Wednesday, January 2, 2019

Central and Eastern Europe

central europe
- johann august zeune, german scholar of late enlightenment's book (1808), mitteleuropa was a geographical space characterised by the coexistence and also clash of german and slavic populations wedged between southwest (including regionscfrom pyreneed through italy to balkans) and northeast europe (including scandinavia and sarmatia - that is, the polishband russian lands). In another work (1820), he subdivided mitteleuropa to 3 separate regions, that of the carpathian lands (inhabited by various populations, mostimportantly hungarians, romanians, and slavs), a germanic region, and a french one.
- mastermind of holy alliance, count klemens metternich, reformist karl ludwig von bruck, czech national leader frantisek palacky, rejected in 1848 the incorporation of bohemia into the german national framework and argued instead for the maintenance of a multinational austrian state that offerd the possibility of free national development for its slavic inhabitants.
- german liberal nationalist friedrich naumann formulated in 1915 that mitteleuropa denoted a concentric framework pitting the continental german dominated center against the eastern and western peripheries.
- zwischeneuropa was coined by albrecht penck (1915) - which was meant to be the spinal column of continental eurooe, to be organised into a state federation under german leadership. Also championed by giselher wirsing (1932), close to die tat circle
- erwin hanslik projected a dividing line of easternand western civilisation, ranging from baltic to the adriatic, cutting the hapsburg monarchy into 2
- poland

  • it was primarily concerned with a possible regional economic integration among the socialists, who had been engaged with the problem of nation state versus imperial developmental models since the turn of the century (a problem reflected in the debate of rosa luxembourg and kazimierz kelles-kraus).
  • lublin institute of east central europe organised and led by jerzy kloczowski, used the central eurooean paradigm to integrate ukrainians, lithuanians and belarusians into a common symbolic framework with poland. 
- hungary 

  • oszkar jaszi did not promote, in its original context, a sociopolitical integration of germany and the small nations in the zone of austrian and german influence; but as a possiblr solution to arden nationality conflicts in austria-hungary, incorporating the nations into a federal scheme.  
  • In 1910s, integral nationalists who dominated the political establishment, kept to a geographical conceptualisation (such as carpathian basin), whic stressed the concentric nature of broader region around rump hungary.  Agrarian populists who rejected the irredentist nationalism of horthy regime, generally preferred the concept of eastern europe.
  • hungarian jewish elemer hantos worked with austrian and german businessmen and experts witihn the framework of mitteleuropaischer wirtschftstag and later mitteleuropa-institut - in the vision of reconstructing the economic unity of mitteleuropa as a step toward paneuropa
  • revue d'histoire comparee (1943-48)
  • oskar halecki (1950, 1952) identifiedv3 subregions that structured the broader east central european region: thevgreat plain in the north, the danubian basin, and the balkans
  • robert kann (1950) on hapsburg monachy as a multinational state
  • claudio magris (1963) on habsburg myth

- romania

  • romanian argue against entering war on the side of entente based their argument on a geopolitical counter-position of russia and central europe. This turned vocally pro-german after the occupation of part of romania by german troops in 1917, and cooperationnwas often framed in terms of integration into a common Central european civilisational and ecpnomic space
  • interdisciplinary cultural project a treia europa (third europe) based in timisoara, a city with multiethnic past in the traditionally multiculturalnbanat region 
- moldovan conservatives (who sympathised with germany as a model of organic modernization and focused on regaining bessarabia while being more open to compromise in the question of transylvania) were being brought together with populists and socialists, who looked at tsarist empire as a retrograde autocratic state hindering progress all over eastern europe
- moravian local patriot and scion of an ennobled jewish industrial family victor von bauer argued (1936) for an multiethnicvpost-hapsburg zentraleuropa, stressing importance of jews as a modernizing factor and seeking to demarcate the region from imperial german territories
- polish jewish left wing emigre anatol muhlstein (1942) published a programmatic text in us about setting up the united states of central europe, which would have included poland, czechoslovakia, hungary, romania, yugoslavia, austria, and possible entrance of greece, bulgaria and baltic states
- gradual disappearance of germany from central european referential system by the post ww2 period, moving the center gradualy to the east ; also gradual disappearance of switzerland and northern italy
- literary studies on central european framework from 1960s to 1990 in poland, czechoslovakia
- series of conferences (les lumieres en hongrie, en europe centrale et en europe orientale) in matrafured between 1971 and 1984 
- jan kren (2005) history of central europe
- symbolic geographical relationship to the west and to their respective administrative centers

  • vojvodina vs belgrade
  • babat vs bucharest
  • galicia vs eastern ukraine
- cities with multiethnic past
  • bratislava/pozsony/pressburg
  • cluj/kolozsvar/klausenburg
  • timisoara/temsvar/ temeschwar
  • chernivtsi/cernauti/czernowitz
  • lviv/lwow/lemberg
eastern europe
- used for the first time in 1730 book written by swedish officer philip johan von strahlenberg
- in 1755, french scholarvand benedictine monk joseph vaissette suggested subsuming poland, great russia and european parts of ottoman empire under the label europe orientale. But majority ofvwestern scholars adhered to traditional way of partitioning europe into three mesoregions - nord, midi, milieu until the beginning of 19th c
- after congress of vienna, scholars suggested dividing europe into five mesoregions taking into account the new political borders of the continent. the founding father of modern geography in france suggested in 1816 a concept of eastern europe comprising russia and poland. Later he sketched a different version of a "partie boreale et partie centrale" (european russia, poland, republic of cracow) and a "partie australe" (european part of ottoman empire, greece , ionian islands)
- adriano balbi ' s idea (abrege de geographie, 1833) of eastern europe located eastward of meridian, encompassed russia and ottoman empire, ionian islands, cracow, greece, serbia, wallachia and moldova
- johann gottfried herder in 1792 drafted a vision of one peaceful slavic nation inhabiting vast territory between the baltic and adriatic seas located east of germanic (romanic) peoples. This has strong impact on national and pan-national movements (pan-slavism) during 19th and 20th c
- swedish historian johann thunmann's book "ostliches europa" (1774)
- georg wilheim friedrich hegel in his lectures on philosophy of history (1840), he promoted a tripartite regional division of europe that would take into account the contribution of various peoples (and geographical regions) to the development of world history.  Greece and italy (southern europe) had been the theatre of world history when the center and north of europe were uncultivated. Hegel's thesis that eastern europe was a latecomer in human history could be interpreted in two ways. (1) backward, uncivilised, barbarian, semi-asiatic; (2) a land of the future, salvation, and spiritual renovation
- german historian ernst a herrmann in his history of russian state, defines the eastern affairs - developments in geographical sphere, where russian power started taking root (1860). Russia's eastern-asiatic features had a strong influence on her historical development. Because of her oriental-slavic geographical disposition, russia was not able to develop any political regime other than despotism.
- in 19th c french liberal historiography, eastern europe and russia were considered almost identical spatial entities. After the congress of vienna and suppression of polish november uprising in 1830-31, russia had become the antirevolutionary gendarme of europe, a development observed by liberal circles in the west with great suspicion and fear. The idea that europe can be divided into a western hemisphere of liberty and an eastern europe of despotism was a widespread conviction in french political debates in 1st part of 19th c.  French author and translator ernest charriere was convinced that there is a western race (Race occidentale) and an asiatic race (Race asiatique) differing substantially from each other. He regarded proper europe ends at the river oder and in julian alps. On the eastern side of this imagined frontier, there is a different europe, a semi-asiatic europe forming a bridge between the west and the asian barbary.
- under the new bipolar world order, terms "soviet/communist bloc", "countries in warsaw pact treaty", "eastern bloc" and eastern europe were used almost synonymously.
- after fall of iron curtain and disintegration of soviet union in 1991, countries of central europe succeeded in ecaping a politicaly defined eastern europe by joining nato and eu between 1999 and 2004.
- russia

  • russian term vostok (east) has always been a signifier of the orient
  • term "vostochnaia evropa" was used in russian geographical literature of 1830s and 1840s; took on new meanings in the course of 19th c, referring to territory of orthodox christianity and/or slavic civilisation or a spatial entity with a distinct historical development 
- uk

  • on 5mar1946, winston churchill described an imagined line from stettin in the baltic to triest in adriatic as an ironncurtain descending across the continent. This new border divided the free democratic world in the west from a soviet sphere in the east 

- germany
  • osteuropa usually denotes a political and cultural territory stretching eastwards fromthe border of rivers oder and neisse and the bohemian mountains, people in poland, czech republic 
  • after 1939, eastern europe was conceptualised by numerpus german scholars as a backward space that needed to be subjugated, exploited and liberated from jewish domination. --> june 1942, german agronomist konrad meyer provided heinrich himmler with memorandum proposing a systematic social reconfiguration of recently conquered territories of poland and soviet union. -- generalplan-ost 
- poland

  • historians held the view that poland 's historical mission has always been to protect europe from its asian enemies, such as mongols, turks, and russians.
  • historian oskar halecki tried to disentangle the histories of polish-lithuanian commonwealth and of tsarist russia on the maps of western political thought and historiography. Whereas poland and realm of empire of kiev had formed a historical spatial unity since 9th and 10th c, the new europe fell apart when the prinicipality of moscow ascended as a new political center in 12th c and when russian territory was conquered by tatars in 13thc.  Since then eastern europe had been divided into 2 distinct parts. 
- czech republic

  • jaroslav bidlo drew a distinct line between western (romano-germanic) and byzantine-slavic kulturkreis

-in ukraine and belarus, many people conceive themselves as livingbnot inneasterneurope but between western and eastern europe. 
- muslims and tatars

  • https://www.quora.com/What-are-biggest-misconceptions-about-Eastern-Europe

The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians provide the habitat for the largest European populations of brown bears, wolves, chamois, and lynxes, with the highest concentration in Romania,[1][2][3] as well as over one third of all European plant species.The Carpathians consist of a chain of mountain ranges that stretch in an arc from the Czech Republic (3%) in the northwest through Slovakia (17%), Poland(10%), Hungary (4%) and Ukraine (11%), and Romania (51%). The highest range within the Carpathians is the Tatras, on the border of Slovakia and Poland.
- slovenia claimed its ancestors moved from the mountains to where they are living

Dobruja or Dobrudja (Bulgarian: Добруджа, transliterated: Dobrudzha or Dobrudža; Romanian: Dobrogeapronounced [ˈdobrod͡ʒe̯a]  or [doˈbrod͡ʒe̯a]; Turkish: Dobruca) is a historical region in Eastern Europe that has been divided since the 19th century between the territories of Bulgaria and Romania. It is situated between the lower Danube River and the Black Sea, and includes the Danube Delta, Romanian coast, and the northernmost part of the Bulgarian coast. The territory of Dobruja is made up of Northern Dobruja, which is part of Romania, and Southern Dobruja, which belongs to Bulgaria. The territory of the Romanian region Dobrogea is organised as the counties of Constanța and Tulcea, with a combined area of 15,500 km2 (6,011 sq. miles) and a population of slightly less than 900 thousand. Its main cities are Constanța, Tulcea, Medgidia and Mangalia. Dobrogea is represented by dolphins in the coat of arms of Romania. The Bulgarian region Dobrudzha is divided among the administrative regions of Dobrich and Silistra; the following villages of Razgrad Province: Konevo, Rainino, Terter and Madrevo; and the village General Kantardzhievo (Varna). 
- The most widespread opinion among scholars is that the origin of the term Dobruja is to be found in the Turkish rendition of the name of a 14th‑century Bulgarian ruler, despotDobrotitsa.[2][3][4] It was common for the Turks to name countries after one of their early rulers (for example, nearby Moldavia was known as Bogdan Iflak by the Turks, named after Bogdan I). Other etymologies have been considered, but never gained widespread acceptance. Abdolonyme Ubicini believed the name meant "good lands", derived from Slavic dobro("good"), an opinion that was adopted by several 19th‑century scholars. This derivation appears to contrast with the usual 19th‑century description of Dobruja as a dry barren land; it has been explained as expressing the point of view of Ruthenes, who considered the Danube delta in the northern Dobruja as a significant improvement over the steppes to the North.[5] I. A. Nazarettean combines the Slavic word with the Tatar budjak ("corner"), thus proposing the etymology "good corner". A version matching contemporaneous descriptions was suggested by Kanitz, who associated the name with the Bulgarian dobrice ("rocky and unproductive terrain").[6]According to Gheorghe I. Brătianu, the name is a Slavic derivation from the Turkic word Bordjan or Brudjars, which referred to the Turkic Proto-Bulgarians; this term was also used by Arabic writers.

