called maya- the power to evolve as the empirical universe- is known as hiranyagarbha, the first born

agni, whose name means fire, is said to be all-seeing, the fire symbolising brahman, the revealer; the two fire sticks, which being rubbed together produce the fire, represent the heart and mind of man. Offering oblations in sacrificial fire - vedic sacrifice
this universe is a tree eternally existing, the pure rootbof the tree is brahman, the immortal, in whom the three worlds (sky, earth, and nether world) have their being, whom none can transcend, who is verily the self. Above the senses is the mind. Above the mind is the intellect, above the intellect is the ego, above the ego is the unmanifested seed, the primal cause, verily beyond the unmanifested seed is brahman. There are two selves, the apparent and the real. Radiating from the lotus of heart there are 101 nerves. One of these ascends toward the thousand-petaled lotus in the brain
**** the sun symbolises the self, or brahman, as is usual in the vedas,. The golden orb, like the rays and lights, is maya, the world of appearance
the lord of beings meditated and produced prana, the primal energy, and rayi, the giver of form, desiring that they, male and female, should in manifold ways produce creatures for him. Prana is the sun and rayi is the moon. Uniting they divide the year, they are paths of the sun that men travel after death - southern (path of fathers, for those who desire offspring and are devoted to alms giving and rituals) and northern (those who are devoted to the worship of self by means of austerity, continence, faith and knowledge). They uniting form the month. Its dark fortnight is rayi, and its bright fortnight is prana. Food is prana and rayi. From food is produced seed, and from seed, in turn, are born all creatives
five elements/powers that compose the body - ether, air, fire, water, earth
as spokes in the hub of a wheel, so is everything made fast in prana - the rik, the yajur, the sama, all sacrifices, the kshatriyas, and the brahmins
the prana himself dwells in eye, ear, mouth, and nose; the apana (2nd prana) rules the organ of excretion and generation; the samana (3rd prana) inhabits the navel and governs digestion ans assimilation. The self dwells in the lotus of the heart - radiate 101 nerves - each of these proceed 100 others - from each of these again 7200 others - all these moves the vyana (4th prana); at the moment of death, thru the nerve in the center of spine, the udana (5th prana) leads virtuous man upward to higher birth, the sinful man downward to lower birth, and the man who is both virtuous and sinful to rebirth in world of men
the sun is the prana of universe, it rises to help the prana in the eye of man to see. The power of earth maintains the apanavin man. The ether bw the sun and the earth is the samana, and the all pervading air is vyana. Udana is fire, and therefore he whose bodily heat has gone out dies, after which his senses are absorbed in the mind, and he is born again
prana created 16 elements and named them - they are spokes projecting from the self, who is the hub of the wheel.
brahmin revealed knowledge to his first born son atharva, he then taught angi, angi taught satgyabaha, satyabaha taught angiras, angiras taught sounaka, the famous householder
there are two kinds of knowledge, the higher and the lower. The lower is knowledge of vedas (the rik, the sama, the yajur, andcthe atharva) and also of phonetics, ceremonuals, grammar, etymology, metre, and astronomy. The higher is knowledge of that by which one knows the changeless reality
before creation came into existence, brahmin existed as the unmanifest. From the unmanifest he created the manifest. From himself he brought forth himself. Hence he is known as the self existent.
gandharvas, pitris, devas, etc are beings of a higher order than man. 100 times the joy of x is one unit of joy of y - gandharvas, celestial gandharvas, pitris, devas, karma devas, ruling devas, indra, brihaspati, prajapati, brahma
worlds - ambhas (highest world, above sky and upheld by it), marichi (the sky), mara (mortal world), apa (world beneath the earth)
door of bliss - highest center of spiritual consciousness, technically known as sahashrara, the thousand-petaled lotus, is situated in the center of the brain.
sage vamadeva, having realised brahman as pure consciousness, departed this life, ascended into heaven, obtained all his desires, and achieved immortality
requirements of duty - (1) sacrifice, study, almsgiving; (2) austerity (3) life as a student in the home of a teacher and the practice of continence. Together, these three lead one to realm of the blest.
themes similar to other religions: seeds (incl mustard seeds)
satyakama story - four cardinal points (east, west, south, north) form a foot of brahman. Fire will teach another. Upakosala dwelt as a student in his house
svetaketu story - father is uddalaka, ref to nyagrodha tree, salt

sanatkumara teaching narada - ref to amalaka, kola andvaksha fruits. Following in order of highness: insight, concentration, discriminating will, will, mind. The infinite is the source of joy. There is no joy in the finite.
prajapati teachings - indra ([goddard's lankavatara scripture] sometimes known as shakra, and sometimes as purandara) from gods and virochana from demons went to prajapati. For 32 years they lived with as pupils.

dialogue bw yagnavalkya and maitreyi - ref to conch shell, duality, purusha (dwelling within the lotus of heart), He, the lird, is revealed in all forms through his maya
dialogue bw yagnavalkya and janaka (offer former cows, empire of videha) - da syllable - damayata (becself controlled), datta (be charitable), dayadhwam (be compassionate)
svetasvatara - he is One without a second. Deep witihin all beings he dwells, hidden from sight by coverings of gunas - sattwa, rajas, and tamas. This vast universe is a wheel. Upon it all are creatures that are subject to birth, death and rebirth. Roubdcand round it turns, and never stops. It is the wheel of brahman. As long as the individual self thinks it is separate from brahman, it revolves upon the wheel in bondage to laws of birth, death and rebirth. But when thru grace of brahman it realises its identity with him, it revolves upon the wheel no longer. It achieves immortality. Note by signet that here appears for 1st time in extant hindu literature the image of wheel as applied to birth, death and rebirth. Mind and matter, master and servant - both have existed from beginningless time. The maya which unites them has also existed from beginningless time. When all three - mind, matter, and maya are known as one with brahman, then it is realised that the self is infinite and has no part innaction. Then is it revealed that the self is all. The great being has a thousand hands, a thousand etes, and a thousand feet. Ref to brahman supreme - thoubart dark betterfly, green parrot with red eyes. Maya is thy divine consort wedded to thee. Thou art her master, her ruler. Red, white and black is she, each color a guna.

- The Brahman or Brahma is a breed of Zebu cattle (Bos indicus) that was first bred in United States from cattle breeds imported from India. Brahma cattle were produced by cross-breeding the Kankrej cattle and Guzerat cattle, Ongole, Gir, Krishna Valley breeds of cattle. The Brahman is one of the most popular breeds of cattle intended for meat processing and is widely used in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, United States, Panama, Colombia and Australia among many other places.The Indian-origin Brahman cattle breed is named after the Brahmins (Hindu priests), who themselves are named after the Hindu deity Brahma. Hindu Brahmins are vegetarians and consider cows holy and bulls sacred, eating neither. It is an irony a breed named after the sacred Hindu icons has become the largest source of meat for the meat-eaters.The American Brahman was the first beef cattle breed developed in the United States. It was bred in the early 1900s as a cross of 4 different Indian cattle breeds : Gujarat, Ongole, Gir, Krishna Valley. The original American Brahman cattle originated from a nucleus of approximately 266 bulls and 22 females of several Bos indicus (cattle of India) varieties imported into the United States between 1854 and 1926. The Brahman is mainly used for breeding and the meat industry. It has been crossbred extensively with Bos taurus taurus (European) beef breeds of cattle. It has been used to develop numerous other U.S. beef breeds including Brangus, Beefmaster, Simbrah and Santa Gertrudis. Brahman cattle are known for their extreme tolerance to heat and are widespread in tropical regions. They are resistant to insects due to their thick skin. Brahman cattle live longer than many other breeds, often producing calves at ages 15 and older. In Oman and Fujairah, Brahman bulls are used in the traditional sport of bull-butting. The American Brahman Breeders Association was formed in 1924 as the official herd registry to track and verify cattle bloodlines. This organization is now headquartered in Houston. In Australia the Brahman Breeders Association of Australia is the body in which members register their cattle and can become members if they wish to have registered cattle.

https://www.scmp.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/article/3044026/sales-cow-dung-art-soap-shampoo-toothpaste-and-more-india

The Bhagavad Gita (Sanskrit: भगवद्गीता, bhagavad-gītā in IAST, Sanskrit pronunciation: [ˈbʱəɡəʋəd̪ ɡiːˈt̪aː]; lit. "Song of the Lord"^[1]), often referred to as simply the Gita, is a 700-verse Hindu scripture in Sanskritthat is part of the Hindu epic Mahabharata(chapters 25 - 42 of the 6th book of Mahabharata). Hindu traditionalists assert that the Gita came into existence in the third or fourth millennium BCE. Scholars accept dates from the fifth century to the second century BC as the probable range.

Worship figures

- Vishnu (/ˈvɪʃnuː/; Sanskrit pronunciation: [ʋɪʂɳʊ]; Sanskrit: विष्णु, IAST: Viṣṇu) is one of the principal deities of Hinduism, and the Supreme Being or absolute truth in its Vaishnavism tradition.^[5]^[6] Vishnu is the "preserver" in the Hindu triad (Trimurti) that includes Brahma and Shiva.

vishnu is viewed by hindus as a supreme god who embodies forces of stability. He is said to be in blue skin and can cross the great land with two steps. He has various manifestations including krishna, buddha and others.

- Shiva (/ˈʃivə/; Sanskrit: शिव, IAST: Śiva, lit. the auspicious one) is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being within Shaivism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Shiva is the "destroyer of evil and the transformer" within the Trimurti, the Hindu trinity that includes Brahma and Vishnu. In Shaivism tradition, Shiva is the Supreme being who creates, protects and transforms the universe.^[13]^[14]^[15] In the goddess tradition of Hinduism called Shaktism, the goddess is described as supreme, yet Shiva is revered along with Vishnu and Brahma. A goddess is stated to be the energy and creative power (Shakti) of each, with Parvati the equal complementary partner of Shiva. He is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. According to the Shaivism sect, the highest form of Shiva is formless, limitless, transcendent and unchanging absolute Brahman,^[17] and the primal Atman (soul, self) of the universe. Shiva has many benevolent and fearsome depictions. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Mount Kailash as well as a householder with wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya. In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi Shiva, regarded as the patron god of yoga, meditation and arts. The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair, the third eye on his forehead, the trishula as his weapon and the damaru. He is usually worshipped in the aniconic form of Lingam. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus, in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

He is commonly represented not in human form but as a linga or sign, a disembodied phallus, and dwells on mount kailash with his spouse, known as parvati or uma. Yogis devoted to shiva, who live an austere life and practice abstinence, are said to be granted a vision of the two together. Shiva has numerous manifestations, and he had assumed the fearsome form of bhairava after having cut off one of the heads of the creator-god brahma. Bharirava was forced to wander for twelve years until the waters of ganges river finally cleansed him of his sin. His spouse can appear as the terrifying kali or durga, a warrior who slays a buffalo demon.
SH – denotes perennial pleasure of eternal bliss; I – denotes Supreme God SHIVA(which is known when one attains self-realization); VA – denotes immortal nectar power - Para Shakthi. https://www.quora.com/Does-the-words-Shiva-and-Allah-convey-the-same-meaning
Rudraksha (IAST:Rudrākṣa, Devanagari: रुद्राक्ष, Bengali: রুদ্রাক্ষ, Kannada:ರುದ್ರಾಕ್ಷಿ,^[1] Telugu: రుద్రాక్ష,^[2] Tamil:ருத்ராட்சம்^[3]) is a seed traditionally used as prayer beads in Hinduism (especially Shaivism). Rudraksha bead are covered by an outer shell of blue color on fully ripening, hence also called blueberry beads.^[4] The seed is produced by several species of large evergreen broad-leaved tree in the genus Elaeocarpus, with Elaeocarpus ganitrus roxb being the principal specie.^[5] They are associated with the Hindu deity Lord Shiva and are commonly worn for protection and chanting Om Namah Shivaya mantra by devotees. The seeds are primarily used in India and Nepal as beads for organic jewellery and malas and are valued similarly to semi-precious stones. Rudraksha is a Sanskrit compound word consisting of the Rudra (Sanskrit: रुद्र) and akṣa (Sanskrit: अक्ष ).^[6]^[7] Rudra is one of Lord Shiva'svedic names and Akṣa means 'teardrops'. So it means Lord Rudra's (Lord Shiva's) teardrops. There are other sources like Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami and Kamal Narayan Seetha who describes Akṣa as eye. So meaning of Rudraksha could also constitutes as "Eye of Lord Shiva" or "Eye of Rudra".
Matsyendra, Matsyendranātha, Macchindranāth or Mīnanātha (early 10th century) was a saint and yogi in a number of Buddhist and Hindu traditions. He is traditionally considered the revivalist of hatha yoga as well as the author of some of its earliest texts. He is also seen as the founder of the natha sampradaya, having received the teachings from Shiva.^[4] He is especially associated with kaula shaivism.^[5] He is also one of the eighty-four mahasiddhas and considered the guru of Gorakshanath, another important figure in early hatha yoga. He is revered by both Hindus and Buddhists and is sometimes regarded as an incarnation of Avalokiteśvara.Little is known about the life of Matsyendra: his son is Minanatha and he is also associated with Lui-Pa, all of whose names translate as 'Lord of the Fishes'. Legends vary in describing his birthplace.^[6] Giuseppe Tucci states, on the authority of two Tibetan works - the Siddha (Wylie: grub thob) and Taranatha's "Possessing the Seven Transmissions" (Wylie: bka' babs bdun ldan) - that Matsyendranāth, who is seen in Tibet as an avatar of Avalokiteśvara, was a fisherman from Kamarupa ie. he was found to fishermen community opposite Trikkannad Tryambakeshwara Temple Kerala.^[1]^[2]^[7] ^[8]^[9] Other sources give his birthplace as North Bengal.^[2]^[3] According to inscriptions found in Nepal in the ancient Newari colony of Bungmati, the home of Machhindranath Chariot Jatra, his shrine was brought from Assam in India. He is mentioned in the Sabaratantra as one of the twenty-four Kapalika Siddhas.

尼泊爾首都加德滿都每年四月底都會慶祝紅麥群卓拿神節，由於受新冠肺炎疫情影響，今年的慶祝推遲至本月中。當地大批民眾前日焚燒稻草，迎接紅麥群卓拿神像到來。他們相信，紅麥群卓拿神會為人們帶來雨水、豐收、繁榮和好運。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200916/00180_037.html

in arts

https://sothebys-com.brightspotcdn.com/dims4/default/398c963/2147483647/strip/true/crop/1498x2000+0+0/resize/1498x2000!/quality/ A GREY SANDSTONE FIGURE OF SHIVA KHMER, BAPHUON STYLE, CIRCA 11TH CENTURY

- Ayyappan is the Hindu god of growth, particularly popular in Kerala. He is a syncretic deity, the son of Shiva and Mohini – the female avatar of Vishnu.^[3]^[4] Ayyappan is also referred to as Ayyappa, Sastavu, Hariharaputra, Manikanta, Shasta or Dharma Shasta. The iconography of Ayyappan depicts him as a handsome celibate god doing yoga and as an epitome of Dharma, who wears a bell around his neck. In the Hindu pantheon, his legends are relatively recent but diverse. For some, he is also an incarnation of the Buddha.^[4]He is honored by some Muslims in Kerala, with legends wherein Ayyappan defeats and gains worship of the Muslim brigand Vavar.^[4]^[2]^[5]In the Hindu tradition popular in the Western Ghats of India, he was born with the powers of Shiva and Vishnu to confront and defeat the shape shifting evil Buffalo demoness Mahishasuri. He was raised by a childless royal couple, and grows up as a warrior yogi champion of ethical and dharmic living.^[6]^[7]^[2] In the South Indian version, Ayyappan images show him as riding a tiger, but in some places such as Sri Lanka he is shown as riding a white elephant. Ayyappan popularity has grown in many parts of India, and the most prominent Ayyappan shrine is at Sabarimala, nestled in the hills of Pathanamthitta of Kerala. The name Ayyappan (sometimes spelled as Ayyappa or Aiyappan) may be related to the similar sounding ancient term Arya. The Sanskrit term Arya (Pali: Ariya) is found in ancient texts of Hinduism and Buddhism, where it means the "spiritually noble, extraordinary, precious ones".^[13] However, the word Ayyappan is not found in South Indian versions of the medieval era Puranas, leading scholars to the hypothesis that Ayyappan may have roots elsewhere. The alternate theory links it to the Malayali word appan and Tamil word appa which means "father", with Ayyappan connoting "Lord-father".^[14]^[15] The alternate proposal is supported by the alternate name for Ayyappan being Sastava (Sasta, Sashta, Sastra), a Vedic term that also means "Teacher, Guide, Lord, Ruler".^[15] The words Sastha and Dharmasastha in the sense of a Hindu god are found in the Puranas. Ayyappan is also known as Hariharaputra^[17] – meaning the "son of Harihara" or a fusion deity of Hari and Hara, the names given to Vishnu and Shiva respectively.^[18] He is also called Manikanta from Mani, Sanskrit for precious stone, and kanta, Sanskrit for neck. In some regions, Ayyappa and Ayyanar are considered to be the same deity given their similar origin. Others consider him as different because their worship methods are not the same.
- Parvati (Sanskrit: पार्वती, IAST: Pārvatī) or Gauri (IAST: Gauri) is the Hindu goddess of fertility, love, beauty, marriage, children, and devotion; as well as of divine strength and power. Known by many other names, she is the gentle and nurturing aspect of the Hindu goddess Adi Parashakti and one of the central deities of the Goddess-oriented Shakta sect. She is the Mother goddess in Hinduism,^[1]^[8] and has many attributes and aspects. Each of her aspects is expressed with a different name, giving her over 100 names in regional Hindu stories of India.^[9]Along with Lakshmi and Saraswati, she forms the trinity of Hindu goddesses (Tridevi).Parvata (पर्वत) is one of the Sanskrit words for "mountain"; "Parvati" derives her name from being the daughter of king Himavan(also called Himavat, Parvat) and mother Mena. King Parvat is considered lord of the mountains and the personification of the Himalayas; Parvati implies "she of the mountain".Two of Parvati's most famous epithets are Uma and Aparna.

- Saraswati (Sanskrit: सरस्वती, Sarasvatī) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, wisdom and learning worshipped throughout Nepal and India.^[3] She is a part of the trinity (Tridevi) of Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati. All the three forms help the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva to create, maintain and regenerate-recycle the Universe respectively. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a goddess is in the Rigveda. She has remained significant as a goddess from the Vedic periodthrough modern times of Hindu traditions.^[5] Some Hindus celebrate the festival of Vasant Panchami (the fifth day of spring, and also known as Saraswati Puja and Saraswati Jayanti in so many parts of India) in her honour,^[6] and mark the day by helping young children learn how to write alphabets on that day.^[7] The Goddess is also revered by believers of the Jain religion of west and central India,^[8] as well as some Buddhist sects. Saraswati is also worshipped outside the Indian subcontinent, in nations such as Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia and Myanmar. Sarasvati, is a Sanskrit fusion word of saras (सरस्) meaning "pooling water", but also sometimes translated as "speech"; and vati (वती) meaning "she who posesses" (also found in the name of Parvati, "She who has wings"). Originally associated with the river or rivers known as Saraswati, this combination therefore means "she who has ponds, lakes, and pooling water" or occasionally "she who possesses speech". It is also a Sanskrit composite word of surasa-vati (सुरस-वति) which means "one with plenty of water".サラスヴァティー（サンスクリット語: सरस्वती, Sarasvatī）は、芸術・学問などの知を司るヒンドゥー教の女神である。日本では七福神の一柱、弁才天（弁財天）として親しまれており、仏教伝来時に『金光明経』を通じて中国から伝えられた。肌は白く、額には三日月の印を付け^[1]、4本の腕を持ち、2本の腕には数珠とヴェーダ、もう1組の腕にヴィーナと呼ばれる琵琶に似た弦楽器を持ち、白鳥またはクジャクの上、あるいは白い蓮華の上に座る姿として描かれる。白鳥・クジャクはサラスヴァティーの乗り物である。辯才天女（天城體：सरस्वती，IAST：sarasvatī，標準藏語：དབྱངས་ཅན་མ།），簡稱辯才天，又稱妙音天女^{[註 1]}，音譯為薩拉斯瓦蒂、娑羅室伐底，是婆羅門教、印度教的一個重要女神，代表著醫療、子嗣、財富、智慧、美貌、音樂；傳統上她被認為是主神梵天的妻子。同時也是佛教重要的護法和本尊，在東亞地區，最早是由佛教介紹進入漢字文化圈。而辯才天女與拜火教的水之女神阿娜希塔，被學者推定同源。辯才天女有时与財寶天女相互混同；但多數時候，兩者都是不同的神靈。