The Vinča culture, [ʋîːntʃa] also known as Turdaș culture or Turdaș–Vinča culture, was a Neolithic archaeological culture in present-day Serbia and smaller parts of Bulgaria and Romania (particularly Transylvania), dated to the period 5700–4500 BC or 5300–4700/4500 BC. Named for its type site, Vinča-Belo Brdo, a large tell settlement discovered by Serbian archaeologist Miloje Vasić in 1908, it represents the material remains of a prehistoric society mainly distinguished by its settlement pattern and ritual behaviour. Farming technology first introduced to the region during the First Temperate Neolithic was developed further by the Vinča culture, fuelling a population boom and producing some of the largest settlements in prehistoric Europe. These settlements maintained a high degree of cultural uniformity through the long-distance exchange of ritual items, but were probably not politically unified. Various styles of zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines are hallmarks of the culture, as are the Vinča symbols, which some conjecture to be the earliest form of proto-writing. Although not conventionally considered part of the Chalcolithic or "Copper Age", the Vinča culture provides the earliest known example of copper metallurgy. - https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Europe-have-no-ancient-civilizations-like-Mesopotamia-Egypt-etc

The Kingdom of Bohemia, sometimes in English literature referred to as the Czech Kingdom (Czech: České království; German: Königreich Böhmen; Latin: Regnum Bohemiae, sometimes Regnum Czechorum), was a medieval and early modern monarchy in Central Europe, the predecessor of the modern Czech Republic. It was an Imperial State in the Holy Roman Empire, and the Bohemian king was a prince-elector of the empire. The kings of Bohemia, besides Bohemia, ruled also the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, which at various times included Moravia, Silesia, Lusatia and parts of Saxony, Brandenburg and Bavaria. The kingdom was established by the Přemyslid dynasty in the 12th century from Duchy of Bohemia, later ruled by the House of Luxembourg, the Jagiellonian dynasty, and since 1526 by the House of Habsburg and its successor house Habsburg-Lorraine. Numerous kings of Bohemia were also elected Holy Roman Emperors and the capital Prague was the imperial seat in the late 14th century, and at the end of the 16th and beginning of the 17th centuries. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the territory became part of the Habsburg Austrian Empire, and subsequently the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1867. Bohemia retained its name and formal status as a separate Kingdom of Bohemia until 1918, known as a crown land within the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and its capital Prague was one of the empire's leading cities. The Czech language (called the Bohemian language in English usage until the 19th century) was the main language of the Diet and the nobility until 1627 (after the Bohemian Revolt was suppressed). German was then formally made equal with Czech and eventually prevailed as the language of the Diet until the Czech national revival in the 19th century. German was also widely used as the language of administration in many towns after Germans immigrated and populated some areas of the country in the 13th century. The royal court used the Czech, Latin, and German languages, depending on the ruler and period. Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I, both the Kingdom and Empire were dissolved. Bohemia became the core part of the newly formed Czechoslovak Republic.
- Ottokar II (Czech: Přemysl Otakar II.; c. 1233 – 26 August 1278), the Iron and Golden King, was a member of the Přemyslid dynasty who reigned as King of Bohemia from 1253 until his death in 1278. He also held the titles of Margrave of Moravia from 1247, Duke of Austria from 1251, Duke of Styria from 1260, as well as Duke of Carinthia and Margrave of Carniola from 1269. With Ottokar's rule, the Přemyslids reached the peak of their power in the Holy Roman Empire. His expectations of the imperial crown, however, were never fulfilled.Přemysl Ottokar is considered one of the greatest kings of Bohemia, along with Charles IV. He was a founder of many new towns (about 30 — not only in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia, but also in Austria and Styria) and incorporated many existing settlements through civic charters, giving them new privileges. He was a strong proponent of trade, law and order. Furthermore, he instituted open immigration policies through which skilled German-speaking immigrants settled in major cities throughout his domains. As noted, the historic East Prussian city of Königsberg (King's Mountain) was named in his honor as a tribute to his support of the Teutonic Knights in their war with the pagan Old Prussians. As Czech traditional law was different from that of his other domains, many principles introduced during his reign formed core of the Czech law for the following centuries. From his time stems the oldest preserved source of Czech law, Zemské desky, and also the oldest written Czech communal law, recorded in the founding deeds of the respective towns. By supporting the city of Jihlava (German: Iglau) with its mines, he laid foundation of the silver wealth of later Bohemian kings. Privileges of civic charters usually excluded the towns from obedience to the traditional courts held by members of nobility. This can be seen as a step towards equality and a precursor of modern civil law. In the country, Ottokar's introduction of the Law of Emphyteusis into the Czech law is sometimes interpreted as "Germanization". In fact it was creative, for it freed subjects from feudal obligations, except for rent — and tax, if such was levied. Free selling and leaving of estates could also be bought and soon became common. Thus, Ottokar can be reckoned an early Bohemian ruler who furthered Bohemian rights in medieval times. This change of legal environment in Bohemia was introduced by systematic founding of villages chartered under this law. He issued also a general privilege to the Jews (1254), which established principles of integration of the Jews into the Czech society until 1848. The Jews were now eligible for various positions, such as servants of crown, thereby being somewhat less subject to discrimination. Instead of being able to claim only the support of individual lords, the Jews could from then on claim support of any royal officer.Ottokar followed with a systematic policy of strengthening his domains by building fortifications. Besides supporting towns, he built many fortresses himself — Zvíkov Castle, Křivoklát Castle or Bezděz Castle in Bohemia, and the famed Hofburg Palace in Vienna — and also induced his vassals to build castles. A sign of rising strength of Bohemia, it was also a reaction to the Mongol raids of the 13th century (see Béla IV of Hungary). Conflict for the title of ownership to these fortified places built by members of nobility was probably the source of an uprising in 1276, which cost Ottokar the Austrian lands, and two years later (in an attempt for reconquest) his life.
  • In the painting, Přemysl Otakar II: The Union of Slavic Dynasties, part of Alfons Mucha's 20-canvas work The Slav Epic, Ottokar is depicted at his niece's wedding celebration, forging alliances with other Slavic rulers in attendance.
-nobles
  • The House of Lobkowicz (Lobkovicové in modern Czech, sg. z Lobkovic; Lobkowitz in German) is a Czech[1] noble family that dates back to the 14th century and is one of the oldest Bohemian noble families.這個家族的成員於1623年成為神聖羅馬帝國的世襲親王。Sa femme Polyxena de Pernstein est connue pour avoir fait don à l'église des Carmélites de Prague, d’une célèbre statuette de cire, l'Enfant Jésus de Prague, aux propriétés miraculeuses.
    • Palais Lobkowitz, or Palais Dietrichstein-Lobkowitz, is a Baroque palace in Vienna, Austria. It was owned by the noble Lobkowitz family.The palace is located on the Lobkowitzplatz, a square which previously had been called the "pig market", at which time it was a less distinguished address. The Lobkowitz Palace ranks among the oldest palace buildings of Vienna. The palace is the first important baroque city palace built after the Battle of Vienna(die zweite Türkenbelagerung), when the aristocracy no longer had to invest its money only for military purposes.After repeated ownership changes (among the owners, Count Wenzel Gallas), the palace was bought in 1745 by Ferdinand Philipp Prince von Lobkowitz. The palace remained from that time up to 1980 in the possession of the Lobkowitz family.Under the Lobkowitz family, the palace underwent several renovations. At the beginning of the 18th century, most notably, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach and his son Joseph Emanuel Fischer von Erlach were entrusted with the project.In the early 19th century, Ludwig van Beethoven was often a guest in the palace, since the owner at that time, Franz Joseph Maximilian von Lobkowitz, was an important patron of the composer. During the Congress of Vienna, numerous celebrations and balls were held in the palace. Around the middle of the 19th century, the Lobkowitzes transferred their major residence to their hereditary palace in Roudnice nad Labem, northern Bohemia, and released their Viennese residence for letting.Between 1869 and 1909, the house was used as the French embassy.

      From 1919 to 1938, the Czechoslovakian legation was accommodated there.After end of the Second World War, the house was used as seat of the Institut Français de Vienne. In 1980, the palace became government property, and since 1991, after a comprehensive renovation, it has served as the theatre museum of the Kunsthistorisches Museum.


- hussite revolution (1419-1436)
  • The First Defenestration of Prague involved the killing of seven members of the city council by a crowd of Czech Hussites on 30 July 1419.[citation needed] Jan Želivský, a Hussite priest at the church of the Virgin Mary of the Snows, led his congregation on a procession through the streets of Prague to the New Town Hall (Novoměstská radnice) on Charles Square. The town council members had refused to exchange their Hussite prisoners. While they were marching, a stone was thrown at Želivský from the window of the town hall and allegedly hit him.[1] This enraged the mob and they stormed the town hall. Once inside the hall, the group defenestrated the judge, the burgomaster, and several members of the town council. They were all killed by the fall. The procession was a result of the growing discontent at the contemporary direction of the Church and the inequality between the peasants, the Church's prelates, and the nobility. This discontent combined with rising feelings of nationalism and increased the influence of preachers such as Jan Želivský, influenced by John Wycliffe, who saw the state of the Catholic Church as corrupt. These preachers urged their congregations to action, including taking up arms, to combat these perceived transgressions.[citation needed]The First Defenestration was thus the turning point between talk and action leading to the prolonged Hussite Wars. The wars broke out shortly afterward and lasted until 1436.
- in 1485, utraquist church became an established church in both bohemia and moravia. Catholicism was further marginalised when bohemian nobles seized church properties, the bohemian estates abolished the clerical estate, and utraquist church eliminated clerical benefices.  
- bohemian brethren revived the religious traditions of the radical taborites in 2nd half of 15thc
- a network of lutheran churchese emerged in northern bohemia (territory of upper lusatia) and in 1546, a combined opposition of lutheran and brethren nobles tried to prevent king ferdinand from mobilizing troops in bohemia in support of charles V's campaign aganist the evangelical forces in first schmalkaldic war
- under the religionsfriede, bohemia was a multiconfessional constituent of the officially biconfessional empire, a complex mixture of lutheran, utraquist (with both old and new factions), brethen and catholic faith communities.
- under emperor/king maximilian II, the non-catholic political class of bohemia, nobles and urban delegates increasingly under lutheran leadership in the nobility
- under the reign of emperor/king rudolf II, the array of diverse religious voices in bohemia increased even more when calvinism attracted a number of converts among the noble elite.  They presssured Rudolf II (who had relocated the imperial court to prague) to issue the latter of majesty, the royal edict granting extensive religious freedoms to the various evangelical religious communities.
- The Second Defenestration of Prague precipitated the Thirty Years' War. In 1555, the Peace of Augsburg had settled religious disputes in the Holy Roman Empire by enshrining the principle of Cuius regio, eius religio, allowing a prince to determine the religion of his subjects. The Kingdom of Bohemia since 1526 had been governed by Habsburg Kings, who did not force their Catholic religion on their largely Protestant subjects. In 1609, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia (1576–1612), increased Protestant rights. He was increasingly viewed as unfit to govern, and other members of the Habsburg dynasty declared his younger brother, Matthias, to be family head in 1606. Matthias began to gradually wrest territory from Rudolf, beginning with Hungary. In 1609, to strengthen his hold on Bohemia, Rudolf issued the Letter of Majesty, which granted Bohemia's largely Protestant estates the right to freely exercise their religion, essentially setting up a Protestant Bohemian state church controlled by the estates, "...dominated by the towns and rural nobility."[3] Upon Rudolf's death, Matthias succeeded in the rule of Bohemia (1612–1619) and extended his offer of more legal and religious concessions to Bohemia, relying mostly on the advice of his chancellor, Bishop Melchior Klesl.  Two Regents and their secretary were defenestrated, but they survived the 70-foot (21-metre) fall from the third floor.[5][6] Catholics maintained the men were saved by angels or by the intercession of the Virgin Mary, who caught them; later Protestant pamphleteersasserted that they survived due to falling onto a dung heap, a story unknown to contemporaries and probably coined in response to divine intervention claims. Philip Fabricius was later ennobled by the emperor and granted the title Baron von Hohenfall (literally "Baron of Highfall").
- The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (German: Protektorat Böhmen und Mähren; Czech: Protektorát Čechy a Morava) was a protectorate of Nazi Germany established on 16 March 1939 following the German occupation of Czechoslovakia on 15 March 1939. Earlier, following the Munich Agreement of September 1938, Nazi Germany had incorporated the Czech Sudetenland territory as a Reichsgau (October 1938).


Moravia (/mɔːˈreɪviə, -ˈrɑː-, moʊ-/ maw-RAY-vee-ə, -RAH-, moh-;[7] Czech: Morava; German:  Mähren; Polish: Morawy; Latin: Moravia) is a historical country in the Czech Republic (forming its eastern part) and one of the historical Czech lands, together with Bohemia and Czech Silesia. The medieval and early modern Margraviate of Moravia was a crown land of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (from 1348 to 1918), an imperial state of the Holy Roman Empire (1004 to 1806), later a crown land of the Austrian Empire (1804 to 1867) and briefly also one of 17 former crown lands of the Cisleithanian part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1867 to 1918. During the early 20th century, Moravia was one of the five lands of Czechoslovakia from 1918 to 1928; it was then merged with Czech Silesia, and eventually dissolved by abolition of the land system in 1949.
- https://www.quora.com/Are-Moravians-culturally-and-linguistically-closer-to-Czechs-or-Slovaks Linguistically: there are three distinct Moravian dialect groups - North, Central and East. The linguistic variation in Moravia is markedly greater than in Bohemia.Compared to Standard Czech, North Moravian is a bit more similar to both Slovak and Polish, East Moravian is considerably closer to Slovak, and Central Moravian is kind of in a world of its own (its phonology in particular). But with the exception of a few East Moravian dialects spoken literally right on the border by older speakers, all of them are closer to standard Czech than standard Slovak today.
Culturally, I’ve noticed a couple of things Moravians and Slovaks have in common: Religion is stronger in Moravia than in Bohemia, and Moravians and Slovaks are more into making spirits (fruit brandies) than brewing beer - except South Moravia which is a wine region. But the Moravians I know identify as Czechs.
- people