The concept of Saraswati migrated from India, through China to Japan, where she appears as Benzaiten (弁財天).^[44] Worship of Benzaiten arrived in Japan during the 6th through 8th centuries. She is often depicted holding a biwa, a traditional Japanese lute musical instrument. She is enshrined on numerous locations throughout Japan such as the Kamakura's Zeniarai Benzaiten Ugafuku Shrine or Nagoya's Kawahara Shrine;^[45] the three biggest shrines in Japan in her honour are at the Enoshima Island in Sagami Bay, the Chikubu Island in Lake Biwa, and the ItsukushimaIsland in Seto Inland Sea.
In ancient Thai literature, Saraswati (Thai: สุรัสวดี; RTGS: Suratsawadi) is the goddess of speech and learning, and consort of Brahma.^[47] Over time, Hindu and Buddhist concepts on deities merged in Thailand. Icons of Saraswati with other deities of India are found in old Thai wats.^[48]Amulets with Saraswati and a peacock are also found in Thailand.
[eckstut] Young girls crowd streets wearing yellow dresses that match india's field of flowering mustard-acres of golden blooms

Saraswati is an important goddess in Balinese Hinduism. She shares the same attributes and iconography as Saraswati in Hindu literature of India - in both places, she is the goddess of knowledge, creative arts, wisdom, language, learning and purity. In Bali, she is celebrated on Saraswati day, one of the main festivals for Hindus in Indonesia.^[49]^[50] The day marks the close of 210-day year in the Pawukon calendar.On Saraswati day, people make offerings in the form of flowers in temples and to sacred texts. The day after Saraswati day, is Banyu Pinaruh, a day of cleansing. On this day, Hindus of Bali go to the sea, sacred waterfalls or river spots, offer prayers to Saraswati, and then rinse themselves in that water in the morning. Then they prepare a feast, such as the traditional bebek betutu and nasi kuning, that they share. The Saraswati Day festival has a long history in Bali.^[53] It has become more widespread in Hindu community of Indonesia in recent decades, and it is celebrated with theatre and dance performance.
In Tibet, she is known as Yang chen ma (Singing/Music Goddess),^[54] or Yang chen drolma (Singing/Music Tara) considered the consort of Mañjuśri, Buddha of Wisdom, she is one of the 21 Taras.

- Shree Krishna or simply Krishna (/ˈkrɪʃnə/,^[6] Sanskrit pronunciation: [ˈkɽɪʂɳɐ]; Sanskrit: कृष्ण, IAST: Kṛṣṇa) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of the god Vishnu and also as the supreme God in his own right.

the nature of god krishna changed over the centuries. He was first a military hero, then an incarnation of the supreme god vishnu, known for his miraculous feats, and finally a god, who, living among mortals, is best known as a lover.
krishna worship continued to develop into modern times, as can be seen in the miniature paintings created for hindu courts in 17th, 17th and 19th c
the kinds of desire and devotion involved in krishna worship vary. With the child krishna (frequently depicted with a butterball), the devotee plays a role like that of a parent. When the youthful krishna becomes the lover of the milkmaids or cowherdesses, the devotee, whether male of female, takes a female role, yearning for union with the divine. When, on the other hand, one of these milkmaids, Radha, is singled out for focused attention on krishna's part, Radha herself becomes divine, and it is krishna's devotion to her that is celebrated.
[upanishads] krishna is son of devaki, ghora angirasa is the teacher of former
in art

the seated Lord Krishna and the slain elephant, all presented in the visual context of a late Mughal scene of a ruler on a terrace.
KANHRA (KANADA) RAGINI, INDIA, MUGHAL, 18TH CENTURY https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/eclectic-london/an-illustration-to-a-ragamala-series-kanhra-kanada

- Chandra (Sanskrit: चन्द्र, IAST: Candra, lit. "shining" or "moon")^[2] is a lunar deity and is also one of the nine planets (Navagraha) in Hinduism. Chandra is synonymous to Soma. Other names include Indu ("bright drop"), Atrisuta ("son of Atri"), Sachin ("marked by hare"), Tārādhipa ("lord of stars") and Nishakara ("the night maker").Chandra is described as young and beautiful, two-armed and carrying a club and a lotus.^[4] In Hindu mythology, Chandra is the father of Budha (planet Mercury).

Chandra, who is also known as Soma and Indu, is the basis of Somvaar, which is Hindi, and Induvaasaram, which is Sanskrit, for Monday in the Hindu calendar.

- An Apsara (also spelled as Apsarasa) is a female spirit of the clouds and waters in Hindu and Buddhist mythology. An Apsara (Sanskrit: अप्सराः apsarāḥ, plural अप्सरसःapsarasaḥ, stem apsaras-, a feminine consonant stem, អប្សរា), is also known as Vidhya Dhari or Tep Apsar (ទេពអប្សរ) in Khmer, Accharā (Pāli) or A Bố Sa La Tư(Vietnamese), Bidadari (Indonesian and Malay), Biraddali(Tausug), Hapsari or Widadari (Javanese) and Apson(Thai: อัปสร). English translations of the word "Apsara" include "nymph," "celestial nymph," and "celestial maiden." In Indian mythology, Apsaras are beautiful, supernatural female beings. They are youthful and elegant, and superb in the art of dancing. They are often wives of theGandharvas, the court musicians of Indra. They dance to the music made by the Gandharvas, usually in the palaces of the gods, entertain and sometimes seduce gods and men. As ethereal beings who inhabit the skies, and are often depicted taking flight, or at service of a god, they may be compared to angels.

- Meenakshi (also known as Meenatchi and Tadadakai)^[1], is a Hindu goddess and tutelary deity of Madurai who is considered an avatar of the Goddess Parvati.^[2] She is the divine consort of Sundareswarar, a form of Shiva. She finds mention in literatures as the princess or queen of the ancient Pandya kingdom who elevates to godhood.^[5] The goddess is also extolled by Adi Shankara as Shri Vidya. She is mainly worshipped in South India where she has a major temple devoted to her known as the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai, Tamil Nadu. "Meenakshi" is a Sanskrit term meaning "fish-eyed",^[8] derived from the words mina ("fish") and akshi ("eyes").^[9] She was earlier known by the Tamil name Tadadakai ("fish-eyed one"), mentioned in early historical account as a fierce, unmarried and meat-eating goddess which was later sanskritised as Meenakshi.^[10] She is also known by the Tamil name "Angayarkanni" or "Ankayarkannammai" (literally, "the mother with the beautiful fish eyes").^[8]^[11] According to another theory, the name of the goddess literally means "rule of the fish", derived from the Tamil words meen (fish) and aatchi (rule).

- Nāga (IAST: nāgá; Devanāgarī: नाग) is theSanskrit and Pali word for a deity or class of entity or being, taking the form of a very great snake—specifically the king cobra, found in Indian religions, mainly Hinduism,Buddhism and Jainism. A female nāga is anāgī or nāgiṇī.那伽（梵語：नाग，轉寫：nāga），是印度神話中的蛇神。這種生物的外表類似巨大的蛇，有一個頭或七個頭；其形像在婆羅門教、印度教和佛教經典中常有出現。但是這個詞的用法並不十分嚴格，它有時也被用來指代大象 ^[1] 或真正的蛇，尤其是眼鏡王蛇和印度眼鏡蛇（眼鏡蛇在印地語中的讀音就是「納格」）。另外，雌性的那伽被叫做「那姬」（nāgī）或「那姬尼」（nāgiṇī）。那伽在漢傳佛教中等同於龍，翻譯為神龍；在藏傳佛教中等同於魯龍。

尼泊爾文化之都巴克塔普爾前日迎來蛇節，當地男子划艇去到納迦池中的銅質蛇神納迦像邊，虔誠地舉行祈禱儀式。另有市民將牛奶澆至住宅窗下的蛇神納迦雕塑上，為蛇神洗浴（圖）。蛇神納迦在印度教中具有崇高地位，民眾會在蛇節當日向其雕像供奉蜂蜜、水果與鮮花。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200727/00180_037.html

- 时母（天城体：काली，kālī，音译为迦梨或迦利，字面意思是“黑色的”^[1]） Kali (/ˈkɑːliː/, Sanskrit: काली, Bangla: কালী, IAST: Kālī), also known as Kālikā (Sanskrit: कालिका) or Shyāmā (Sanskrit: श्यामा), is a Hindu goddess. Kali is one of the ten Mahavidyas, a list which combines Sakta and Buddhist goddesses.Kali's earliest appearance is that of a destroyer of evil forces. She is the most powerful form of Shakti, and the goddess of one of the four subcategories of the Kulamārga, a category of tantric Saivism.^[2] Over time, Kali has been worshipped by devotional movements and tantric sects variously as the Divine Mother, Mother of the Universe, Adi Shakti, or Adi Parashakti.^[3]^[4]^[5] Shakta Hindu and Tantric sects additionally worship her as the ultimate reality or Brahman.^[6] She is also seen as the divine protector and the one who bestows moksha, or liberation.^[3] Kali is often portrayed standing or dancing on her consort, the Hindu god Shiva, who lies calm and prostrate beneath her. Kali is worshipped by Hindus throughout India.Kālī is the feminine form of "time" or "the fullness of time" with the masculine noun "kāla"—and by extension, time as "changing aspect of nature that bring things to life or death." Other names include Kālarātri ("the deep blue night"), and Kālikā ("the deep blue one").The homonymous kāla, "appointed time," is distinct from kāla "deep blue," but became associated through popular etymology. The association is seen in a passage from the Mahābhārata, depicting a female figure who carries away the spirits of slain warriors and animals. She is called kālarātri (which Thomas Coburn, a historian of Sanskrit Goddess literature, translates as "night of death") and also kālī (which, as Coburn notes, can be read here either as a proper name or as a description "the dark blue one").[8] Kālī is also the feminine form of Kāla, an epithet of Shiva, and thus the consort of Shiva.

- Rudras are forms and followers of the god Rudra-Shiva and make eleven of the Thirty-three gods in the Hindu pantheon.^[1] They are at times identified with the Maruts – sons of Rudra; while at other times, considered distinct from them.The Ramayana tells they are eleven of the 33 children of the sage Kashyapa and his wife Aditi, along with the 12 Adityas, 8 Vasus and 2 Ashvins, constituting the Thirty-three gods.^[2]The Vamana Purana describes the Rudras as the sons of Kashyapa and Aditi.^[3] The Matsya Purana notes that Surabhi – the mother of all cows and the "cow of plenty" – was the consort of Brahma and their union produced the eleven Rudras.

- kala

according to hindu legend, kala was created by siva to kill a titan. Acccording to another legend, the head represents a demon called rahu. Gods and demons once churned the ocean to make an elixir of immortality. Rahu stole some of it. A god cut off his head, striking him in the mouth with a sword, but because he had already swallowed the liquid, he did not die. Thus kala's head normally is depicted without a lower jaw. Kala symbolises the elixir of immortality, which is shown by strings of jewels or other ornaments hanging from the monster's upper jaw.

- Nachiketa (Sanskrit: नचिकेत), also known as Nachiketā (Sanskrit: नचिकेता), or Nachiketas(Sanskrit: नचिकेतस्) or sometimes even Nachiketan (Sanskrit: नचिकेतन्) was the son of the sage Vājashravas (Sanskrit: वाजश्रवस्, lit. famous for donations) also known as Vājashravā (Sanskrit: वाजश्रवा) is the child protagonist in an ancient Indian story about the nature of the soul and the power of a spiritual, determined and steadfast boy who was as spirited as his sage father. The story is told in the Katha Upanishad (c. 5th century BCE), though the name has several earlier references. He was taught self-knowledge, the separation of the human soul (the supreme self) from the body, by the god of Death, Yama. Nachiketa is noted for his rejection of material desires which are ephemeral, and for his single-minded pursuit of the path of realizing salvation/Moksha i.e. emancipation of the soul from rebirth.
- Chhinnamasta (Sanskrit: छिन्नमस्ता, Chinnamastā, "She whose head is severed"), often spelled Chinnamasta, and also called Ch(h)innamastika and Prachanda Chandika and Jogani Maa (in western states of India), is a Hindu goddess. She is one of the Mahavidyas, ten goddesses from the esoteric tradition of Tantra, and a ferocious aspect of Devi, the Hindu Mother goddess. The self-decapitated nude goddess cover her genital parts with jewellery, usually standing or seated on a divine copulating couple, holds her own severed head in one hand, a scimitar in another. Three jets of blood spurt out of her bleeding neck and are drunk by her severed head and two attendants. Chhinnamasta is a goddess of contradictions. She symbolises both aspects of Devi: a life-giver and a life-taker. She is considered both a symbol of sexual self-control and an embodiment of sexual energy, depending upon interpretation. She represents death, temporality, and destruction as well as life, immortality, and recreation. The goddess conveys spiritual self-realization and the awakening of the kundalini – spiritual energy. The legends of Chhinnamasta emphasise her self-sacrifice – sometimes coupled with a maternal element – sexual dominance, and self-destructive fury.Chhinnamasta is worshipped in the Kalikula sect of Shaktism, the Goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism. Though Chhinnamasta enjoys patronage as one of the Mahavidyas, temples devoted to her (found mostly in Nepal and eastern India) and her public worship are rare. However, she is a significant Tantric deity, well known and worshipped among esoteric Tantric practitioners. Chhinnamasta is closely related to Chinnamunda – the severed-headed form of the Tibetan Buddhist goddess Vajrayogini.

吠陀（梵語：वेद，轉寫：Veda，又譯為韋達經、韋陀經、圍陀經等）are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism.^[2]^[3] Hindus consider the Vedas to be apauruṣeya, which means "not of a man, superhuman"^[4] and "impersonal, authorless".Vedas are also called śruti ("what is heard") literature,^[8] distinguishing them from other religious texts, which are called smṛti ("what is remembered"). The Veda, for orthodox Indian theologians, are considered revelations seen by ancient sages after intense meditation, and texts that have been more carefully preserved since ancient times.^[9]^[10] In the Hindu Epic the Mahabharata, the creation of Vedas is credited to Brahma.^[11] The Vedic hymns themselves assert that they were skillfully created by Rishis (sages), after inspired creativity, just as a carpenter builds a chariot.According to tradition, Vyasa is the compiler of the Vedas, who arranged the four kinds of mantras into four Samhitas (Collections).^[13]^[14] There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda.^[15]^[16] Each Veda has been subclassified into four major text types – the Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the Aranyakas (text on rituals, ceremonies, sacrifices and symbolic-sacrifices), the Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals, ceremonies and sacrifices), and the Upanishads (texts discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge). Some scholars add a fifth category – the Upasanas (worship).The various Indian philosophies and denominations have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of India philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika).^{[note 2]} Other śramaṇa traditions, such as Lokayata, Carvaka, Ajivika, Buddhism and Jainism, which did not regard the Vedas as authorities, are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.
- upanishad

literally means "sitting near devotedly", also means secret teaching
[goddard the surangama sutra] upanishad said that he was one of the earliest disciples of gautama buddha, attained arhatship

The Garuda Purana is one of eighteen Mahāpurāṇa genre of texts in Hinduism. It is a part of Vaishnavism literature corpus, primarily centering around Hindu god Vishnu but praises all gods. Composed in Sanskrit, the earliest version of the text may have been composed in the 1st millennium CE, but it was likely expanded and changed over a long period of time.The Garuda Purana text is known in many versions, containing between 8,000 to 19,000 verses. Its chapters encyclopedically deal with highly diverse collection of topics. The text contains cosmology, mythology, relationship between gods, ethics, good versus evil, various schools of Hindu philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with "karma and rebirth", ancestral rites and soteriology, rivers and geography, types of minerals and stones, testing methods for gems for their quality, listing of plants and herbs,^[8] various diseases and their symptoms, various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its basis, astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home, essential features of a Hindu temple, rites of passage, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king, politics, state officials and their roles and how to appointment them, genre of literature, rules of grammar, and other topics. The final chapters discuss how to practice Yoga (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal development and the benefits of self-knowledge.The Padma Purana categorizes the Garuda Purana, along with itself, Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana, as a Sattva Purana (a purana which represents goodness and purity). The text, like all Mahapuranas, is attributed to sage Veda Vyāsa in the Hindu tradition.

Dhyana (IAST: Dhyāna) in Hinduism means contemplation and meditation.^[1] Dhyana is taken up in Yoga exercises, and is a means to samadhi and self-knowledge.The various concepts of dhyana and its practice originated in the Sramanic movement of ancient India,^[3]^[4] which started before the 6th century BCE (pre-Buddha, pre-Mahavira),^[5]^[6]and the practice has been influential within the diverse traditions of Hinduism.^[7]^[8] It is, in Hinduism, a part of a self-directed awareness and unifying Yoga process by which the yogirealizes Self (Atman, soul), one's relationship with other living beings, and Ultimate Reality.^[7]^[9]^[10] Dhyana is also found in other Indian religions such as Buddhism and Jainism. These developed along with dhyana in Hinduism, partly independently, partly influencing each other. The origins of the practice of dhyana, which culminates into samadhi, are a matter of dispute.

Yantra (यन्त्र) (Sanskrit) (literally "machine, contraption") is a mystical diagram, mainly from the Tantric traditions of the Indian religions. They are used for the worship of deities in temples or at home; as an aid in meditation; used for the benefits given by their supposed occult powers based on Hindu astrology and tantric texts. They are also used for adornment of temple floors, due mainly to their aesthetic and symmetric qualities. Specific yantras are traditionally associated with specific deities. Representations of the yantra in India have been considered to date back to 11,000-10,000 years BP. The Baghor stone, found in an upper-paleolithic context in the Son River valley, is considered the earliest example by Sharma, who was involved in the excavation of the stone. The triangular-shaped stone, which includes triangular engravings on one side, was found daubed in ochre, in what was considered a site related to worship. Worship of goddesses in that region was found to be practiced in a similar manner to the present day.^[3] Kenoyer, who was also involved in the excavation, considered it to be associated with Shakti.In Rigvedic Sanskrit, it meant an instrument for restraining or fastening, a prop, support or barrier, etymologically from the root yam "to sustain, support" and the -tra suffix expressing instruments. The literal meaning is still evident in the medical terminology of Sushruta, where the term refers to blunt surgical instruments such as tweezers or a vice. The meaning of "mystical or occult diagram" arises in the medieval period (Kathasaritsagara, Pancharatra).

Caste

- Kshatriya (from Sanskrit kṣatra, "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warriorhood. The Sanskrit term kṣatriyaḥ is used in the context of Vedic society wherein members were organised into four classes: brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya and shudra.In rituals, the nyagrodha (Ficus indica or India fig or banyan tree) danda, or staff, is assigned to the kshatriya class, along with a mantra, intended to impart physical vitality or 'ojas'. 刹帝利（梵文：क्षत्रियः kṣatriya），瓦爾那之一，是古印度種姓制度中的军事贵族，包括国王以下的各级官吏，掌握国家除神权之外一切权力。剎帝利也有高下之分。可分成切特利與剎庫里，前者人數多，地位低；後者人數少，地位高。现在已無真正的刹帝利，现在的刹帝利多数是拉其普特人。剎帝利階級據說源自雅利安人。19世紀開始，西方學者發現，現存婆羅門與剎帝利氏族的系譜有長久的偽造傳統。低階層婆羅門會為各地部落領導人偽造出身，讓他們可以成為剎帝利氏族^[1]。因此剎帝利階級的起源並不像傳統相信的，起源於單一雅利安人祖先，而是由印度各地原住部落民所形成。

Principales grupos de guerreros chatrias de la India:

Rajput (India del Norte, Pakistán y Nepal).
Nair (India del Sur).
Maratha (India del Sur).

Principales grupos de guerreros chatrias de la Nepal:

Kshetri (media colina de Nepal).
Thakuri (media colina de Nepal).
Rajput (Nepal del Sur).

- 婆羅門 Brahmin (/ˈbrɑːmənə/; ब्राह्मण) is a varna (class, caste) in Hinduism specialising as priests, teachers (acharya) and protectors of sacred learning across generations. The traditional occupation of Brahmins was that of priesthood at the Hindu temples or at socio-religious ceremonies and rite of passage rituals such as solemnising a wedding with hymns and prayers.^[2]^[3] Theoretically, the Brahmins were the highest ranking of the four social classes.^[4] In practice, Indian texts suggest that Brahmins were agriculturalists, warriors, traders and have held a variety of other occupations in India. The earliest inferred reference to "Brahmin" as a possible social class is in the Rigveda, occurs once, and the hymn is called Purusha Sukta.^[6] According to this hymn in Mandala10, Brahmins are described as having emerged from the mouth of Purusha, being that part of the body from which words emerge.^[7]^[8]^{[note 1]} This Purusha Sukta varna verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Vedic text, possibly as a charter myth.^[9] Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in the Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality". The term Brahmin in Indian texts has signified someone who is good and virtuous, not just someone of priestly class.^[14] Both Buddhist and Brahmanical literature, states Patrick Olivelle, repeatedly define "Brahmin" not in terms of family of birth, but in terms of personal qualities.^[14] These virtues and characteristics mirror the values cherished in Hinduism during the Sannyasa stage of life, or the life of renunciation for spiritual pursuits. Brahmins, states Olivelle, were the social class from which most ascetics came.