Galicia (Ukrainian and Rusyn: Галичина, Halychyna; Polish: Galicja; Czech and Slovak: Halič; German: Galizien; Hungarian: Galícia/Kaliz/Gácsország/Halics; Romanian: Galiția/Halici; Russian:Галиция, Galitsiya; Yiddish: גאַליציע‎, Galitsye) is a historical and geographic region in Central-Eastern Europe, once a small Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria that straddled the modern-day border between Poland and Ukraine. The area, which is named after the medieval city of Halych, was first mentioned in Hungarian historical chronicles in the year 1206 asGaliciæ. The nucleus of historic Galicia lies within the modern regions of western Ukraine: Lviv, Ternopil and Ivano-Frankivsk near Halych. In the 18th century, territories that later became part of the modern Polish regions of Lesser Poland Voivodeship, Subcarpathian Voivodeship and Silesian Voivodeship were added to Galicia. There is considerable overlap between Galicia and south-west Ruthenia, especially a cross-border region (centred on Carpathian Ruthenia of present-day Ukraine) that is inhabited by various nationalities, including the Rusyn minority.
- The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, also known as Galicia or Austrian Poland, became a crownland of the Habsburg Monarchy as a result of the First Partition of Poland in 1772, when it became a Kingdom under Habsburg rule. From 1804 to 1918 it was a crownland of the Austrian Empire. After the reforms of 1867, it became an ethnic Pole-administered autonomous unit under the Austrian crown. The country was carved from the entire south-western part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Among the many ceremonial titles of the princes of Hungary was "ruler of Galicia and Lodomeria". The name "Galicia" is the Latinized form of Halych, a principality of the medieval Ruthenia. "Lodomeria", is also a Latinized form of Volodymyr-Volynsky that was founded in the 10th century by Vladimir the Great and until the partitions of Poland was known simply as Volodymyr (Polish: Włodzimierz). King of Galicia and Lodomeria was a medieval title which the King of Hungary (Andrew II) adopted during his conquest of the region back in the 12th century. This historical region in Eastern Europe is divided today between Poland and Ukraine. The nucleus of historic Galicia consists of the modern Lviv, Ternopil, and Ivano-Frankivsk regions of western Ukraine.
  • hkej 17aug17 shum article
  • note the coat of arms (crow)
  • The Galician Slaughter, also known as the Peasant Uprising of 1846[2] or the Szela uprising[3] (German: Galizischer Bauernaufstand; Polish: Rzeź galicyjskaor Rabacja galicyjska), was a two-month uprising of Galician[a] peasants that led to the suppression of the szlachtauprising (Kraków Uprising) and the massacre of szlachta in Galicia in the Austrian partition in early 1846. The uprising, which lasted from February to March, primarily affected the lands around the town of Tarnów. It was a revolt against serfdom, directed against manorial property and oppression (for example, the manorial prisons);[5] Galician peasants killed about 1,000 noblemen and destroyed about 500 manors.[4][6] The Austrian government used the uprising to decimate nationalist Polish nobles, who were organizing an uprising against Austria. In the semi-autonomous Free City of Kraków, patriotic Polish intellectuals and nobles (szlachta) had made plans for a general uprising in partitioned Poland, intending to reestablish an independent Poland.[7][8] A similar uprising of nobility was planned in Poznań, but police quickly caught the ringleaders.[8][9] The Kraków Uprising began on the night of February 20, and initially met with limited successes. In the meantime, the recent poor harvests resulted in significant unrest among the local peasantry. Serfdom, with corvée labor, existed in Galicia until 1848, and the 1846 massacre of Polish szlachta is credited with helping to bring on its demise. The destruction of crops during the hostilities was one of the reasons for the ensuing famine. For the Polish nobles and reformers, this event was a lesson that class lines are a powerful force, and that peasants cannot be expected to support a cause of independent Poland without education and reform. Soon after the uprising was put down, the Republic of Cracow was abolished and incorporated into Galicia. The massacre of the gentry in 1846 was the historical memory that haunted Stanisław Wyspiański's play The Wedding. The uprising was also described in the stories "Der Kreisphysikus" and "Jacob Szela" by Marie von Ebner-Eschenbach.
- narratives
  • transatlantic historic vocation as a land of mass migration to america, as well as its privileged link to portugal and celtic nations, forging an atlantic facade of europe.
  • diasporic imagination - link between galicia and atlantic metropolises like buenos aires or havana, where galician immigrants set up dense networks of mutual-aid associations that shaped authentic diasporic communities, and where the legacy of galician culture and memory of self government found shelter during franco years.
  • jacobean tradition (pilgrimage route to santiago de compostela) as a direct link to central europe existing since middle ages
- language
  • Galician is closest to Portuguese because it’s true: they were essentially the same language until Portugal split from the Kingdom of Galicia and for some time after that. But then Portuguese went its own way while Galician, eventually, fell under the sphere of influence of Castilian.https://www.quora.com/Why-is-Portuguese-the-closest-language-to-Spanish-but-Galician-is-closest-to-Portuguese


The Liburnians (or Liburni were an ancient Illyrian tribe inhabiting the district called Liburnia,[2] a coastal region of the northeastern Adriatic between the rivers Arsia (Raša) and Titius (Krka) in what is now Croatia.The first account of the Liburni comes from Periplus or Coastal passage, an ancient Greek text of the mid 4th century BC.
- in horace' ode 1.37, octavian used ships modeled on those of liburnian pirates

The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, formally the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, after 1791 the Commonwealth of Poland, was a dualistic state, a bi-confederation of Poland and Lithuania ruled by a common monarch, who was both the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. It was one of the largest and most populous countries of the 16th–17th century Europe. The Commonwealth was established by the Union of Lublin in July 1569, but the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania had been in a de facto personal union since 1386 with the marriage of the Polish queen Hedwig and Lithuania's Grand Duke Jogaila, who was crowned King jure uxoris Władysław II Jagiełło of Poland. The First Partition of Poland in 1772 and the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 greatly reduced the state's size and the Commonwealth collapsed as an independent state following the Third Partition of Poland in 1795.The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was marked by high levels of ethnic diversity and by relative religious tolerance, guaranteed by the Warsaw Confederation Act 1573;[14][15][16] however, the degree of religious freedom varied over time. Shortly before its demise, the Commonwealth adopted a massive reform effort and enacted the May 3 Constitution—the first codified constitution in modern European history and the second in modern world history (after the United States Constitution).
- The Union of Lublin (Polish: Unia lubelska; Lithuanian: Liublino unija) was signed on 1 July 1569, in Lublin, Poland, and created a single state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, one of the largest countries in Europe at the time. It replaced the personal union of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania with a real union and an elective monarchy, since Sigismund II Augustus, the last of the Jagiellons, remained childless after three marriages. In addition, the autonomy of Royal Prussia was largely abandoned. The Duchy of Livonia, tied to Lithuania in real union since the Union of Grodno (1566), became a Polish–Lithuanian condominium.The Commonwealth was ruled by a single elected monarch who carried out the duties of King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, and governed with a common Senate and parliament(the Sejm). The Union was an evolutionary stage in the Polish–Lithuanian alliance and personal union, necessitated also by Lithuania's dangerous position in wars with Russia.Constituting a crucial event in the history of several nations, the Union of Lublin has been viewed quite differently by many historians. Sometimes identified as the moment at which the szlachta (including Lithuanians/Ruthenians) rose to the height of their power, establishing a democracy of noblemen as opposed to absolute monarchy. Some historians concentrate on its positive aspects, emphasizing its peaceful, voluntary creation, inclusive character and its role in spreading of economical welfare and good laws; others see there a possible cause of social and political instability that led to the Partitions of Poland about 200 years later. Some Lithuanian historians are more critical of the Union, due to it weakening the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the midst of the Livonian War, with Sigismund II Augustus unilaterally ceding Podlachia and lands in Ukraine (Kiev Voivodeship, Bracław Voivodeship, and Volhynian Voivodeship) to Poland, hence concluding it was an effect of the domination of Sigismund II Augustus by Polish nobles.

  • The Union of Lublin was superseded by the Constitution of 3 May 1791, under which the federal Commonwealth was to be transformed into a unitary state by King Stanisław August Poniatowski. The status of semi-federal state was restored by the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations. The constitution was not fully implemented, however, and the Commonwealth was ended with the Partitions of Poland in 1795.After the Union, the Lithuanian nobles had the same formal rights as the Polish to rule the lands and subjects under their control. However, political advancement in the Catholic-dominated Commonwealth was a different matter.[citation needed]By the late 15th century, the Polish language was already making rapid inroads among the Lithuanian and Rus' elites.[9] The Lublin Union accelerated the process of Polonization. In culture and social life, both the Polish language and Catholicism became dominant for the Ruthenian nobility, most of whom were initially Ruthenian-speaking and Eastern Orthodox by religion. However the commoners, especially the peasants, continued to speak their own languages and after the Union of Brestconverted to Eastern Catholicism.[citation needed]This eventually created a significant rift between the lower social classes and the nobility in the Lithuanian and Ruthenian areas of the Commonwealth.[11] Some Ruthenian magnates resisted Polonization (like the Ostrogskis) by adhering to Orthodox Christianity, giving generously to the Ruthenian Orthodox Churches and to the Ruthenian schools. However, the pressure of Polonization was harder to resist with each subsequent generation and eventually almost all of the Ruthenian nobility was Polonized.[citation needed]The Cossack uprisings and foreign interventions led to the partitions of the Commonwealth by Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1793, and 1795. The Union of Lublin was also temporarily inactive while the Union of Kėdainiai was in effect.經濟上，盧布林聯合導致了波蘭貴族對魯塞尼亞的殖民以及魯塞尼亞人的農奴化。儘管和西歐比較，波立聯邦農奴的境遇相當惡劣，他們仍比俄羅斯的農奴享有更多自由。因此，俄羅斯的農奴（有時也包括下級貴族和商人）逃亡至波立聯邦的狀況引起了俄羅斯政府的擔憂，這也成為了後來瓜分波蘭的因素之一。
  • revival in 2020? http://www.nrcu.gov.ua/news.html?newsID=93904&fbclid=IwAR1oY8hi7QekZW5HFE2CF137JaQ0uqPu4JNTIf1JfNx_pHs_QC3ACrWUK0k
- *****The Constitution of 3 May 1791[ (Polish: Konstytucja 3 maja; Lithuanian: Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija ), titled the Governance Act (Polish: Ustawa Rządowa), was a constitution adopted by the Great Sejm ("Four-Year Sejm", meeting in 1788–92) for the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a dual monarchy comprising the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Constitution was designed to correct the Commonwealth's political flaws. It had been preceded by a period of agitation for—and gradual introduction of—reforms, beginning with the Convocation Sejm of 1764 and the ensuing election that year of Stanisław August Poniatowski, the Commonwealth's last king.The Constitution sought to implement a more effective constitutional monarchy, introduced political equality between townspeople and nobility, and placed the peasants under the government's protection, mitigating the worst abuses of serfdom. It banned pernicious parliamentary institutions such as the liberum veto, which had put the Sejm at the mercy of any single deputy, who could veto and thus undo all the legislation adopted by that Sejm. The Commonwealth's neighbours reacted with hostility to the adoption of the Constitution. King Frederick William II broke Prussia's alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He joined with Catherine the Great's Imperial Russia and the Targowica Confederation of anti-reform Polish magnates to defeat the Commonwealth in the Polish–Russian War of 1792.The 1791 Constitution was in force for less than 19 months. It was declared null and void by the Grodno Sejm that met in 1793, though the Sejm's legal power to do so was questionable.[3] The Second and Third Partitions of Poland (1793, 1795) ultimately ended Poland's sovereign existence until the close of World War I in 1918. Over those 123 years, the 1791 Constitution helped keep alive Polish aspirations for the eventual restoration of the country's sovereignty. In the words of two of its principal authors, Ignacy Potocki and Hugo Kołłątaj, the 1791 Constitution was "the last will and testament of the expiring Homeland."The Constitution of 3 May 1791 combined a monarchic republic with a clear division of executive, legislative, and judiciary powers. It is generally considered Europe's first and the world's second, modern written national constitution, after the United States Constitution that had come into force in 1789.
  • https://www.gov.pl/web/edukacja-i-nauka/230-rocznica-uchwalenia-konstytucji-3-maja--zachecamy-do-swietowania