- Asuras (Sanskrit: असुर) are a class of beings or power-seeking clans related to the more benevolent Devas (also known as Suras) in Hinduism.The asuras battle constantly with the devas.^[1] Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman demigods with good or bad qualities. The good Asuras are called Adityas and are led by Varuna, while the malevolent ones are called Danavas and are led by Vritra.印度教神話的阿修羅（梵語：असुर），義為大力神，是一群追求力量的神族，與提婆神族對抗，有時被視為暴力之神。

In Hinduism, the Daityas (Sanskrit: दैत्य) are a clan or race of Asura along with the Dānavas. They were the children of Diti and the sage Kashyapa. The Devas were their half-brothers with whom they fought against as a result of their jealousy. The Manusmṛti classifies the Daityas as good, while placing them at a lower level than the Devas

Mahabali (IAST: Mahābalī), also known as Bali or Māveli, is a mythical daitya King found in Hindu texts. He was the son of Virochana and the grandson of Prahlada. There are many versions of his legend in ancient texts such as the Shatapatha Brahmana, Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.^[1]^[2] ^[3] His legend is a part of the annual Balipratipada (fourth day of Diwali) festival in the States of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Onam festival in the state of Kerala, India.
AN ILLUSTRATION DEPICTING LORD VISHNU IN HIS VAMANA AVATARA AND KING MAHABALI AND SHUKRACHARYA, INDIA, DELHI, CIRCA 1800 https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/eclectic-london/an-illustration-depicting-lord-vishnu-in-his

- Vaishya is one of the four varnas of the Hindu social order in India. Vaishyas are third in distinction of the four Hindu castes, comprising mainly the merchants, business or trade professions.吠舍（梵文：वैश्य Vaiśya）瓦爾那的一种，是古印度社会中的普通劳动者，也就是雅利安人的中下阶层，包括农民、畜牧者和商人，他们必须向国家缴纳赋税。Hindu religious texts assigned Vaishyas to traditional roles in agriculture and cattle-rearing, but over time they came to be landowners, traders and money-lenders.^[1] Therefore making it their responsibility to provide sustenance for those of higher class, since they were of lower class.^[2] The Vaishyas, along with members of the Brahmin and Kshatriya varnas, claim dvija status ("twice born", a second or spiritual birth) after sacrament of initiation as in Hindu theology.^[3] Indian traders were widely credited for the spread of Indian culture to regions as far as southeast Asia.Historically, Vaishyas have been involved in roles other than their traditional pastoralism, trade and commerce. According to historian Ram Sharan Sharma, the Gupta Empire was a Vaishya dynasty that "may have appeared as a reaction against oppressive rulers".The Vaishya community consist of several jāti or subcastes, including but not limited to the Agrahari,^[6] Agrawals,^[7] Barnwals, Gahois, Kasuadhans, Khandelwals, Lohanas, Maheshwaris, Oswals, the Arya Vaishyas, and the Vaishya Vanis of Konkan and Goa.
- 首陀罗（梵語：शूद्र，Śūdra），又譯戍陀罗 Shudra or Shoodra^[1] is one of the lowest of the four varnas of the Hindu social order in India.^[2] Various sources translate it into English as a caste,^[2] or alternatively as a social class.^[3] It is the lowest rank of the four varnas.The word Shudra appears in the Rig veda and it is found in other Hindu texts such as the Manusmriti, Arthashastra and Dharmashastras. Theoretically, Shudras have constituted the hereditary labouring class serving others.^[5]^[6]^[7] In some cases, they participated in the coronation of kings, or were ministers and kings according to early Indian texts.Traditionally, Shudras were peasants and artisans. The ancient texts designate the Shudra as a peasant. Shudras were described as the giver of grain and ancient texts describe a Shudra's mode of earning as being "by the sickle and ears of corn". The ancient precept, "Vedas are destroyer of agriculture and agriculture is destroyer of Vedas", is shown as one of the reasons as to why the Shudras were not allowed to learn Vedas. The fact that peasants were held as Shudras is also documented by Chinese traveller Xuanzang in the 7th century. Also, an "outcaste" who entered the profession of agriculture would be absorbed in the Shudra varna.在《摩奴法論》及之後的文獻，建立了四個種姓的社會階級理論，在這個理論中，首陀羅是最低層級的種姓。根据《摩奴法典》，首陀罗女子与婆罗门男子生下的女性后代，再与婆罗门男子生下后代，如是七代，可以将首陀罗种姓提升至婆罗门。西方學術界認為，首陀罗是由被雅利安人打敗的達羅毗荼人構成。後來因為反婆羅門教的印度東部的不同教派興起，首陀羅地位得以提升，原來從事的卑賤污穢的工作，由各種賤民（dalita）填補，賤民被称为不可接触者（untouchables）^[1]。賤民以旃荼罗（caṇḍāla）和除糞者為代表，旃荼罗（或旃陀罗）多从事屠夫和刽子手等职业。
- candra

mentioned in goddard's buddhist bible re surangama sutra

- braha

mentioned in goddard's buddhist bible re surangama sutra

Ātman (/ˈɑːtmən/; Sanskrit: आत्मन्) is a Sanskrit word that means inner self, spirit, or soul.^[1]^[2] In Hindu philosophy, especially in the Vedanta school of Hinduism, Ātman is the first principle,^[3] the true self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. In order to attain Moksha (liberation), a human being must acquire self-knowledge (atma jnana), which is, according to Advaitins, to realize that one's true self (Ātman) is identical with the transcendent self Brahman.The six orthodox schools of Hinduism believe that there is Ātman in every living being (jiva). This is a major point of difference with the Buddhist doctrine of Anatta, which holds that there is no soul or self.

- [prabhavananda] sanskrit word meaning god within, or self

- divine atman mentioned in goddard's lankavatra scripture ch vi converation with mahamati, ch x eternal entity - supreme atman, personal god

Ishvara (Sanskrit: ईश्वर, IAST: Īśvara) is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism.^[1]^[2] In ancient texts of Indian philosophy, depending on the context, Ishvara can mean supreme soul, ruler, lord, king, queen or husband.^[1] In medieval era Hindu texts, depending on the school of Hinduism, Ishvara means God, Supreme Being, personal god, or special Self.In Shaivism and for many Hindus, Ishvara is synonymous with "Shiva", sometimes as Maheshvara or Parameshvara meaning the "Supreme lord", or as an Ishta-deva (personal god).^[5] Similarly for Vaishnavists and many Hindus, it is synonymous with Krishna or Vishnu^[6] In traditional Bhakti movements, Ishvara is one or more deities of an individual's preference from Hinduism's polytheistic canon of deities. In modern sectarian movements such as Arya Samaj and Brahmoism, Ishvara takes the form of a monotheistic God.^[7] In Yoga school of Hinduism, it is any "personal deity" or "spiritual inspiration".The root of the word Ishvara comes from īś- (ईश, Ish) which means "capable of" and "owner, ruler, chief of".^[9] The second part of the word Ishvara is vara which means depending on context, "best, excellent, beautiful", "choice, wish, blessing, boon, gift", and "suitor, lover, one who solicits a girl in marriage".^[10] The composite word, Ishvara literally means "owner of best, beautiful", "ruler of choices, blessings, boons", or "chief of suitor, lover". As a concept, Ishvara in ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts, variously means God, Supreme Being, Supreme Soul, lord, king or ruler, rich or wealthy man, god of love, deity Shiva, one of the Rudras, prince, husband and the number eleven.The word Īśvara never appears in Rigveda.^[13] However, the verb īś- does appear in Rig veda, where the context suggests that the meaning of it is "capable of, able to".^[13] It is absent in Samaveda, is rare in Atharvaveda, appears in Samhitas of Yajurveda. The contextual meaning, however as the ancient Indian grammarian Pāṇini explains, is neither god nor supreme being.The word Ishvara appears in numerous ancient Dharmasutras. However, Patrick Olivelle states that there Ishvara does not mean God, but means Vedas.^[14] Deshpande states that Ishvara in Dharmasutras could alternatively mean king, with the context literally asserting that "the Dharmasutras are as important as Ishvara (the king) on matters of public importance". In Saivite traditions of Hinduism, the term is used as part of the compound "Maheshvara" ("great lord") as a name for Shiva. In Mahayana Buddhism it is used as part of the compound "Avalokiteśvara" ("lord who hears the cries of the world"), the name of a bodhisattva revered for his compassion. When referring to divine as female, particularly in Shaktism, the feminine Īśvarī is sometimes used.In Advaita Vedanta school, Ishvara is a monistic Universal Absolute that connects and is the Oneness in everyone and everything.

- [prabhavananda] the syllable is the symbol of brahmin, in hindu rituals it is utterred with a solemn resonance, indefinitely prolonged.

Rsis "wise men"

- sons of hindu god brahma who became great poets and philosophers.

Pandit (Sanskrit: पण्डित, romanized: paṇḍita; Hindi: पंडित;^[1] also spelled pundit, pronounced /ˈpʌndɪt, ˈpændɪt/;^[2] abbreviated as Pt. or Pdt.), (Pandita or Panditain, can refer to a female pandit or the wife of a pandit) is a Brahmin scholar^[3] or a teacher of any field of knowledge in Hinduism,^[1] particularly the Vedic scriptures, dharma, Hindu philosophy, or secular subjects such as music.^[4] He may be a Guru in a Gurukul. In Sanskrit, states Monier Williams, Pandit generally refers to any "wise, educated or learned man" with specialized knowledge.^[5] The term is derived from paṇḍ (पण्ड्) which means "to collect, heap, pile up", and this root is used in the sense of knowledge.^[6] The term is found in Vedic and post-Vedic texts, but without any sociological context. In the literature of the colonial era, the term generally refers to Brahmins specialized in Hindu law.The related term Purohit refers to a house priest.班智達（巴利語、梵語：पण्डित，轉寫：paṇḍita；印地語：paṇḍit），又譯為班諦達，佛教術語，意為學識淵博的大學者。在藏傳佛教中常被當成是一種尊稱使用，在漢傳佛教中三藏法師一詞在語言學上可能與班智達一詞同源，但文化用法上小有不同。在梵語中，paṇḍita指的是睿智、聰慧、多聞的學者，印度教常用於稱呼宗教導師、僧侶、學者，這在英文中輸入爲「pandit」^[1]。英文中還有「pundit」一詞，也來源於此，義爲獨立學者、記者，在英語國家敷衍爲時事評論員之含義^[2]。在佛教的應用中，班智達亦指學識淵博，精通三藏的學者。在中世紀印度宗教文明中，班智達和善知識（kalyana-mitra）是宗教知識人的兩種主要類型。善知識要求精通五明中的一門，通常是內明，在藏地譯為格西；班智達則要求博學、精通五明，在藏地譯爲班禪^[3]。在印度教中，班智達是指能夠以正確的梵語發音與文法，背誦出吠陀經典和熟悉印度教儀典的人，通常是婆羅門。緬甸佛教界授予非常專精教導佛陀教法，或被相信是阿羅漢成就者，以大班智達（Agga Maha Pandita）的稱號。在漢傳佛教歷史上，三藏法師可能與班智達一詞同源，如果屬實則漢傳佛教有許多很有學問的三藏法師。三藏法師亦指精通經律論三藏的大比丘僧。特別一提的是，在藏傳佛教《一切宗派淵源教理善說晶鑑》當中，也用大班智達稱呼一些漢傳佛教祖師，例如華嚴宗的清涼澄觀國師等。能夠被稱為班智達，代表他精通五種學問，也就是聲明、因明、內明、醫方明、工巧明五明^[4]。代表人物如薩迦·班智達、八思巴、班禪（又譯班欽，義爲大班智達）^[4]^[5]。現代印度中，精通印度傳統音樂者，也會被稱為班智達。Le nom désigne aussi les explorateurs indiens au service du Survey of india britannique

- pointy yellow hat in thangka paintings are called pandit hat

prayers

- The Shanti Mantras or "Peace Mantras" are Hindu prayers for Peace (Shanti) found in Upanishads. Generally they are recited at the beginning and end of religious rituals and discourses. Shanti Mantras are invoked in the beginning of some topics of Upanishads. They are supposed to calm the mind of the reciter and environment around him/her. Reciting them is also believed to be removing any obstacles for the task being started.