- Augustus II the Strong (Polish: August II Mocny; German: August II. der Starke; Lithuanian: Augustas II; 12 May 1670 – 1 February 1733), also known in Saxony as Frederick Augustus I, was Elector of Saxony from 1697, Imperial Vicar and elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in the years 1697–1706 and from 1709 until his death in 1733.Augustus' great physical strength earned him the nicknames "the Strong", "the Saxon Hercules" and "Iron-Hand". He liked to show that he lived up to his name by breaking horseshoes with his bare hands and engaging in fox tossing by holding the end of his sling with just one finger while two of the strongest men in his court held the other end.[1] He is also notable for fathering a very large number of children.In order to be elected King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Augustus converted to Roman Catholicism. As a Catholic, he received the Order of the Golden Fleece from the Holy Roman Emperor. As Elector of Saxony, he is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the arts and architecture. He established the Saxon capital of Dresden as a major cultural centre, attracting artists from across Europe to his court. Augustus also amassed an impressive art collection and built lavish baroque palaces in Dresden and Warsaw.His reigns brought Poland some troubled times. He led the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Great Northern War, which allowed the Russian Empire to strengthen its influence in Europe, especially within Poland. His main pursuit was bolstering royal power in the Commonwealth, characterized by broad decentralization in comparison with other European monarchies. He tried to accomplish this goal using foreign powers and thus destabilized the state. Augustus ruled Poland with an interval; in 1704 the Swedes installed nobleman Stanisław Leszczyński as king, who officially reigned from 1706 to 1709 and after Augustus' death in 1733 which sparked the War of the Polish Succession.
  • The Grünes Gewölbe (English: Green Vault) in Dresden is a unique historic museum that contains the largest collection of treasures in Europe.[1] Founded by Augustus the Strong in 1723, it features a rich variety of exhibits from the Baroque to Classicism. It is named after the formerly malachite green painted column bases and capitals of the initial rooms. It has some claim to be the oldest museum in the world; it is older than the British Museum, opened in 1759, but the Vatican Museums date their foundation to the public display of the newly excavated Laocoön group in 1506.After the devastation of World War II, the Grünes Gewölbe was completely restored.
  • note the Moor with Emerald Cluster   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mohr_mit_Smaragdstufe_Gr%C3%BCnes_Gew%C3%B6lbe_Dresden.jpg
-  Stanisław I Leszczyński (Polish pronunciation: [staˈɲiswaf lɛʂˈtʂɨj̃skʲi]; Lithuanian: Stanislovas Leščinskis; French: Stanislas Leszczynski; 20 October 1677 – 23 February 1766), also Anglicized and Latinized as Stanislaus I, was King of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Duke of Lorraine and a count of the Holy Roman Empire.Stanisław was born into a powerful magnate family of Greater Poland, and he had the opportunity to travel to western Europe in his youth. In 1702 King Charles XII of Sweden marched into the country as part of a continuing series of conflicts between the powers of northern Europe. Charles forced the Polish nobility to depose Poland’s king, Augustus II the Strong, and then placed Stanisław on the throne (1704). The early 18th century was a period of great problems and turmoil for Poland. In 1709 Charles was defeated by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava and fled to exile in the Ottoman Empire, leaving Stanisław without any real and stable support. Augustus II regained the Polish throne, and Stanisław left the country to settle in the French province of Alsace. In 1725 Stanisław’s daughter Marie Leszczyńska married Louis XV of France.
When Augustus died in 1733, Stanisław sought to regain the Polish throne with the help of French support for his candidacy. After travelling to Warsaw in disguise, he was elected king of Poland by an overwhelming majority of the Diet. However, before his coronation, Russia and Habsburg Monarchy, fearing Stanisław would unite Poland in the Swedish-French alliance, invaded the country to annul his election. Stanisław was once more deposed, and, under Russian pressure, a small minority in the Diet elected the Saxon elector Frederick Augustus II to the Polish throne as Augustus III. Stanisław retreated to the city of Danzig (Gdańsk) to wait for French assistance, which did not come. Fleeing before the city fell to its Russian besiegers, he then journeyed to Königsberg in Prussia, where he directed guerrilla warfare against the new king and his Russian supporters. The Peace of Vienna in 1738 recognised Augustus III as king of Poland but allowed Stanisław to keep his royal titles while granting him the provinces of Lorraine and Bar for life.In Lorraine, Stanisław proved to be a good administrator and promoted economic development. His court at Lunéville became famous as a cultural centre, and he founded an academy of science at Nancy and a military college. In 1749 he published a book entitled Free Voice to Make Freedom Safe, an outline of his proposed changes in the Polish constitution. Editions of his letters to his daughter Marie, to the kings of Prussia, and to Jacques Hulin, his minister at Versailles, have been published. In Nancy, Place Stanislas (Stanisław Square) was named in his honour.
- nobles
  • Goštautai (Lithuanian plural form), masculine Goštautas and feminine form Goštautaitė (Polish original, after Kasper Niesiecki - Gastoldowie, later transformed into Gasztołdowie) were a Lithuanian-Polish noble family, one of the most influential magnate families during the 15th and early 16th centuries. Their only serious rivals were the Kęsgailos, and from the end of the 15th century the fast rising in power and influence Radziwiłł family clan. It appears from the Latin original spelling of their name Gastoldus which is a variation of castaldius that they had been close to the Grand Dukes and that their function was to oversee ducal demesne. Most power family gained during the reign of Casimir Jagiellon. The castaldius of Vytautas, Andrius Goštautas might have been a voivode of Vilnius and Kreva, and father of Jonas, appears to have been the precursor of the family growth. The majority of the family's possessions (lands) were in the western part of the Duchy and eastern ethnic Lithuania. After the death of the last scion of the family, Stanislovas Goštautas, the Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund II Augustus inherited his possessions as a matter of right, per Grand Duchy of Lithuania law.The Goštautai family name may be found in numerous renderings: Gasztold, Gasztołd, Gasztołt, Gashtold, Gastoldus, Gastold, Gastołd, Gosztold, Gosztowd, Gosztowt, Gosztowtt, Gochtovtt, Gasztowt, Gaszdtowt, Gasztowtt, Gasthawdus, Gostautas and Goštautas;
- The term Deluge (Polish: potop szwedzki, Lithuanian: švedų tvanas) denotes a series of mid-17th-century campaigns in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In a wider sense it applies to the period between the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648 and the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, thus comprising the Polish theatres of the Russo-Polish and Second Northern Wars. In a stricter sense, the term refers to the Swedish invasion and occupation of the Commonwealth as a theatre of the Second Northern War (1655–1660) only; in Poland and Lithuania this period is called the Swedish Deluge (Polish: potop szwedzki, Swedish: Svenska syndafloden), or less commonly the Russo–Swedish Deluge (Polish: Potop szwedzko-rosyjski)[5][better source needed] due to the Russo-Polish War. The term deluge (or potop in Polish) was popularized by Henryk Sienkiewicz in his novel The Deluge (1886).During the wars the Commonwealth lost approximately one third of its population as well as its status as a great power due to invasions by Sweden and Russia.
- https://www.quora.com/When-did-the-decay-of-the-Polish-Lithuanian-commonwealth-begin-What-factors-contributed-to-its-fall
- The current Lithuania–Poland border has existed since the re-establishment of the independence of Lithuania on March 11, 1990.[4] That border was established in the aftermath of World War II. Until then the identical border was between Poland and Lithuanian SSR of the Soviet Union. A different border existed between the Second Polish Republic and Lithuania in the period of 1918–1939. Following the Polish–Lithuanian border conflict, from 1922 onward it was stable, and had a length of 521 km. During the partitions of Poland era, there were borders between the Congress Poland (Augustów Voivodeship) and Lithuanian lands of the Russian Empire (Kovno Governorate and Vilna Governorate). From the Union of Lublin (1569) to the partitions, there was no Polish-Lithuanian border, as both countries were a part of a single federated entity, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.[9] In medieval times, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania shared yet another border.To the military planners of NATO, the border area is known as the Suwalki gap (named after the nearby town of Suwałki), because it represents a tough-to-defend flat narrow piece of land, a gap, that is between Belarus and Russia's Kaliningrad exclave and that connects the NATO-member Baltic States to Poland and the rest of NATO.

The Visegrád Group, Visegrád Four, or V4 is a cultural and political alliance of four Central European nations – the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia, that are members of the European Union (EU) – for the purposes of advancing military, cultural, economic and energy cooperation with one another along with furthering their integration in the EU.  The Group traces its origins to the summit meetings of leaders from Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and Poland held in the Hungarian castle-town of Visegrád on 15 February 1991. After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic and Slovakia became independent members of the group, thus increasing the number of members from three to four. All four members of the Visegrád Group joined the European Unionon 1 May 2004. The Group's name in the languages of the four countries is Visegrádská čtyřka or Visegrádská skupina (Czech); Visegrádi Együttműködés or Visegrádi négyek(Hungarian); Grupa Wyszehradzka (Polish); and Vyšehradská Skupina or Vyšehradská štvorka (Slovak).
- The name of the Group is derived, and the place of meeting selected, from a meeting of the Bohemian (Czech), Polish, and Hungarian rulers in Visegrád in 1335. Charles I of Hungary, Casimir III of Poland, and John of Bohemia agreed to create new commercial routes to bypass the staple port Vienna and obtain easier access to other European markets. The recognition of Czech sovereignty over the Duchy of Silesia was also confirmed. A second meeting took place in 1339, where it was decided that after the death of Casimir III of Poland, the son of Charles I of Hungary, Louis I of Hungary, would become King of Poland provided that Casimir did not have a son.[citation needed] The countries' extensive interactions during history, including various territories being ruled by the Habsburg Empire (eventually known as Austria-Hungary) and its successors at various times from the 1500's all the way to World War I. Most recently, during the Cold War, the four countries were satellite states of the Soviet Union as the Polish People's Republic, the Hungarian People's Republic and the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. The year 1989 marks the Fall of Communism in Central and Eastern Europe. By 1990, the three Communist People's Republics ended and in December, 1991 the Soviet Union collapsed. In between, the Visegrád Group was established on 15 February 1991.[citation needed] The group was referred to as the Visegrád Triangle prior to the dissolution of Czechoslovakiainto the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993.
- ft 17dec19 visegrad four mayors unite behind liberal agenda
- economist 26oct19 "along the beautiful blue danube" visegrad economies- poland

  • https://www.france24.com/en/20190218-israel-central-europe-summit-canceled-after-polish-pullout Poland on Monday pulled out of a summit in Jerusalem, triggering the collapse of the entire meeting, after the acting Israeli foreign minister said that Poles "collaborated with the Nazis" and "sucked anti-Semitism with their mothers' milk." The developments mark a new low in a bitter conflict between Poland and Israel over how to remember and characterize Polish actions toward Jews during the German occupation of Poland in World War II. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu had been due to meet with the leaders of four Central European nations known as the Visegrad group. With the Hungarian and Slovak prime ministers already in Israel and the Czech leader still planning to go, bilateral meetings were to go ahead instead.

- china

  • Meeting vice foreign ministers from the four countries in Beijing on Thursday, Chinese State Councillor Wang Yi said China appreciated the Visegrad countries’ efforts to achieve win-win cooperation and common development with China and supports their participation in the Belt and Road Initiative.https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-easteurope/china-hosts-visegrad-group-calls-them-dynamic-force-in-eu-idUSKBN1GZ0A9
- taiwan
  • 世界衞生大會（WHA）將於本月9至14日復會，拉脫維亞、立陶宛及愛沙尼亞等歐洲各國106名國會議員、政要參與聯署，聯名致函世衞總幹事長譚德塞，支持台灣參與世衞（WHO）。台外交部發布新聞稿稱，捷克、波蘭、斯洛伐克及匈牙利所屬的「中歐四國集團」，與波羅的海國家拉脫維亞、立陶宛及愛沙尼亞等7國國會友台小組主席領銜的聯署，目前已經有逾百國會議員及政要參與，他們聯名致函譚德塞。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20201102/00178_002.html
- hk
  • As a result of the initiative of 🇵🇱 the Consulate General of the Republic of Poland in Hong Kong, with the participation of 🇭🇺 Consulate General of Hungary in Hong Kong, 🇨🇿 Consulate General of the Czech Republic in Hong Kong & Macau and the 🇸🇰 Honorary Consulate of Slovakia, on 29th June, celebrating the 3️⃣0️⃣th anniversary of the creation of Visegrad Group (#V4), a classical music concert took place, together with the opening of the anniversary exhibition dedicated to V4. Under the title “Sounds of V4”, the Hong Kong’s Haw Par Mansion hosted the concert of music of four composers coming from the four member countries of the V4 - Fryderyk #Chopin, Bel Bartok, Peter Machajdika and Antonin Dvorak. Those classical pieces have been performed by the local Hong Kong musicians.Additionally, the guests participating in the celebration of V4 jubilee - representatives of Hong Kong government, diplomatic corpse, culture, science and business could visit the exhibition dedicated to the 30th anniversary of the creation of V4, and watch the performance of local Hong Kong group Knack Cordial, who presented folk dances from #CentralEurope. The whole event was transmiter live on Facebook and on the YouTube channel.https://www.facebook.com/PLinHongkong/posts/651086019625978?__tn__=-R

Kosovo
- army

  • 科索沃議會於周五以大比數通過建立正規軍隊的法案，令巴爾幹半島局勢緊張。一直拒絕承認科索沃獨立的塞爾維亞，強調此舉威脅地區和平，認為法案目的是種族清洗科索沃北部聚居的塞爾維亞人。大批民眾則指有了軍隊後「我們終於可自稱為國家」。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20181215/00180_024.html

- institution

  • kosovo pension savings trust trusti.org
- power plant
  • The World Bank has publicly abandoned a controversial 500-megawatt coal-fired power plant project in Kosovo, previously the subject of an ICIJ investigation, ending the bank’s support for coal worldwide. The bank had defended the project for years despite anger over the plant’s effects on the environment and its impact on local communities. Announcing the turnabout, World Bank President Jim Yong Kim said the “very firm decision” was made because the plant would use coal rather than now cheaper renewables.https://www.icij.org/investigations/world-bank/villagers-in-limbo-as-world-bank-abandons-controversial-kosovo-power-plant/
- people
  • Oliver Ivanović (Serbian Cyrillic: Оливер Ивановић; 1 April 1953 – 16 January 2018) was a Kosovo Serb politician. He was the president of the civic initiative SDP operating in Kosovo. Ivanović served as the State Secretary of the Ministry for Kosovo and Metohija from 2008 to 2012 and was also member of the Coordinating Center for Kosovo and Metohija. He was arrested in January 2014 on suspicion of war crimes and sentenced to nine years in jail on 21 January 2016 for war crimes by judges from the EULEX Kosovo. However, the Appeals Court in Pristina annulled the guilty verdict on 12 February 2017 and ordered a new trial.Ivanović was born in Rznić, a village near Dečani in western Kosovo and Metohija, at the time part of the People's Republic of Serbia of FPR Yugoslavia, on 1 April 1953.[1] His father, Bogdan, was a history professor, and his mother, Olga, was a professor of Serbian language and literature. His maternal heritage is Montenegrin.[citation needed] He attended primary and secondary mechanical-technical school in Kosovska Mitrovica. Ivanović enrolled in the Zagreb Military Academy to become a pilot. During his studies he started training karate and quickly became an instructor.[1] Three years into his studies he was diagnosed with congenital vision deficiency and left the Military Academy.[1] He returned to Kosovo and finished his studies at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering in Mitrovica, University of Priština.[1] He also studied at the Faculty of Economics in Priština. He continued, parallel to his studies, professionally training in karate. He received higher belts and achieved recognition as an honorary international karate judge. After the studies, he worked in several companies in Kosovska Mitrovica. From 1991 to 1998, he was the head of Sports Center in Kosovska Mitrovica.[1] From 1998 to 2004, he served as the general director of nickel mine company "Feronikl" located in Glogovac. In 2004, he became the director of the National Employment Service for Kosovo and Metohija.Ivanović was shot in a drive-by shooting at 08:15 on 16 January 2018 while entering his office in North Mitrovica.
  • 哈希姆·薩奇  Hashim Thaçi[a] ([hä'ʃɪm 'θɑ:t͡ɕɪ]; [haˈʃim ˈθa:tʃi] ; born 24 April 1968) is a Kosovar politician who was the President of Kosovo[b] from April 2016 until his resignation on 5 November 2020.[2][3] He was the first Prime Minister of Kosovo and the Foreign Minister and Deputy Prime Minister in the new cabinet led by Isa Mustafa, which assumed office on 12 December 2014.Thaçi is from the region of Drenica in Kosovo, which is where the KLA originated. He studied philosophy in Prishtina before moving to Switzerland, where he joined the Kosovo Liberation Army in 1993. He rose through the ranks of the KLA to become leader of the most powerful faction by 1999, during the Rambouillet negotiations. He then joined the interim Kosovo administration after the war.Hashim Thaçi was born in the village of Broćna, Srbica (Albanian Skenderaj), SR Serbia (now Buroja, Skenderaj, Kosovo). Srbica is located in the Drenica valley, a historical region resistant of Serbian rule.
  • Albin Kurti (born 24 March 1975) is a Kosovo politician and activist who has served as the fourth Prime Minister of Kosovo[a] from 3 February 2020 until 3 June 2020. Albin Kurti was born on 24 March 1975 in Pristina, at the time part of Yugoslavia. Kurti's father originates from an Albanian family from the village Sukobin (Albanian: Sukubinë) in Ulcinj Municipality, Montenegro. Kurti's father, an engineer, moved to Pristina in search for employment, before Albin was born there. Kurti's mother is a retired elementary school teacher, born and educated in Pristina, Kosovo.
- spain
  • Spain’s 2022 World Cup qualifier against Kosovo on Wednesday is more than a simple game of football, with the meeting in Seville also at the centre of a diplomatic row.The controversy stems from the description of Kosovo as a “territory” by the Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) when it published Spain’s opening World Cup qualifying fixtures in a group also containing Sweden, Greece and Georgia.https://www.foxsports.com.au/football/world-cup/football-news-2021-spain-vs-kosovo-world-cup-qualifier-scores-results-video/news-story/57cfa05737ce5342f71ae7ccfe9cafe8
- serbia