Shanti Mantras always end with three utterances of word "Shanti" which means "Peace". The Reason for uttering three times is for calming and removing obstacles in three realms which are:

"Physical" or Adhi-Bhautika,
"Divine" or Adhi-Daivika and
"Internal" or Adhyaatmika

mythology

- creation

[tr berg] big bang theory - hymn of creation which everything is described as being interwoven and initiated by heat under unclear circumstances

- Makara (Sanskrit: मकर) is a sea-creature in Hindu culture. It is generally depicted as half terrestrial animal in the frontal part (stag, deer, crocodile, or elephant) and half aquatic animal in the hind part (usually a fish or seal tail, though sometimes a peacock or even a floral tail is depicted.) Makara take many different forms throughout Asia. In Hindu astrology, Makara is equivalent to the sign of Capricorn, tenth of the twelve symbols of the Zodiac. Makara appears as the vahana (vehicle) of the river goddess Ganga, Narmada and of the sea god Varuna. Makara are considered guardians of gateways and thresholds, protecting throne rooms as well as entryways to temples; it is the most commonly recurring creature in Hindu and Buddhist temple iconography. Makara is a Sanskrit word which means "sea dragon" or "water-monster". It is the origin of the Hindi word for crocodile, मगर (magar), which has in turn been loaned into English as the name of the Mugger crocodile, the most common crocodile in India.

the makara statues in borobudur have lions in their mouths. The kala-makara motifs symbolize immortality

- Mahishasura is a buffalo demon in Hindu mythology, known for deception and who pursued his evil ways by shape shifting into different forms.^[1]^[2]^[3] He was ultimately killed by Durga getting named Mahishasuramardini. It is an important symbolic legend in Hindu mythology, particularly Shaktism. The legendary battle of Mahishasura as evil and Durga as good is narrated in many parts of South Asian and Southeast Asian Hindu temples, monuments and texts such as the Devi Mahatmya.^[4]^[5]^[6] The story is also told in the Sikh text Chandi di Var, also called Var Durga di, which many in Sikh tradition believe was included in the Dasam Granth by Guru Gobind Singh.Mahishasura is a Sanskrit word composed of mahisha meaning buffalo and asura meaning demon, or "buffalo demon". As an Asura, Mahishasura waged war against the Devas, as the Devas and Asuras' were perpetually in conflict. Mahishasura had gained the boon that no man could kill him. In the battles between the gods and the demons, the Devas led by Indra were defeated by Mahishasura. Dejected by their defeat, the Devas assemble in the mountains where their combined divine energies coalesce into goddess Durga. The new born Durga led a battle against Mahishasura, riding a lion, and killed him. Thereafter she is named Mahishasuramardini, meaning "the killer of Mahishasura".

holy sites

- kashi

Parvati Devi has travelled to Kashi to die. Lying supine on a wooden bed, she looks frail, her bones jutting out of her face. Her sunken eyes are open and move about the room. The 85-year-old is waiting for the end in a short-stay hostel specifically reserved for the dying, and her son, Sudir Singh, is crouching nearby, cooking food on a portable stove.

River Ganges

Uttar Pradesh

- Sagar Island is an island in the Ganges delta, lying on the Continental Shelf of Bay of Bengal about 100 km (54 nautical miles) south of Kolkata. This island forms the Sagar CD Block in Kakdwip subdivision of South 24 Parganas district in the Indian State of West Bengal. Although Sagar Island is a part of Sundarbans, it does not have any tiger habitation or mangrove forests or small river tributaries as is characteristic of the overall Sundarban delta. This island, also known as Gangasagar or Sagardwip, is a place of Hindu pilgrimage. Every year on the day of Makar Sankranti (14 January), hundreds of thousands of Hindus gather to take a holy dip at the confluence of river Ganges and Bay of Bengal and offer prayers (puja) in the Kapil Muni Temple. Kolkata Port Trust has a pilot station and a light house.

city of 11 gates
- [signet classics] to the birthless, the light of whose consciousness forever shines, belongs the city of eleven gates. The ruler of that city is the immortal self.

people
- Tulsidas (Hindi pronunciation: [t̪ʊls̪iːd̪aːs̪]; 1497^[1]–1623), also known as Goswami Tulsidas,^[4]was a Hindu Vaishnava saint and poet, renowned for his devotion to the deity Rama. Tulsidas wrote several popular works in Sanskrit and Awadhi; he is best known as the author of the epic Ramcharitmanas, a retelling of the Sanskrit Ramayana based on Rama's life in the vernacular Awadhi.Tulsidas spent most of his life in the city of Varanasi.^[5] The Tulsi Ghat on the Ganges River in Varanasi is named after him.^[4] He founded the Sankatmochan Temple dedicated to Lord Hanuman in Varanasi, believed to stand at the place where he had the sight of the deity.^[6]Tulsidas started the Ramlila plays, a folk-theatre adaption of the Ramayana.He has been acclaimed as one of the greatest poets in Hindi, Indian, and worldliterature.^[8]^[9]^[10]^[11] The impact of Tulsidas and his works on the art, culture and society in India is widespread and is seen to date in vernacular language, Ramlila plays, Hindustani classical music, popular music, and television series.

Festival/ritual

- The holiest month in the Hindu lunar calendar is here. Popularly known as ‘Kartik’, the month, also known as Damodar Maas, is described in the scriptures as the best among months for performing austerities. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food-news/8-food-rules-to-follow-in-the-month-of-kartik/photostory/71711791.cms

-大壺節 Kumbh Mela or Kumbha Mela (/ˌkʊm ˈmeɪlə/ or /ˌkʊm məˈlɑː/) is a mass Hindu pilgrimage of faith in which Hindus gather to bathe in a sacred or holy river. Traditionally, four fairs are widely recognized as the Kumbh Melas: the Prayagraj Kumbh Mela, Haridwar Kumbh Mela, the Nashik-Trimbakeshwar Simhastha, and Ujjain Simhastha. These four fairs are held periodically at one of the following places by rotation: Prayagraj (known until 2018 as Allahabad), Haridwar, Nashik district (Nashik and Trimbak), and Ujjain. The main festival site is located on the banks of a river: the Ganges (Ganga) at Haridwar; the confluence (Sangam) of the Ganges and the Yamuna and the invisible Sarasvati at Prayagraj; the Godavari at Nashik; and the Shipra at Ujjain. Bathing in these rivers is thought to cleanse a person of all their sins. At any given place, the Kumbh Mela is held every 12 years. There is a difference of around 3 years between the Kumbh Melas at Haridwar and Nashik; the fairs at Nashik and Ujjain are celebrated in the same year or one year apart. The exact date is determined, following the Vikram Samvat calendar and the principles of Jyotisha, according to a combination of zodiac positions of the Jupiter, the Sun and the Moon. At Nashik and Ujjain, the Mela may be held while a planet is in Leo (Simha in Hindu astrology); in this case, it is also known as Simhastha. At Haridwar and Prayagraj, a Maha ("Great") Kumbh Mela is held every 12 years, with an Ardha ("Half") Kumbh Mela six years later.^[2] The priests at other places consider their local fairs to be Kumbh Melas; for example, the Mahamahamfestival at Kumbakonam, held every 12 years, is described as a Kumbh Mela.^[3] Other places where fairs have been called Kumbh Mela include Kurukshetra^[4]^[5] and Sonepat. The exact age of the festival is uncertain. According to medieval Hinduism, Lord Vishnu spilled drops of Amrita (the drink of immortality) at four places, while transporting it in a kumbha (pot). These four places are identified as the present-day sites of the Kumbh Mela. The name "Kumbh Mela" literally means "kumbha fair". It is known as "Kumbh" in Hindi (due to schwa deletion); in Sanskrit and some other Indian languages; it is more often known by its original name "Kumbha".

Kumbha Mela derives its name from both the original festival being held according to the astrological sign "Kumbha" (Aquarius), and from the associated Hindu legend in which the gods and demons fought over a pot, or “kumbh,” of nectar that would give them immortality.
至於節日最早的文獻記載出自玄奘大師，他在《大唐西域記》稱之為「無遮大會」。

- Makar Sankranti (also known as Makara Sankranti or Maghi) refers both to a specific solar day in the Hindu calendar and a Hindu festival in reverence to deity Surya(sun) that is observed in January every year. It marks the first day of sun's transit into the Makara (Capricorn), marking the end of the month with the winter solsticeand the start of longer days. Makar Sankranti is one of the few ancient Hindu festivals that has been observed according to solar cycles, while most festivals are set by the lunar cycle of the lunisolarHindu calendar.^[5] Being a festival that celebrates the solar cycle, it almost always falls on the same Gregorian date every year (January 14), except in rare years when the date shifts by a day for that year, because of the complexity of earth-sun relative movement.^[6] The festivities associated with Makar Sankranti are known by various names such as Lohri by north Indian Hindus and Sikhs, Sukarat in central India, Bhogali Bihu by Assamese Hindus, and Pongal by Tamil and other south Indian Hindus. Makar Sankranti is observed with social festivities such as colorful decorations, rural children going house to house, singing and asking for treats (or pocket money),^[8]melas (fair), dances, kite flying, bonfires and feast.^[7]^[9] The Magha Mela, according to Diana L. Eck – a professor at Harvard University specializing in Indology, is mentioned in the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, thus placing this festival to be around 2,000 years old.^[10] Many go to sacred rivers or lakes and bathe with thanksgiving to the sun.^[10] Every twelve years, the Hindus observe Makar Sankranti with one of the world's largest mass pilgrimage, with an estimated 40 to 100 million people attending for the event. At this event, they say a prayer to the sun and bathe at the Prayaga confluence of the River Ganga and River Yamuna at the Kumbh Mela, a tradition attributed to Adi Shankara.Makar Sankranti (Sanskrit: मकर सङ्क्रान्ति) is set by the solar cycle of the Hindu lunisolar calendar, and is observed almost always on 14 January, and signifies the arrival of longer days.^[14] Makar Sankranti falls in the Hindu calendar solar month of Makara, and lunar month of Magha. It marks the end of the month with winter solstice and the darkest night of the year, a month that is called Pausha in lunar system and Dhanu is solar system of Hindu time keeping methodology. The festival celebrates the first month with consistently longer days.The festival is dedicated to the Hindu sun god, Surya.^[3]^[15] This significance of Surya is traceable to the Vedic texts, particularly the Gayatri Mantra, a sacred hymn of Hinduism found in its scripture named the Rigveda. The festival also marks the beginning of a six months auspicious period for Hindus known as Uttarayana period.