  • Serbia and Kosovo were brought to “the brink of conflict,” according to the Serbian president, after a Kosovo-bound train bearing the popular catchphrase ‘Kosovo is Serbia’ was prevented from crossing the border by Albanians, who deemed it an affront. The train bound for Mitrovica was the first direct link in 18 years between the Serbian capital, Belgrade, and the city in northern Kosovo with a sizable Serb population since the province declared independence from Serbia in 2008. Serbia and Russia, among others, do not recognize Kosovo's claim, however 110 UN member states do. https://www.rt.com/news/373830-serbia-kosovo-albania-train/
- israel
  • Kosovo has officially opened its embassy in Jerusalem after becoming the first Muslim-majority territory to recognise the city as Israel’s capital.The move was in exchange for Israel recognising Kosovo, a major victory for Pristina’s efforts to gain full global recognition of the independence it declared in 2008 following a war with Serbia in the 1990s.https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/mar/14/kosovo-opens-embassy-in-jerusalem-after-israel-recognises-its-independence



The Croats or Crabats (Croatian Hrvatsko konjaništvo), (German: Crabatten) were a 17th-century skilled mobile light military forces.[7] The Croats were initially irregular units loosely organized in bands. The first regular Croat regiment was established in 1625. The most notable engagement of the Croats was their participation on the side of the Catholic League in the Thirty Years' War. Besides Croatian and Hungarian recruits from the territories of Habsburg Monarchy, the Croats were composed of soldiers recruited all over Eastern Europe. All 17th-century soldiers who had first served at the south-east European Habsburg Military Frontier toward the Ottoman Empire and then joined the war theatre of Central Europe were arbitrarily referred to as "Croats".[8] However, the Croats comprised men recruited all over Eastern Europe including Croats, Hungarians, Serbs, Albanians, Transylvanians, Poles,Cossacks, Wallachians and Tatars. Because of the reputation of the Croats, some authors often used the term "Croat" as reference to the military unit or cavalry.

Cossacks (Ukrainian: козаки́, koza'ky, Russian:казаки́, kaza'ki) are a group of predominantly East Slavic-speaking people who became known as members of democratic, self-governing, semi-military communities, predominantly located inUkraine and in Russia. They inhabited sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper, Don, Terek, and Ural river basins and played an important role in the historical and cultural development of both Russia and Ukraine.[4] The origins of the first Cossacks are disputed, though the 1710 Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk claimedKhazar origin. The traditional post-imperialhistoriography dates the emergence of Cossacks to the 14th or 15th centuries, when two connected groups emerged, the Zaporozhian Sich of the Dnieper and the Don Cossack Host. The Zaporizhian Sich were a vassal people of Poland–Lithuania during feudal times. Under increasing social and religious pressure from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the mid-17th century the Sich declared an independent Cossack Hetmanate, initiated by arebellion under Bohdan Khmelnytsky. This uprising, which had been preceded by genocide, enslavement, and major depredation of the Ukrainian population, culminated in purging and pogroms against Polish and Jewish communities. Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav(1654) brought most of the Ukrainian Cossack state under Russian rule. The Sich with its lands became an autonomous region under the Russian-Polish protectorate.
- Ataman (variants: otaman, wataman, vataman; Russian: атаман, Ukrainian: отаман) was a title of Cossack and haidamak leaders of various kinds. In the Russian Empire, the term was the official title of the supreme military commanders of the Cossack armies. The Ukrainian version of the same word is Hetman. Otaman in Ukrainian Cossack forces was a position of a lower rank.The etymologies of the words ataman and hetman are disputed. There may be several independent Germanic and Turkic origins for seemingly cognate forms of the words, all referring to the same concept. The hetman form cognates with German Hauptmann ('captain', literally 'head-man') by the way of Czech or Polish, like several other titles. The Russian term ataman is probably connected to Old Russian vatamanŭ, and cognates with turkic odoman (ottoman turks). The term ataman may had also a lingual interaction with polish hetman and german hauptmann.The word is more probably of Turkic origin, literally meaning 'father of horsemen'.[3][4] During certain periods, broadly corresponding with involvement with the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the supreme leader of Ukrainian Cossacks was called the hetman. The ataman form is more commonly found in Russian periods, and exists in modern Russian, Turkish, and Tatar. Atamans were the titles of supreme leaders of various Cossack armies during the Russian Civil War.When Ukraine acquired its independence in 1918, the rank took on different value. Among the Ukrainian Sich Riflemen and the Ukrainian Galician Army, it was equivalent to a major, as is the battalion executive officer today. In the Ukrainian People's Republic, the title was of a general rank. Chief Otoman (головний отаман) was the general of the Ukrainian Army who was assisted by his deputies, Acting Otomans.The head of the army of the Ukrainian People's Republic, in particular, Symon Petliura, was called Supreme Otaman (головний отаман).
- 哥萨克人的舍尔米茨大会
来源：«透视俄罗斯» - http://tsrus.cn/tiyu/2017/04/02/657111
- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/05/08/b07-0508.pdf據瓦連京介紹，在葉卡捷琳娜二世（Catherine II of Russia）統治俄國時期，俄國政府為了統治和管理南俄羅斯地區，破壞了烏克蘭的哥薩克（Cossack）組織體系，將哥薩克人向東遷移。哥薩克定居在俄羅斯之後，就逐漸放棄了烏克蘭語。例如，扎波羅熱營（Zaporozhian Cossack ）便是烏克蘭著名的哥薩克組織。他們不僅是軍隊，同時也有農村組織系統，也非常具有文化底蘊。烏克蘭的哥薩克便擁有非常優美的民歌，烏克蘭會力爭讓哥薩克的民歌列入聯合國教科文組織的非物質文化遺 產 名 單 。 作 家 肖 洛 霍 夫 （MikhailSholokhov）獲得諾貝爾文學獎的小說《靜靜的頓河》，描繪的便是烏克蘭扎波羅熱哥薩克後代的故事。瓦連京認為，雖然他們的語言已經變成了俄語，但是生活中仍舊保有很多烏克蘭的傳統和習慣。所以，俄羅斯的不少歷史，都有烏克蘭的影響和因素。著名畫家列賓（IlyaRepin）筆下的《扎波羅熱人給蘇丹的信》描繪了烏克蘭哥薩克的歷史 
- zaporizhian cossacks
  • In the 16th to 18th centuries, most of the lands that make up modern Ukraine belonged to four countries: the Tsardom of Russia, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Crimean Khanate, and the Ottoman Empire. Central Ukraine, however, was under the control of rebellious former Polish-Lithuanian serfs, outlaws and refugees from religious persecution. They had guns and a yearning to be free. As more of them banded together in settlements for protection, they formed a military force that other powers in the region soon had to reckon with. They called themselves the Zaporizhian Cossacks, as they settled in the region called Zaporizhya — beyond the rapids, or “za porohamy,” of the Dnipro River — and their capital was Zaporizhian Sich. (“Sich” is a noun related to the Slavic verb sech — to chop or cut. It is associated with the spiked wooden stockades around Cossack settlements.) The Cossack commander of the mid‑17th century, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky (1595-1657) — now memorialized on the reverse side of the five-hryvnia banknote and in school textbooks as a hero — united the Cossack settlements politically, and took control of central Ukraine.https://www.kyivpost.com/ukraine-politics/honest-history-treaty-of-peryaslav-in-1654-ukraine-becomes-russian-vassal-for-337-years.html
  • Janusz Szeremeta certainly thinks so. He first came to Zaporizhia from his native Poland in 2014. That’s when he discovered the Zaporizhian Cossacks and started to frequent the Zaporizhian Sich, the historical center of the Cossacks. Janusz has often returned to the region in order to train with a group of Cossacks. https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=2766917243362989
-  Circassian cossacks

  • https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/the-rafael-valls-sale-online/pierre-mathurin-petraud-russian-officers-and
- note that The white or black cassock, or soutane, is an item of Christian clerical clothing used by the clergy of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Reformed churches, among others. "Ankle-length garment" is the literal meaning of the corresponding Latin term, vestis talaris. It is related to habit traditionally worn by nuns, monks, and friars. The cassock derives historically from the tunic that in ancient Rome was worn underneath the toga and the chiton that was worn beneath the himation in ancient Greece. In religious services, it has traditionally been worn underneath vestments, such as the alb.The word "cassock" comes from Middle French casaque, meaning a long coat. In turn, the old French word may come ultimately from Turkish "kazak" (nomad, adventurer – the source of the word "Cossack"), an allusion to their typical riding coat, or from Persian کژاغند "kazhāgand" (padded garment) – کژ "kazh" (raw silk) + آغند "āgand" (stuffed). The name was originally specially applied to the dress worn by soldiers and horsemen, and later to the long garment worn in civil life by both men and women. As an ecclesiastical term the word "cassock" came into use somewhat late (as a translation of the old names of subtanea, vestis talaris, toga talaris, or tunica talaris), being mentioned in canon 74 of 1604; and it is in this sense alone that it now survives. The word "soutane" is a French-derived word, coming from Italian sottana, derived in turn from Latin subtana, the adjectival form of subtus (beneath).

  • in case of dutch short coat, it's called either kasack or cassock
- gazyrs https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/332920-gazyr-cherkeska-cossack-caucasian-dress Many peoples of the Caucasus - from Georgians, Chechens and Ossetians to Kabardians and the Adyghe - had them sewn onto the breast of their coats. The first time Russians saw such a style of dress was when they encountered the Cherkesy (Eng.: “Circassians”), hence historically a caftan with such pockets is called a cherkeska in Russian.Gazyrs appeared on cherkeskas in the 18th century with the advent of firearms. Bullets and a pre-measured quantity of powder were placed in small loops of cloth or leather. They were essentially cartridge belts. Thanks to the gazyr pockets, powder stayed dry.In the 19th century, the Russian Empire started to conquer the Caucasus and the mounted Cossack troops adopted many elements of Caucasian dress - sheepskin hats, felt cloaks, curved sabers and cherkeskas adorned with gazyrs.Gazyrs with silver tips were regarded as a special luxury. By the way, Emperor Nicholas II liked to dress up in a cherkeska adorned with gazyrs, although in his outfit they were just a decorative detail.The most famous Cossack (after the movie character Balbes) known for wearing a cherkeska adorned with gazyrs was Baron Wrangel, general of the Russian Imperial Army and later one of the leaders of the anti-Bolshevik White Movement, in which the Cossacks played a prominent role. Wrangel’s everyday uniform was a black caftan with gazyrs sewn onto it. For this unusual outfit he was even nicknamed the ‘Black Baron’. He also had a white ceremonial uniform with gazyrs. Cossacks also served under the Soviet authorities and the by-then-traditional uniform was accorded respect in the Soviet Union - in the 1945 Victory Parade Cossacks spotted both gazyrs and military decorations on their chests.These days, a cherkeska adorned with gazyrs can often be seen worn by members of national dance troupes.
- russia
  • Krasnodar Territory is home to some badass Cossacks. They patrol the streets, maintain law and order, guard public events, and occasionally travel to other Russian cities to perform these duties there, too.https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/331605-unwritten-rules-russias-south
  • The settlement of Kuban and of the adjacent Black Sea region occurred gradually for over a century, and was heavily influenced by the outcomes of the conflicts between Russia and Turkey. In the mid-18th century, the area was predominantly settled by the mountainous Adyghe tribes. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774, the population of the area started to show more pro-Russian tendencies.In order to stop Turkish ambitions to use Kuban region to facilitate the return of the Crimea, Russia started to establish a network of fortifications along the Kuban River in the 1770s. After the Russian annexation of the Crimea, right-bank Kuban, and Taman in 1783, the Kuban River became the border of the Russian Empire. New fortresses were built on the Kuban in the 1780s–1790s. Until the 1790s, these fortresses and the abandoned Cossack settlements on the Laba River and in Taman remained the only indication of Russian presence in the area. More intensive settlement started in 1792–1794, when Black Sea Cossack Host and Don Cossacks were re-settled to this area by the Russian government in order to strengthen the southern borders.In the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th centuries, the right bank of the Kuban River was settled.[1] At the same time, first settlements appear on the coast of the Black Sea and on the plain between the Kuban and Bolshaya Laba Rivers.[1] During the second half of the 19th century, the settlement rate intensified, and the territory was administratively organized into Kuban Oblast and Black Sea Okrug (which later became Black Sea Governorate).
  • songs -  Harvest (in Russian: Урожай, words by Mikhail Isakovsky and music by Isaak Dunayevsky); How Have You Been, Dearest? (in Russian: Каким ты был, ditto); Oh, the Kalina Flowers Are in Bloom (Russian: Ой, цветет калина, ditto) chinese is 红莓花开, one of the ethnic songs sung in the hksar anniversary celebration event in leighton hill district office event hall
  • 上扬斯克（俄語：Верхоянск、雅庫特語：Верхоянскай），完全音譯為維科揚斯克   Verkhoyansk (Russian: Верхоянск, IPA: [vʲɪrxɐˈjansk]; Yakut: Верхоянскай, Verkhoyanskay) is a town in Verkhoyansky District of the Sakha Republic, Russia, located on the Yana River in the Arctic Circle. Cossacks founded an ostrog in 1638, 90 kilometers (56 mi) southwest of the modern town. The ostrog's name "Verkhoyansky", roughly translating from Russian as the town on the Upper Yana, derived from its geographical location on the upper reaches of the Yana River. In 1775, it was moved to the left bank of the Yana River to facilitate tax collection. It was granted town status in 1817.[citation needed] Between the 1860s and 1917, the town was a place of political exile, with some of the more prominent exiles including the Polish writer Wacław Sieroszewski, as well as Bolshevik revolutionaries Ivan Babushkin and Viktor Nogin. Une colonie cosaque fondée en 1638 est à l'origine de Verkhoïansk.
- ukraine