- The Kānvar Yatrā or Kavad Yatra (Devanagari: कांवड़ यात्रा) is annual pilgrimage of devotees of Shiva, known as Kānvarias, to Hindu pilgrimage places of Haridwar, Gaumukh andGangotri in Uttarakhand and Sultanganj in Bihar to fetch holy waters of Ganges River, Ganga Jal, which is later offered at their local Shiva temples (specific temples include Kashi Vishwanath, Baidyanath, and Devghar). Ganga Jal taken from Sultanganj is poured on Baba Baidyanath at Devghar by Kanwariyas. The Yatra takes place during the sacred month of Shravan (Saawan) (July -August), according to the Hindu calendar. The Kanwar Yatra is performed by Shiva Devotees called Kanwariyas from Sultanganj to Devghar round the year. Earlier this yatra was performed in the month of Bhado, from 1960 the mela started from the month of Shravan and extended up to Dashahra. Now round the year Kanwariyas take Ganga Jal from Sultanganj and travel a distance of 100 km bare footed and reach Devghar in Jharkhand. During the Basant Panchmi, Maha Shivratri and other important Hindu occasions, the number of Kanwariyas increase many fold. During a calendar year approx. 2 Crores Kanwariyas perform this holy journey. The Yatra used to be a small affair undertaken by a few saints and older devotees until the 1990s, when it started gaining popularity. Bol-Bam refers to pilgrimages and festivals in India andNepal glorifying Shiva (aka Bam or Bum). The festivals run during the monsoon month Shraawan (July–August). After taking water from the Ganges river (or other nearby river that wind up in the Ganges) the pilgrims, known as kanwariya or Shiv Bhaktas (disciples of Shiva), are mandated to travel barefooted and in saffron robes with their Kanwar (walking sticks used to hang the urns of water) for 105 km by various routes and usually in groups made of family, friends and or neighbors, and return to their own local or other more prestigious and larger Shiva Temples to pour Gangajal on Lord Shiva (Shiv Linga). On the march pilgrims continuously sprinkle any and all talk with "Bol Bam" (speak the name of Bam) and sing Bhajans (hymns) to praise his name. To help kanwariyas so many NGOs are there and they offer free sewa (service) like medical help, water, tea, breakfast, lunch etc. in the journey route.

- Chhath is an ancient Hindu Vedic festival historically native to the Indian subcontinent, more specifically, the Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and the Madhesh region of Nepal.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4] The Chhath Puja is dedicated to the Sun and his Wife Usha/Shashti devi/ Chhathi Maiya/Katyayani form of Durga/Devasena in order to thank them for bestowing the bounties of life on earth and to request the granting of certain wishes.^[5] This festival is observed by Nepalese and Indian people, along with their diaspora.The festival is to worship the sun God and the rituals are rigorous and are observed over a period of four days.^[7] They include holy bathing, fasting and abstaining from drinking water (Vratta), standing in water for long periods of time, and offering prasad (prayer offerings) and arghya to the setting and rising sun.^[8] Some devotees also perform a prostration march as they head for the river banks.

- Onam is an annual^[4]^[5]^[6] holiday and festival celebrated in Kerala, India. It is also a harvest festival, and falls on the 22nd nakshatra Thiruvonam in the Malayalam calendar month of Chingam, which in Gregorian calendar overlaps with August–September.^[7]^[8] According to legends, the festival is celebrated to commemorate King Mahabali, whose spirit is said to visit Kerala at the time of Onam.Onam falls in the month of Chingam, which is the first month according to the Malayalam Calendar. The celebrations mark the Malayalam New Year, are spread over ten days, and conclude with Thiruvonam. The ten days are sequentially known as Atham, Chithira, Chodhi, Vishakam, Anizham, Thriketa, Moolam, Pooradam, Uthradam and Thiruvonam. The first and the last day are particularly important in Kerala and to Malayalee communities elsewhere.

最終日は「聖なるオナム祭」とも言われる。この最終日に「プリカリ」（Puli Kali）という祭が行なわれる。「Puli」が豹か虎という意味で、「Kali」が遊ぶという意味である。オナム祭の中で最も特筆に価する祭りである。なぜならプリカリでは虎（または虎人）に扮装をした人々による虎踊りが行なわれるからである。トリチュール市（Thrissur）のプリカリが有名である。プリカリは200年以上の伝統を誇るといわれている。コーチン藩王国Sakthan Thampuran藩王のころから「プリカリ」はあったといわれている。
note the snake boat race which resembles dragonboat

The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), known colloquially as the Hare Krishna movementor Hare Krishnas, is a Gaudiya Vaishnava Hindu religious organisation.^[1] ISKCON was founded in 1966 in New York City byA. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupadawho is worshipped by followers as Guru and spiritual master.^[2] Its core beliefs are based on select traditional Hindu scriptures, particularly the Bhagavad-gītāand the Śrīmad Bhāgavatam. ISKCON says it is a direct descendant of Brahma-Madhva-Gaudiya Vaishnava Sampradaya.^[3] The appearance of the movement and its culture come from the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition, which has had adherents in India since the late 15th century and American and Europeanconverts since the early 1900s in North America,^[4] and in England in the 1930s.^[5]ISKCON was formed to spread the practice of bhakti yoga, in which those involved (bhaktas) dedicate their thoughts and actions towards pleasing the Supreme Lord, Krishna.^[6]^[7] ISKCON today is a worldwide confederation of more than 550 centres, including 60 farm communities, some aiming for self-sufficiency, 50 schools, and 90 restaurants.^[8] In recent decades the most rapid expansions in membership have been within Eastern Europe (especially since the collapse of the Soviet Union) and India.

The Hare Krishna mantra, also referred to reverentially as the Maha Mantra ("Great Mantra"), is a 16 word Vaishnavamantra which is mentioned in the Kali-Santarana Upanishad, and which from the 15th century rose to importance in the Bhakti movement following the teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu.This Mantra is composed of three Sanskrit names of the Supreme Being; "Hare," "Krishna," and "Rama."^[1]^[2]According to Gaudiya Vaishnava theology, one's original consciousness and goal of life is pure love of God (Krishna).^[3] Since the 1960s, the mantra has been made well known outside of India by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada and his International Society for Krishna Consciousness (commonly known as "the Hare Krishnas").

beef
- In the Vedas there is a mention of around 250 animals out of which at least 50 were supposed to be fit for sacrifice and consumption. In the Mahabharata there is a mention of a king named Rantideva who achieved great fame by distributing foodgrains and beef to Brahmins. Taittiriya Brahman categorically tells us: `Verily the cow is food' (atho annam via gauh) and Yajnavalkya's insistence on eating the tender (amsala) flesh of the cow is well known. Even later Brahminical texts provide the evidence for eating beef. Even Manusmriti did not prohibit the consumption of beef. Since Brahminism is the dominant religious tradition, Babur, the first Mughal emperor, in his will to his son Humayun, in deference to these notions, advised him to respect the cow and avoid cow slaughter. With the construction of Hindutva ideology and politics, in response to the rising Indian national movement, the demand for ban on cow slaughter also came up. In post-Independence India RSS repeatedly raised this issue to build up a mass campaign but without any response to its call till the 1980s. http://www.thehindu.com/2001/08/14/stories/13140833.htm

- brahmin beef https://www.jetro.go.jp/ttppoas/anken/0001152000/1152167_e.html

marriage, family
- [eckstut] red symbolises not only potential but also power - including sexual power. Red continues to be an important color for married hindu women even until death. If a women dies a widow, she is shrouded in white before being cremated. If she dies before her husband dies, she is shrouded in red.

arts
- https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/a-dramatic-painting-of-a-scene-from-a-sacred-hindu-text dramatic scene in Book Ten of the Bhagavata Purana when the evil King Kamsa of Mathura attempts to kill his sister (or cousin) Devaki during her wedding procession. Having married Vasudeva, a noble of the Yadava clan, Devaki is on her way to her husband’s home, seated with Vasudeva in a canopied carriage and accompanied by Kamsa and a vast retinue that stretches across the rolling landscape. At this point the evil king Kamsa hears a voice prophesying that he will be killed by the eighth son of Devaki. Enraged by this premonition, he leaps towards Devaki, draws a sword, grabs her by the hair and tries to kill her, as she clings to Vasudeva.

Film
- Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (English: Something Happens) also known as KKHH, is an Indian Hindi coming-of-age romantic comedy drama film, released in India and the United Kingdom on 16 October 1998. It was written and directed by Karan Johar, and starred the popular on-screen pair of Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol in their fourth film together. Rani Mukerji featured in a supporting role, while Salman Khan had an extended guest appearance. Filmed in India, Mauritius, and Scotland, this was Karan Johar's directorial debut. One of his goals for the film was to set a new level for style in Hindi cinema. The plot combines two love triangles set years apart. The first half covers friends on a college campus, while the second tells the story of a widower's young daughter who tries to reunite her dad with his old friend.