  • in ukraine's national anthem (ukraine has notvdied yet), cossack nation is mentioned


The Sinti (also Sinta or Sinte; masc. sing. Sinto; fem. sing. Sintesa) are a Romani people of Central Europe. They were traditionally itinerant, but today only a small percentage of the group remains unsettled. In earlier times, they frequently lived on the outskirts of communities. The Sinti of Central Europe are closely related to the group known as Manouche in France. They speak the Sinti-Manouchevariety of Romani, which exhibits strong German influence. "Sinti" may be derived from "Sindhi", the name of a people of the Sindh region in India as the original Gypsies whom all derive from India through a recent Estonian and Indian study, a notion popular among the Sinti themselves, although the vast majority of scholars and anthropologists have claimed that there is no known basis for the comparison.The Sinti arrived in Germany and Austria in the Late Middle Ages along with Romani from India, eventually splitting into two groups: Eftavagarja ("the Seven Caravans") and Estraxarja ("from Austria").[citation needed] They arrived in Germany before 1540.[5] The two groups expanded, the Eftavagarja into France, Portugal and Brazil, where they are called "Manouches", and the Estraxarja into Italy and Central Europe, mainly what are now Croatia, Slovenia, Hungary, Romania,[dubious – discuss] the Czech Republic and Slovakia, eventually adopting various regional names.[citation needed] In Italy they are present mainly in Piedmont region (where in Piedmontese they are called Sinto, although the word for Gypsies is sìngher, as the Italian zingaro), with some communities in Veneto and Emilia Romagna as well.Sinti and Roma had migrated to Germany in the late 15th century and converted to Christianity. Nonetheless, they were still generally accused of being beggars and thieves, and by 1899, the police kept a central register on Gypsies. Considered by the National Socialists to be racially inferior (see Nazism and Race), Sinti and Roma were persecuted throughout Germany during the Nazi period – the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 often being interpreted to apply to them as well as the Jews. Adolf Eichmann recommended that the "Gypsy Question" be "solved" simultaneously with the Jewish Question, resulting in the deportation of the Sinti to clear room to build homes for ethnic Germans.[6] Some were sent to Poland, or elsewhere (including some deported to Yugoslavia by the Hamburg Police in 1939), others were confined to designated areas, and many were eventually murdered in gas chambers. In concentration camps, the Sinti were forced to wear either a black triangle, indicating their classification as "asocial", or a brown triangle, specifically reserved for Romani people.


Gas transfer
-A gas transfer agreement between Turkey, Greece and Italy is set to increase its capacity for natural gas movement between the three countries. The Interconnector Turkey- Greece-Italy (ITGI Poseidon) natural gas transportation project, which was proposed within the framework of the Southern Gas Corridor to transport Caspian gas to European markets via Turkey, was ratified. The announcement was released in Turkey's official gazette Tuesday, the Daily Sabah reported. ITGI Poseidon aims to improve and increase gas transmission networks and to further develop gas trading between the countries. The agreement was initially signed on July 26, 2007 in Rome, and proposed the transportation of natural gas from the Shah Deniz gas field in Azerbaijan to Europe.http://www.publics.bg/en/news/17071/Turkey_Ratified_the_ITGI_Gas_Transit_Project.html


Tsaritsa, tsarina or czarina (Russian: царица,(Bulgarian: царица, Serbian: царица, Tsaritsa, formerly czaritsa) is the title of a female autocratic ruler (monarch) of Bulgaria, Serbia or Russia, or the title of a tsar's wife. The English spelling is derived from the German czarin or zarin, in the same way as the French tsarine/czarine, and the Spanish and Italian czarina/zarina.[1] For tsar's daughters see tsarevna.
"Tsaritsa" was the title of the female supreme ruler in the following states:
  • Bulgaria: in 913–1018, in 1185–1422 and in 1908–1946
  • Serbia: in 1346–1371
  • Russia: officially from about 1547 until 1721, unofficially in 1721–1917 (officially "Empresses").

Ban /ˈbɑːn/ was a noble title used in several states in Central and Southeastern Europe between the 7th century and the 20th century, primarily in medieval Croatia and Hungary and their respective predecessor states. In English, a common term for the province governed by the ban is banate and term for the office of the ban is banship. Ban /ˈbɑːn/ was a noble title used in several states in Central and Southeastern Europe between the 7th century and the 20th century, primarily in medieval Croatia and Hungary and their respective predecessor states. In English, a common term for the province governed by the ban is banate and term for the office of the ban is banship. 
- Ban of Croatia (Croatian: Hrvatski ban, Hungarian: horvát bán) was the title of local rulers or office holders and after 1102, viceroys of Croatia. From earliest periods of Croatian state, some provinces were ruled by bans as a ruler's representative (viceroy) and supreme military commander. In the 18th century, Croatian bans eventually became chief government officials in Croatia. They were at the head of Ban's Government, effectively the first prime ministers of Croatia. The institution of ban persisted until the first half of the 20th century, when it was officially superseded in function by that of a parliamentary prime minister.
  •  The word ban is preserved in many modern place names in the regions where bans once ruled, and the personal names; A region in central Croatia, south of Sisak, is called Banovina or Banija.[63] The region of Banat in the Pannonian Basin between the Danube and the Tisza rivers, now in Romania, Serbia and Hungary. In the toponymy of names Bando, Bandola, Banj dvor and Banj stol and Banovo polje in Lika, Banbrdo, village Banova Jaruga, city Banovići, and possibly Banja Luka.The term ban is still used in the phrase banski dvori ("ban's court") for the buildings that host high government officials. The Banski dvori in Zagreb hosts the Croatian Government, while the Banski dvor in Banja Luka hosts the President of Republika Srpska (a first-tier subdivision of Bosnia and Herzegovina). The building known as Bela banovina ("the white banovina") in Novi Sad hosts the parliament and government of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina in Serbia. The building received this name because it previously hosted the administration of Danube Banovina (1929–1941). Banovina is also the colloquial name of the city hall building in Split, and of the administrative building (rectorate and library) of the University of Niš. In Croatian Littoral banica or banić signified "small silver coins", in Vodice banica signified "unknown, old coins".[66] The Banovac was a coin struck between 1235 and 1384. In the sense of money it also meant in Romania, Bulgaria (bronze coins), and Old Polish (shilling).[66] The term is also found in personal surnames; Ban, Banić, Banović, Banovac.
 波雅爾 A boyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudalBulgarian, Russian, Serbian, Wallachian, Moldavian, and later Romanian and Baltic states (modern Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) aristocracies, second only to the ruling princes (in Bulgaria, tsars) from the 10th century to the 17th century. The rank has lived on as a surname in Russia, Romania, Finland, Lithuania and Latvia where it is spelled Pajari or Bajāri'.由10-17世紀，在保加利亞、俄國和羅馬尼亞演變為表示僅次於沙皇的親王王子，加在姓氏前面是「采邑貴族」，在芬蘭寫作 Pajari 以顯示和「食邑貴族」的區別。這字詞可能是由保加利亞頭銜複數形式「貴族」（bolyare）衍生的，這由古老保加爾語（英語：Bulgar language）的碑文證實[2][3]，並且在使用希臘語的拜占庭文件以boilades或boliades顯示。[4][5]它的最終推導可能是由突厥字根"bey"（「高貴，富有」）和「 AR 「（「男人們」 ）組成的。[4] 另一種可能的詞源可能來自羅馬尼亞單詞"boi"（公牛）; "boier"一個擁有公牛的富人。[6] 這頭銜引入舊俄羅斯成為быля（bylya）。
- russia

  • Naryshkin Baroque, also referred to as Moscow Baroque or Muscovite Baroque, is a particular style of Baroque architecture and decoration that was fashionable in Moscow from the late 17th century into the early 18th century. In the late 17th century, the Western European Baroque style of architecture combined with traditional Russian architecture to form this unique style. It is called Muscovite Baroque as it was originally only found within Moscow and the surrounding areas. It is more commonly referred to as Naryshkin Baroque, as the first church designed in this style was built on one of the Naryshkin family's estates.
驃騎兵A hussar (/həˈzɑːr/ hə-ZAR,[2] /hʊˈzɑːr/) (Polish: huzar, Hungarian: huszár, Croatian: husar, Serbian Latin: husar, Serbian Cyrillic: хусар) was a member of a class of light cavalry, originating in Central Europeduring the 15th and 16th centuries. The title and distinctive dress of these horsemen were subsequently widely adopted by light cavalry regiments in European armies in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
A number of armored or ceremonial mounted units in modern armies retain the designation of hussars.
Historically, the term derives from the cavalry of late medieval Hungary, under Matthias Corvinus,[3] with mainly Hungarian warriors.




Europe Between
- after WWI, there was some interest in finland in the "europe between" (vali eurooppa, zwischeneuropa), the macroregion comprising the new small states that had emerged after the collapse of the habsburg, hohenzollern, romanov and ottoman empires.
- finnish historian vaino voionmaa described it as the precarious zone
- tomas g masaryk (1st president of czekoslovakia) in 1916 baptised it the central zone

currency
- kopek (plural kopeks)
  1. A Russian monetary unit equal to one hundredth of a ruble.
  2. A kopiyka: a Ukrainian monetary unit equal to one hundredth of a hryvnia.

Long before the French, the mother of Ivan the Terrible Yelena Glinskaya suggested introducing coins worth 1/100 of a Ruble.https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-less-known-amazing-facts-about-Russia

costume
- A dirndl (German: [ˈdɪʁndl̩] Austro-Bavarian: Diandl) [2] is the name of a traditional feminine dress worn in Austria, South Tyrol and Bavaria. It is based on the traditional clothing of Alps peasants.[1][3][4] Dresses that are loosely based on the dirndl are known as Landhausmode ("country-inspired fashion"). A dirndl skirt generally describes a light circular cut dress, gathered at the waist, that falls below the knee.The dirndl consists of a bodice and skirt or a pinafore dress, a low-cut blouse with short puff sleeves, full skirt and apron.[7][8][9] While appearing to be simple and plain, a properly made modern dirndl may be quite expensive as it is tailored, and sometimes cut from costly hand-printed or silk fabrics. The winter style dirndl has heavy, warm skirts and aprons made of thick cotton, linen, velvet or wool, and long sleeves. The colors are usually rich and dark. The summer style is lighter and more revealing, has short sleeves, and is often made of lightweight cotton. Accessories may include a long apron tied round the waist, a waistcoat or a wool shawl. In many regions, especially the Ausseerland, vibrantly colored, hand-printed silk scarfs and silk aprons are worn. Women often wear necklaces, earrings and brooches made of silver, the antlers of deer or even animals' teeth. For colder weather there are heavy dirndl coats in the same cut as the dresses, with a high neck and front buttons, thick mittens and wool hats. Different styles were worn in different regions,[4] but they are now more universally generalized.

myth
- In Central European folklore, Krampus is a horned, anthropomorphic figure described as "half-goat, half-demon",[1] who, during the Christmas season, punishes children who have misbehaved. This contrasts with Saint Nicholas, who rewards the well-behaved with gifts. Krampus is one of the companions of Saint Nicholas in several regions including Austria, Bavaria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, Northern Italy including South Tyrol and the Province of Trento, Slovakia, and Slovenia.[2] The origin of the figure is unclear; some folklorists and anthropologists have postulated it as having pre-Christian origins.In traditional parades and in such events as the Krampuslauf (English: Krampus run), young men dressed as Krampus participate; such events occur annually in most Alpine towns.[3] Krampus is featured on holiday greeting cards called Krampuskarten.

  • china daily 11dec19 mentioned the norse origin of the myth


language
- circum baltic area

  • has been stage for migration and linguistics and cultural contacts for thousands of years.  Indo-european languages (baltic, slavic) rubbed shoulders with uralic (finnish), turkic (tatar) and dialects of romani in the area
  • prehistoric contacts between finns and slavs were already intensive
- kareolian sprachbund
  • finnish and north russian dialects
- zone where swedish, finnish and saami were in contact
-  https://www.quora.com/If-Czech-and-Slovak-are-mutually-intelligible-why-arent-they-considered-one-language


USA
- http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21710316-end-era-kosovo-bosnia-serbia-and-beyond-clinton-lands

EU
- http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21701800-powder-keg-region-worries-brexit-may-block-its-path-europe-balking-enlargement

Russia
- EU eastern states

  • http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/ba7f5e68-d178-11e5-92a1-c5e23ef99c77.html Russia’s trade with the EU’s eastern states fell by almost a third in 2015, as sanctions over Crimea and the economic impact of plummeting commodity prices further unravel the fraying links between Moscow and its former Soviet bloc allies. Exports to Russia from the six countries for which full data are available were worth €5.9bn less in 2015 than 2014. Sales of goods from Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, the Czech Republic and Bulgaria declined an average of 30 per cent last year, with similar falls in the first 11 months of the year in Slovakia and Hungary.