The “Jai Shri Ram” chant, which was once a greeting among people irrespective of religion, has been appropriated by Hindu fundamentalists, who now interpret it to mean “Victory for Lord Ram!” rather than its original “Hail Lord Ram”. According to Hindu scriptures, Lord Ram is considered to be the “ideal” example for Hindu men to follow.https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/politics/article/3077352/jai-shri-ram-three-words-can-get-you-lynched-india

kerala
- Onam is an annual Hindu festival with origins in the state of Kerala in India.^[4]^[5]^[6] It falls in the Malayalam calendar month of Chingam, which in Gregorian calendar overlaps with August–September.^[7] The festival commemorates the Vamana avatar of Vishnu,^[8] the subsequent homecoming of the legendary Emperor Mahabali and mythologies of Hinduism related to Kashyapa and Parashurama. Onam is a major annual event for Malayali people in and outside Kerala. It marks the summer harvest and is celebrated with numerous festivities. It includes Vallam Kali (boat races), Pulikali (tiger dances), Pookkalam (flower arrangement), Onathappan (worship), Onam Kali, Tug of War, Thumbi Thullal (women's dance), Kummati kali (mask dance), Onathallu (martial arts), Onavillu (music), Kazhchakkula (plantain offerings), Onapottan (costumes), Atthachamayam (folk songs and dance), and other celebrations.^[11] It is the New Year day for Malayali Hindus. Onam is the official state festival of Kerala with public holidays that start four days from Onam Eve (Uthradom).^[14] It is celebrated by Malayali diaspora around the world.^[10] Though a Hindu festival, non-Hindu communities of Kerala participate in Onam celebrations considering it as a cultural festival.^[10]^[15]^[14] However, some non-Hindus in Kerala denounce its celebration as a cultural event because they consider it as a religious festival.

Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Sanstha (IAST: Bocāsanvāsī Akshar Purushottam Sansthā), often abbreviated as BAPS is a worldwide religious and civic organization within the Swaminarayan branch of Hinduism. BAPS was established on 5 June 1907 by Shastriji Maharaj after leaving the Vadtal Gadi of the Swaminarayan Sampraday. It was formed on the founder's interpretation that Swaminarayan was to remain present on earth through a lineage of Gunatit Gurus or Akshar dating all the way back to Gunatitanand Swami - one of Swaminarayan's prominent devotees.

mughal empire
- Ram Janmabhoomi (literally, "Rama's birthplace") is the name given to the site that is the birthplace of Rama, the 7th avatar of the Hindu deity Vishnu. The Ramayana states that the location of Rama's birthplace is on the banks of the Sarayu river in a city called "Ayodhya". A section of Hindus claim that the exact site of Rama's birthplace is where the Babri Masjid once stood in the present-day Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh. According to this theory, the Mughals demolished a Hindu shrine that marked the spot, and constructed a mosque in its place. People opposed to this theory state that such claims arose only in the 18th century, and that there is no evidence for the spot being the birthplace of Rama. The political, historical and socio-religious debate over the history and location of the Babri Mosque, and whether a previous temple was demolished or modified to create it, is known as the Ayodhya dispute. In 1992, the demolition of Babri Masjid by Hindu nationalists triggered widespread Hindu-Muslim violence. Since then, the archaeological excavations have indicated the presence of a temple beneath the mosque rubble.

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/nov/09/ayodhya-verdict-hindus-win-possession-of-site-disputed-by-muslims The Indian supreme court has ruled that India’s most hotly contested piece of religious land rightfully belongs to Hindus, and has granted permission for a temple to be built on the site in Ayodhya.The five supreme court judges based their unanimous and historic judgment on Hindus’ claim that the site is the birthplace of the god Ram.They ruled that a mosque that had stood on the site since the 16th century, and was the basis of the Muslim claim to Ayodhya, was “not built on vacant land” and that the Hindu belief could not be disputed.

the VHP on Sunday said the Centre should take swift action on the Supreme Court judgment paving the way for a Ram temple in Ayodhya and demanded the structure be built as per the design prepared by architect Chandrakant Sompura on its request.Renowned temple architect Sompura was asked to prepare the design in 1989 by then VHP chief Ashok Singhal and it was circulated among devotees across the country, the organisation's working president Alok Kumar told PTI."We expect the new temple to be build accordingly," Kumar added.According to Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP) office-bearers, the work on carving stones and building pillars for the temple has progressed a lot and these should be used in the construction.https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/take-prompt-action-on-sc-s-ayodhya-verdict-build-temple-as-per-sompura-s-design-vhp-to-modi-govt-1617652-2019-11-10

USA
- https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/mar/10/reza-aslan-criticised-for-documentary-on-cannibalistic-hindus
- any relation?

The Boston Brahmins or Boston elite are members of Boston's traditional upper class.^[1]They form an integral part of the historic core of the East Coast establishment, along with other wealthy families of Philadelphia and New York City.^[2] They are often associated^{[by whom?]} with the distinctive Boston Brahmin accent, Harvard University, Anglicanism and traditional Anglo-American customs and clothing. Descendants of the earliest English colonists, such as those who came to America on the Mayflower in 1620 or on the Arbella in 1630, are often^[quantify] considered to be the most representative of the Boston Brahmins. The physician and writer Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. coined the term "Brahmin Caste of New England" in an 1860 article in the Atlantic Monthly.^[4] The term Brahmin refers to the highest-ranking caste of people in the traditional Hindu caste system in India. In the United States, it has been applied^{[by whom?]} to the old, wealthy New England families of British Protestant origin which became influential^[when?] in the development of American institutions and culture. The term effectively underscores the strong conviction of the New England gentry that they were a people set apart by destiny to guide the American experiment as their ancestors had played a leading role in founding it. The term also hints at the erudite and exclusive nature of the New England gentry as perceived by outsiders, and may also refer to their interest in Eastern religions, fostered perhaps by the impact in the 19th century of the transcendentalistwritings of New England literary icons such as Ralph Waldo Emerson and Walt Whitman, and the enlightened appeal of Universalist Unitarian movements of the same period.

uk
- colonial

Raja Ram Mohan Roy (22 May 1772 – 26 September 1833) was the founder of the Brahmo Sabha movement in 1828, which engendered the Brahmo Samaj, an influential social-religious reform movement.^[1] His influence was apparent in the fields of politics, public administration and education as well as religion. He was known for his efforts to abolish the practice of sati, the Hindu funeral practice in which the widow was compelled to sacrifice herself in her husband’s funeral pyre in some parts of Bengal. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was known as the Father of the Indian Renaissance.

he had worked for british east india company in calcutta and had become interested in the unitarian idea that a combination of rational faith and social reform through education could lead to human progress. He was also influenced by sufi traditions, but he was most attracted to the hindu upanishads, also known as the vedanta. Roy was convinced that the vedenta was a way to understand the universal nature of god and believed that contemporary hindus had abandoned that path in favor of debased idol worship. For this reasons he became involved in the establishment of colleges; founded the brahmo sabha, a society to promote vedanta and univeral monotheism; and campaigned against sati on the basis that it had no religious sanction.
In 1830, Ram Mohan Roy travelled to the United Kingdom as an ambassador of the Mughal Empire to ensure that Lord William Bentinck's Bengal Sati Regulation, 1829 banning the practice of Sati was not overturned. In addition, Roy petitioned the King to increase the Mughal Emperor's allowance and perquisites.He died at Stapleton, then a village to the north east of Bristol (now a suburb), on 27 September 1833 of meningitis and was buried in Arnos Vale Cemetery in southern Bristol.

indonesia
- except for the great loro jongrang complex at prambanan, the hindu temples of central java are smaller in size, but more numerous than the buddhist temples.

central cult object was usually a linggum, a phallic symbol of siva (at loro jonggrang the main cult object was a statue of siva).
entrance to temple might be either on east or west
opposite entrance was an image of ganesha, siva's elephant headed son, who helped men to overcome obstacles.

- Nyepi is a Balinese "Day of Silence" that is commemorated every Isakawarsa (Saka new year) according to the Balinese calendar (in 2016, it falls on March 9). It is a Hindu celebration mainly celebrated in Bali, Indonesia. Nyepi, a public holiday in Indonesia, is a day of silence, fasting and meditation for the Balinese. The day following Nyepi is also celebrated as New Year's Day.^[1]^[2] On this day, the youth of Bali practice the ceremony of Omed-omedan or 'The Kissing Ritual' to celebrate the new year. The same day celebrated in India as ugadi.

Melasti is a Hindu Balinese purification ceremony and ritual, which according to Balinese calendar is held several days prior to the Nyepi holy day. It is observed by Hindus in Indonesia, especially in Bali. Melasti was meant as the ritual to cleanse the world from all the filth of sin and bad karma, through the symbolic act of acquiring the Tirta Amerta, "the water of life".
Melasti ceremony is held on the edge of the beach with the aim to purify oneself of all the bad things in the past and throw it to the ocean.^[2] In Hindu belief, the source of water such as lake and sea water, are considered as the source of life(Tirta Amrita).

- Eka Dasa Rudra is a series of processions, ceremonies,and sacrifices held every 100 years at Pura Besakih, the"mother temple" of Bali, Indonesia. The temple, whichcomprises about 30 separate temples honoring a greatvariety of Balinese and Hindu gods, was probably builtabout 1,000 years ago and is on the slopes of the volcanicmountain, Gunung ("Mount") Agung. On March 17, 1963, the Eka Dasa Rudra was under waywhen Agung catastrophically erupted and killed more than1,500 people. Since the sacrifices were interrupted, theEka Dasa Rudra was started again 16 years later andcompleted in the period from late February to early May of1979. Images of gods were carried 19 miles down themountain to be washed in the sea: entire villages gatheredalong the route. In all, it is estimated that more than100,000 people participated in the ritual. The climax cameduring the Taur rites when 23 priests offered prayers andsacrificed animals—ranging from an eagle to an anteater—to appease forms of Rudra, a Hindu demonicmanifestation. Thousands of pilgrims traveled by truckand foot to Besakih. The complex Balinese religion is largely a blend withHinduism; the majority of Balinese hold to the Bali Hindufaith, also known as Agama Tirtha.

malaysia
- http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2017-02/10/content_28162340.htm More than a million Hindus gathered in temples across Malaysia on Thursday to celebrate the annual Thaipusam festival, with many piercing their bodies with hooks and skewers to showcase devotion to the deity Lord Murugan. Massive crowds descended on the stunning Batu Caves temple complex on the outskirts of capital Kuala Lumpur to participate in the festival, which commemorates the day when the goddess Parvathi gave her son Lord Murugan a powerful lance to fight evil demons.

myanmar
- In this photo taken on April 19, 2019, a Hindu devotee carrying a child walks over hot coals while taking part in the Yankin Moekaung firewall festival in Yangon. https://www.presstv.com/Detail/2019/04/20/593860/Photo

china
- [maritime museum] during yuan dynasty, shivaite lingam sect (founded in south india in 13th century reached china; hinduism was actively embraced in harbour cities such as quanzhou; “清源金氏族谱”'s mention of "佛番寺" is actually a hindu temple

hong kong
- temples

happy valley
kowloon hindu mandir
香港四面佛 http://www.brahmashrine.org.hk/zh-hant/deity/

bookmark backup

Thursday, January 3, 2019

hinduism

KANHRA (KANADA) RAGINI, INDIA, MUGHAL, 18TH CENTURY https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/eclectic-london/an-illustration-to-a-ragamala-series-kanhra-kanada

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