Asean
-甘肅（蘭州）國際陸港近日迎來第六列玉米進口專列，這也是春節之後抵達的首列。進口玉米經在蘭州加工成飼料後分銷甘肅乃至西北的生豬、牛、羊等養殖企業。陸海新通道糧食班列的成功發運，連接了歐洲到中國內陸的國際糧食物流通道，對穩定陸海新通道班列回程貨源，以及連接促進中亞東盟地區物流貨物互補具重要意義。　　運抵玉米始發裝船於有歐洲糧倉之稱的烏克蘭，航行經愛琴海、馬六甲海峽來到南中國海的北部灣，通過廣西欽州港登陸，再由欽州港轉裝火車專列，由西部陸海新通道經貴陽、重慶，最終運抵中國西北蘭州。http://www.takungpao.com.hk/231106/2021/0321/565329.html

China
- leaders summit
  • First summit in 2012
  • On 16 December 2014, the 3rd Meeting of Heads of Government of China and Central and Eastern European Countries was held in Belgrade, Serbia. Participants at the meeting (hereinafter referred to as "the participants") commended the progress made in cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European countries (hereinafter referred to as "CEEC" or "CEECs"), in particular in the implementation of the Bucharest Guidelines for Cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European Countries (see Annex), and recognized that China-CEEC cooperation has provided new driving force to China-CEEC traditional friendship, built a new platform for mutually beneficial cooperation and served as a new engine for deepening China-Europe relations for mutual benefit and win-win cooperation. The participants jointly formulated and issued, on the theme of "New Driving Force, New Platform and New Engine", the Belgrade Guidelines for Cooperation between China and Central and Eastern European Countries, reaffirming their readiness to expand cooperation in accordance with their respective laws and regulations, as well as in the case of EU member states, the EU legislation, regulations and policies stemming from their membership.http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/zxxx_662805/t1224905.shtml
  • http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20151124/PDF/a9_screen.pdf 中國國務院總理李克強24日將在蘇州與中東歐16國領導人一起，舉行第四次中國─中東歐國家領導人會晤，就進一步促進中國與中東歐國家合作發展深入交換意見，共同搭建起通往“1+16合作”未來的無數新通道。此次會晤的主題是“新起點新領域新願景”，在外交學院副院長王帆看來，此次會晤是“1+16合作”進程中的一個重要節點，將推動中國─中東歐關係穩步向前發展，為中國外交的“歐洲季”注入新動能，有利於歐洲各個次區域的均衡發展，助力歐洲一體化進程。此次會晤期間，李克強將出席“1+16”領導人圓桌會議、第五屆中國─中東歐國家經貿論壇開幕式並發表演講，還將分別會見與會的中東歐國家領導人。此外，歐盟等有關方面代表將首次作為觀察員與會。中國和16國領導人將?重討論如何進一步加強互聯互通、貿易投資、金融、農業質檢、人文等領域合作，並有望發表《“1+16”合作中期規劃》和《蘇州綱要》兩份成果文件。在王帆看來，這意味?中國─中東歐合作機制更加成熟。
  • http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20151125/PDF/a6_screen.pdf李克強24日下午在蘇州太湖國際 會議中心與中東歐16國領導人共同出席中國-中東 歐國家第五屆經貿論壇開幕式並致辭。李克強表示， 中國正加快 「一帶一路」建設，中東歐16國佔沿線國 家總數的四分之一，雙方完全可以進一步做好發展戰 略對接。 未來五年，中國將朝着全面建成小康社會的目標 邁進，也是落實《中歐合作2020戰略規劃》的重要時 期。李克強就進一步深化中國-中東歐全面合作提 出以下看法： 第一，盡快推動互聯互通項目落地。加強區域交 通基礎設施建設，同 「一帶一路」倡議更好對接，是 「16+1」合作的重點之一。中方願與相關國家全力 推動匈塞鐵路這一旗艦項目，確保年內開工、兩年完 成。中方願在互利共贏基礎上，與有關各方共同推進 中歐陸海快線建設，使中東歐成為中國同歐洲貿易聯 繫的快捷通道。中方願投資中東歐國家的港口和港區 建設，開展互聯網基礎設施建設合作，加強同地區國 家陸上、海上、網絡互聯互通。 加強汽車等產能合作 第二，發揮產能合作的引領作用。中國在汽車、 鋼鐵、造船、化工、港口設備、工程機械等領域擁有 優質產能，產品性價比高，綜合配套和工程建設能力 強，符合中東歐國家環保要求。把中國的優勢產能同 中東歐國家的發展需求、西歐發達國家的關鍵技術結 合起來，開展三方合作，不僅可以支持中東歐國家以 低成本加快發展、擴大就業，促進中國產業轉型升級 ，也有利於歐洲東西部平衡發展、加快一體化進程。 第三，打造農產品特色貿易新亮點。雙方在農業 可持續發展、農產品深加工以及畜牧業育種、養殖、 加工等方面合作頗具潛力。中國將進一步擴大中東歐 國家有競爭力的商品特別是農產品進口，中方願與中 東歐國家加強檢疫檢驗合作。 第四，拓寬渠道解決投融資問題。中方尊重歐盟 相關標準，願與16國政府共同探討開闢更多渠道，以 更靈活方式對大項目合作予以優先政策支持。充分發 揮100億美元專項貸款等渠道的作用，探討籌建 「 16+1」多邊金融公司，鼓勵通過多種形式，降低合 作融資成本。
  •  中國國務院總理李克強於當地時間11月27日上午在布達佩斯出席第六次中國－中東歐國家領導人會晤，並出席第七屆中國－中東歐國家經貿合作論壇及致辭。李 克強宣佈，即日成立中國與中東歐銀行聯合體，國家開發銀行將提供20億歐元開發性金融合作貸款；第二期中國與中東歐投資合作基金完成設立，募集資金10億 美元，將主要投向中東歐。會晤後，中國同中東歐16國共同發表《中國-中東歐國家合作布達佩斯綱要》。各國領導人共同見證有關「一帶一路」、互聯互通、產 能合作、基礎設施建設、金融、質檢、人文等領域多個合作文件的簽署。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/11/28/a16-1128.pdf, http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/11/29/a07-1129.pdf
  • 保加利亞時間7月7日上午，中國國務院總理李克強在索非亞文化宮出席第七次中國－中東歐國家領導人會晤，並發表重要講話。據新華社報道，李克強在講話中，對「16+1合作」未來發展藍圖提出了五個方面的建議。他希望，中國與中東歐國家共同維護經濟全球化和自由貿易，維護以規則為基礎的多邊貿易體制，反對單邊主義、保護主義，大力推動貿易和投資自由化便利化。他也建議，中國與中東歐國家合作設立「16+1全球夥伴中心」。歐盟、奧地利、瑞士、希臘、白俄羅斯及歐洲復興開發銀行作為觀察員與會。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2018/07/09/a17-0709.pdf
  • http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190413/PDF/a7_screen.pdf 當地時間4月12日，國務院總理李克強在杜布羅夫尼克出席第八次中國─中東歐國家領導人會晤，中東歐16國領導人與會。克羅地亞總理普連科維奇主持。會議歡迎希臘作為正式成員加入「16+1合作」。李克強在致辭中就「16+1合作」下一步發展提出建議，籲共同維護多邊貿易體制，堅持貿易自由化方向，同時，進一步擴大貿易規模，並推進共建「一帶一路」。我們願同中東歐乃至歐洲國家加強發展戰略對接，共商共建共享。會晤後，各國領導人共同見證雙方各領域10餘項合作協議的簽署。歐盟、奧地利、白俄羅斯、瑞士及歐洲復興開發銀行作為觀察員派員與會。
  • 國家主席習近平9日在北京以視頻方式主持中國－中東歐國家領導人峰會，波黑、捷克、黑山、波蘭、塞爾維亞、阿爾巴尼亞、克羅地亞、希臘、匈牙利、北馬其頓、斯洛伐克、保加利亞、斯洛文尼亞、愛沙尼亞、拉脫維亞、立陶宛、羅馬尼亞等中東歐國家元首、政府首腦和高級別代表出席。峰會發表了《2021年中國－中東歐國家合作北京活動計劃》和《中國－中東歐國家領導人峰會成果清單》。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2021/02/10/a16-0210.pdf
- ministers meeting

  • http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2016/06/08/a21-0608.pdf第二 次中國—中東歐國家經貿促進部長級會議將於 8日至9日在浙江寧波舉行，中東歐十六國均派 團參加，包括中東歐兩國副總理、四國部長、 八國副部長，以及一大批中東歐國家省（州） 長、市長。另外，加納、坦桑尼亞、塞內加爾、 贊比亞四國駐華大使確認參會。
  • 由中國商務部主辦的第二次中國-中東歐國家經貿促進部長級會議昨日在浙江寧波召開。經過閉門磋商，各方代表同意設立「16+1」金融公司。中國商務部部長高虎城也透露，習近平主席今年將訪問塞爾維亞和波蘭。另外，首屆中國-中東歐國家質檢合作對話會8日在寧波召開，會議討論通過了《中國-中東歐國家質檢合作對話會（電子證書與貿易便利化）倡議書》，主要包括五項內容。部長級會議上，各方代表共同達成《第二次中國-中東歐國家經貿促進部長級會議寧波宣言》（簡稱《寧波宣言》），包括建立投資合作基金及即將設立的「16+1」金融公司等，《寧波宣言》還落實了第三次中國-中東歐國家經貿促進部長級會議會在中國舉辦的日程。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2016/06/10/a20-0610.pdf

  • 第三次中國-中東歐國家經貿促進部長級會議昨日在浙江寧波召開，中國商務部部長鍾山在發言中表示，要進一步發揮經貿合作在「16＋1合作」中的壓艙石和推進器作用，促進「一帶一路」建設及中歐合作在中東歐地區得到更大發展，造福雙方人民。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2018/06/08/a18-0608.pdf

- official website

  • http://www.china-ceec.org/eng/


- china and Central Eastern Europe cooperation event

  • http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2015/04/24/a19-0424.pdf first china and Central Eastern Europe cooperation event held in Ningbo, http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2015/06/01/b03-0601.pdf
  • http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2015/06/09/a17-0609.pdf 中 國—中東歐國家合作發展論壇 8日在浙江寧波舉 行，中東歐國家政要、駐華使領館代表等近百名 外賓出席，國務委員楊潔篪作主旨演講。據了 解，中國中東歐雙邊貿易達602億美元。據悉，此次論壇為首屆中國—中東歐國家投資 貿易博覽會的重要組成部分，會上中外代表圍繞 「構建合作共贏新體系」和「開啟合作共贏新機 遇」話題進行討論，共謀「一帶一路」戰略下中 國與中東歐國家全面合作的新路徑。據中國海關統計，中國與中東歐國家的雙邊貿 易從 2012 年的 521 億美元增至 2014 年 602 億美 元，增長了 15.6%。中國是中東歐地區絕大部分 國家在亞洲地區的最大貿易夥伴。
  • http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20151201/00184_007.html 本屆「中國——中東歐國家領導人」會議，通過了未來一年工作計劃的綱要和中長期的發展規劃，把「一帶一路」的元素嵌入「16+1合作機制」的議程。具體的事務包括推動其他中東歐國家建立類似跟匈牙利簽署共建「一帶一路」的文件，以促進區域間互聯互通。此外，中國作為「16+1合作機制」的發起國，也提出把中國和中東歐區內國家的一些特定領域關係機制化。例如本屆會議提出支持由塞爾維亞牽頭，組建「中國——中東歐國家交通基礎設施聯合會」；支持由斯洛文尼亞牽頭，組建「中國——中東歐國家林業合作協調機制」；支持羅馬尼亞提出的「能源對話與合作中心」倡議；以及在人文交流方面，將由中國社科院牽頭組建「16+1智庫交流與合作網絡」。
  • http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161106/PDF/a8_screen.pdf 國務院總理李克強5日向在雲南昆明召開的中國─中東歐國家農業部長會議暨國際農業經貿合作論壇致賀信，他指出，當前中國─中東歐國家農業合作日益深化，特別是在科技創新與交流、投資與產能合作、特色農畜產品生產與貿易等方面不斷取得新成果，中方期望與中東歐深化農業合作。本次會議和論壇由中國農業部主辦，來自中東歐16國的農業部長和企業界代表出席，主題為“創新與綠色發展，農業投資貿易合作新機遇”的主題
  • 據新華社報道，為期三天的2018中國投資論壇日前在捷克首都布拉格落幕。論壇上，來自中國、中東歐國家以及德國、英國的500餘名嘉賓就「一帶一路」倡議下中國-中東歐國家合作（「16+1合作」）的機遇和挑戰進行了探討。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2018/10/19/a08-1019.pdf
  • 據新華社報 道，157家來自中國與 135家來 自 17個中東歐國家的中小企業 和機構昨日齊聚「雲端」，通過 線上形式開展經貿洽談，並以豐 碩意向性成果推動雙方共克疫情 影響，加快復工復產步伐，實現 互利共贏。 當天舉行的中國—中東歐國家 中小企業復工復產視頻信息交流 與洽談會以「暢通信息交流，激 活企業合作」為主題，設北京為 主會場、河北省滄州市為分會 場。與會的中外企業圍繞「產 業、工業製造」「貿易投資、農 業」「旅遊、人文交流」「醫療 衞生」四大板塊進行洽談對接， 共簽訂 29份合作備忘錄，達成 19 個合作意向。中國—中東歐 中小企業合作線上服務平台也在 會上正式啟動。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/06/17/a13-0617.pdf
- 中國-中東歐博覽會

  • 第三屆中國-中東歐博覽會由今日至12日在浙江寧波舉行。本屆博覽會順應「一帶一路」倡議，以「釋放合作潛力，促進互利共贏」為主題，邀請61個國家和地區16,408名賓客到來。本屆博覽會安排了會議論壇、投資洽談、貿易展覽、人文交流等15項活動。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/06/08/a21-0608.pdf
- 升格為國家級展會後的首屆「中國-中東歐國家博覽會暨國際消費品博覽會」（簡稱中東歐博會）將於6月8日至12日在浙江寧波如期舉行。據介紹，本屆博覽會展覽總面積近11萬平方米，參展國「朋友圈」也由中東歐16國擴展到德國、法國、奧地利、俄羅斯等歐洲國家，參展企業達到1,186家。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/06/07/b04-0607.pdf- cee jin mao wen hua event

  • in shenzhen http://www.hkcd.com.hk/pdf/201703/0317/HS20317CTAY.pdf

- mayor
  • 2019中國─中東歐國家省州長聯合會（以下簡稱「聯合會」）工作組會議11日在遼寧大連舉行。來自中東歐17國共36個代表團和聯合會20個中方成員省份代表參加本次會議。會議決定，第五次中國─中東歐國家地方領導人會議將於明年秋季在遼寧瀋陽召開。當日，來自捷克、立陶宛、拉脫維亞等國駐華大使還見證了投資額1000萬歐元的「中國方舟中東歐17+1中小企業合作服務平台捷克服務中心」等五個合作項目簽約。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190612/PDF/a8_screen.pdf
- 16+1 finance company

  • http://www.reuters.com/article/china-europe-idUSL8N12Q03T20151124 Li suggested setting up "a 16+1 multilateral finance company" to finance trade and investment, reducing financing costs and removing the need for governments to provide guarantees. China's investments in the region have so far been mostly in infrastructure and energy projects carried out by Chinese companies that are financed using loans issued by Chinese state-owned banks. Its ramped up presence in the region also comes as a weakened Russian economy steers central and eastern European leaders out to search for new strategic partners. 
  • http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161107/PDF/a7_screen.pdf 工行（01398）公布， 由該行投資10億歐元（約86億港元）設立 的中國─中東歐金融控股公司正式成立。


- 中国—中东欧投资合作基金
  • 2012年4月，时任总理温家宝在波兰出席首次中国—中东欧国家领导人会晤时正式提出中国 政府将发起设立中国—中东欧投资合作基金（一期），并指定中国进出口银行为基金承办单位。中东欧基金（一期）于2013年11月正式成立，李克强总理在出 席第二次中国—中东欧国家领导人会晤时正式对外宣布基金（一期）成立，并将基金（一期）写入中国与中东欧国家合作的纲领性文件《中国—中东欧国家合作布加 勒斯特纲要》。中东欧基金一期封闭金额4.35亿美元，于2014年年初正式运营。基金采用有限合伙制形式在卢森堡注册成立，有限合伙人主要包括中国进出 口银行和匈牙利进出口银行。 2014年12月，李克强总理在出席第三次中国—中东欧国家领导人会晤时积极评价了基金 （一期）工作，正式对外宣布启动设立中东欧基金（二期），同时再次将其纳入中国—中东欧合作纲领性文件《中国－中东欧国家合作贝尔格莱德纲要》。2015 年11月，启动中国—中东欧投资合作基金二期纳入《中国—中东欧国家合作中期规划》，基金二期计划规模10亿美元，现处于筹建阶段。2016年11月5 日，《里加纲要》明确基金二期将于2017年完成设立并投入运营。 中东欧基金管理公司于2013年11月在卢森堡注册完成，并于2016年在波兰华沙设立办公室。管理公司作为普通合伙人负责中东欧基金运营管理、项目投资，为基金提供财务和行政服务等。http://china-ceefund.com/Template/Condition_31.html

- trade

  • Stathttp://pdf.wenweipo.com/2021/02/05/a14-0205.pdf
  • 中國與烏克蘭西部農業地區的貿易正在加快，中國的質佳價廉的工業製品正改善當地人民的生活。去年中國替代俄羅斯成當地最大的貿易夥伴。中國因素帶來的經濟好處，勝於與歐盟的貿易，也遠多於美國的所謂援助（用作購買美國武器在戰場上消耗）。中國因素善於利用，當可作為烏克蘭擺脫美國擺脫戰亂的重大推動力。中國還可利用中歐班列的作用增強烏克蘭作為歐亞貿易的中轉樞紐，以經濟壓抑政治衝突企圖。中國可在東歐有更大的戰略謀劃，重點協助烏克蘭解除東歐最大不穩的源頭，推動中歐班列經俄羅斯、烏克蘭，連接匈牙利轉運歐洲各地，也可經高加索、黑海到烏克蘭再出匈牙利。這樣的路線可減輕現時對波蘭的依賴，也可把波羅的海國家邊緣化。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20210413/00184_001.html


- agriculture

  • 8 日上午，中國首家 「16+1」農產品和其他 產品電商物流中心與展示館（下稱 「16+1 」國家館）在鹽田港現代物流中心開幕， 標誌着中國─中東歐國家合作項目正式落 地鹽田港。項目通過B2B開展跨境貿易展 示交易、金融結算和物流集運一體化綜合 服務，搭建多方貿易平台。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20181109/PDF/b12_screen.pdf
  • 日前，第四屆中國─中東歐國家農業部長會議在浙江杭州舉行。會議通過《中國─中東歐國家農業部長會議杭州共同宣言》，提出將加強創新和數字技術發展、貿易和投資及可持續農業生產領域，特別是農業數字化領域的合作，充分挖掘「數字紅利」。廣東省農業農村廳副廳長陳東表示，廣東省與中東歐農業合作基礎扎實。比如廣東的荔枝、龍眼、火龍果等水果和對蝦、羅非魚等水產品，亟待拓展中東歐市場，而中東歐的奶製品、肉製品在廣東也有廣闊的市場。保加利亞農業合作促進聯合會專家優福卡．揚耶娃說：「希望能與中國的電子商務企業有穩定的合作，進一步推動支付方面的服務。」http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190520/PDF/a9_screen.pdf
- tech and innovation

  • 日前，廣西 科技代表團赴塞爾維亞共和國首都貝爾格萊德市參加 第四屆中國-中東歐國家創新合作大會，並首次在中 東歐國家舉辦科技創新合作推介活動，廣西科技廳廳 長曹坤華表示，從對接東盟的獨特優勢及全方位開放 的格局出發，廣西將構架起連貫中東歐-中國-東盟 國家科技創新合作的橋樑。 作為中國-東歐國家 「17+1」框架下的重要會議， 第四屆中國-中東歐國家創新 合作大會吸引到來自中國和 17 個中東歐國家的科技企業 及院校專家在會上共商科技 創新跨區域合作。http://hk.hkcd.com/pdf/201910/1017/HZ17A17CHAA_HKCD.pdf

- sinologists

  • http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161107/PDF/a8_screen.pdf
- travel
  •  2017中國（寧波）-中東歐國家旅遊合作交流周7日至11日在浙江寧波舉行，來自捷克、克羅地亞、羅馬尼亞等8個中東歐國家的旅遊部門代表現場推薦當地 旅遊項目，並與寧波簽訂旅遊交流合作協議，包括寧波市旅遊局與匈牙利國家旅遊局簽署旅遊交流合作備忘錄，中國國旅（寧波）國際旅行社與捷克Wings Travel Ltd簽署互送客源協議等。中東歐國家代表還與來自上海、江蘇、杭州等全國重點旅遊城市的近百家旅行採購商進行現場對洽。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/06/09/a18-0609.pdf
- trade facilitation
  •  8日，第二届中国─中东欧国家质检合作对话会在宁波召开。会上，国家质检总局副局长李元平为“中国─中东欧国家贸易便利化国检试验区”（以下称试验区）正式授牌。据介绍，该试验区是全国首个以贸易便利化为主题的国检试验区。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170609/PDF/a19_screen.pdf 以「構建互聯互通夥伴關係」為主題的中國-中東歐國家海關合作論壇昨日在浙江寧波舉行，來自12個中東歐國家的海關代表以及相關駐華使館代表共同出席。論壇發表《寧波倡議》提出建立起中國海關與中東歐國家海關的合作平台與聯絡機制。 與會代表還就各國海關執法和貿易便利化舉措、海關先進技術裝備應用情況，以及打造中國-中東歐鐵路、海運、空運快捷走廊等議題交流分享成功經驗，未來將推動更多符合條件的中東歐國家參與中歐安全智能貿易航線試點計劃等合作項目。
- transport network

  • 隨着「廣州大朗－二連浩特－謝利亞季諾」路線的開通，今年以來，廣州中歐班列已開闢了4條中歐、中亞國際線路，目的地覆蓋波蘭、俄羅斯、白俄羅斯、哈薩克斯坦、烏茲別克斯坦等多個國家和地區，境外線路、站點布局更趨優化。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/08/10/a12-0810.pdf

- film

  • http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2017-03/02/content_28400825.htm CEEC Film Festival, is being held jointly by the State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Movie and Television, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and China Film Archive. The inaugural ceremony for the Year of China-CEEC Media Cooperation and the festival were held last Friday, followed by the screening of the 2015 Hungarian fantasy film Liza, the Fox-Fairy.
-education

  • 中國國家主席習近平9日在北京以視頻方式主持中國─中東歐國家領導人峰會並發表主旨講話。習近平強調，要加強文化、教育、旅遊、體育、媒體、出版、智庫、青年、地方等領域交流合作。　　習近平表示，中方願以北京2022年冬奧會、冬殘奧會為契機同中東歐國家深化體育合作。我們將在年內舉行新一屆教育政策對話和高校聯合會會議，支持復旦大學在匈牙利開設校區。http://www.takungpao.com.hk/news/232108/2021/0210/551502.html


- cultural heritage

  • 來自立陶宛、波蘭、保加利亞等11個中東歐國家及中國的代表10日齊聚古都洛陽，圍繞「文化遺產與城市發展」主題，深入探討如何促進文化遺產保護與合作。這是由國家文物局、河南省人民政府主辦的第二屆中國─中東歐國家文化遺產論壇的重要內容。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190411/PDF/a4_screen.pdf
  • china daily 11apr19 chinese experts help serbian town (Bac, a town in Vojvodina province) UNESCO heritage listing 

- spokesperson

  • https://www.chinadailyhk.com/articles/251/138/191/1524800454849.html Spokespersons from China and 16 Central and Eastern European countries gathered in Budapest on Tuesday to talk about the ways governments communicate with the public.


- delegation from china

  • 應格魯吉亞議會、波黑議會民族院、黑山議會邀請，9月18日至26日，全國政協副主席、民建中央第一副主席馬培華率全國政協代表團對上述三國進行友好訪問。馬培華就雙邊關係、各領域務實合作、「一帶一路」建設、中國－中東歐國家合作等與對方交換了意見，並介紹了中國經濟社會發展現狀以及即將召開的中國共產黨第十九次全國代表大會有關情況。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/10/12/a25-1012.pdf

- investors from china

  • http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/06/18/a13-0618.pdf 記者在浙江寧波舉行的第三屆中國—— 中東歐國家投資貿易博覽會上採訪了旅 居上述三國的華商僑領。他們紛紛表 示，圍繞「一帶一路」湧現了大量的新 商機，僑商們將抓住這個歷史契機，搭 起一座聯結雙邊貿易、溝通、合作的橋 樑。
  • 天工國際（0826）執行董事兼主席朱小坤昨出席記者會時表示，公司會積極配合國家「一帶一路」政策「走出去」，於捷克、波蘭與烏克蘭等東歐地區投資，完善公司的產業鏈，協助公司將產品銷往歐洲與北美市場。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2018/05/15/b04-0515.pdf
  • 敏實集團在不久前舉行的第二屆中國 ─中東歐國家博覽會期間，簽訂了 在捷克總投資 5,190萬美元的合作協議， 將在捷克設立全資子公司，建設年產 45 萬套的新能源汽車鋁電池盒生產線。 「我們在過往的近 20年裏已經有了一些 全球布局，但這一次在中東歐的布局跟 以往有些不一樣。以前更多是從物流和 成本上考慮，但這一次主要從技術以及 供應鏈的全球配備考慮。」敏實汽車技 術研發有限公司CFO杜凌峰表示。 敏實5200萬美元捷克開廠 他說，由於承接了大眾汽車的電池盒 項目，為就近服務客戶，考慮在歐洲建 廠。在歐洲特別是中東歐多個國家做了 廣泛考察後，最終決定在捷克建廠，原 因一是該項目的主要客戶大眾斯柯達品 牌就在捷克，可降低物流成本；二是捷 克是老牌工業強國，工業實力相對較 強，生產技術在當地可得到保障。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2021/07/01/a28-0701.pdf


HK
- event in hk
  •  中国─中东欧基金、世福资本管理共同主办的“投资共赢、和合前行”投资论坛昨在香港举行，香港行政长官林郑月娥、中联办副主任仇鸿、中国外交部驻香港特派员公署特派员谢锋等嘉宾出席活动。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20180612/PDF/a11_screen.pdf
- investors from hk
  • http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2015/06/30/b05-0630.pdf 相較人們耳熟能詳的歐美等國，中東歐16國對很多中國人而言比較陌生。日 前在寧波舉行的首屆中國-中東歐國家投資貿易博覽會，中東歐16個國家全部參 展，200多家企業、400多展商帶來了3,000餘種商品，吸引1,200多國內專業採 購商到會洽談。有中東歐商人告訴記者，中國商品已不再是廉價小商品的代言 詞，深受當地民眾歡迎，希望採購更多的中國電器和新能源產品等優質商品。事 實上，香港遠東化工集團總裁楊良棟早着先機到中東歐投資 香港遠東化工集團總裁楊良棟早着先機到中東歐投資，如今逐漸進入收成 期。經過幾次考察，楊良棟成為立陶宛最大啤酒 廠的產品代理商，把Svyturys Ekstra這個品牌引 進中國中高端啤酒市場。他說，Svyturys的產品 競爭力很強，佔本國70%的市場份額，該啤酒 品牌也是立陶宛籃球隊的贊助商。
- youth exchange

  • 「青春啟航．你好中東歐─2019 『未來之星』 國際青年交流團」 於5月 23日從香港出發前往捷克、波蘭、羅馬尼亞展開文化交流之旅。26名來自香港 各所大學的學生經過層層選拔，在400名應徵者中脫穎而出，成為本次交流團 團員。今年是 「未來之星」 第二年對接民政事務局和青年發展委員會 「國際青 年交流資助計劃」 赴中東歐三國交流訪問。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190529/PDF/a19_screen.pdf


event
- The Thessaloniki International Fair (Greek: Διεθνής Έκθεση Θεσσαλονίκης (ΔΕΘ), Diethnis Ekthesi Thessalonikis (DETH)) is an annual commercial exhibition event of great importance in Greece and Southeastern Europe, taking place at the 180,000m² Thessaloniki International Exhibition Center in Thessaloniki, Greece. The fair was first held in 1926 and today is organised by HELEXPO.

info
- ft special report 22nov18 investing in central and eastern europe

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