Before coming of indo-europeans
- There are two language families with remnants extent - Basque, and Finno-Ugric, which includes Finnish, Estonian, and some related languages in European Siberia. Hungarian is also related, but the history of why it’s broken off as an isolate farther south is unclear. We also know a little about Etruscan, which pre-dated Latin in Italy, and Minoan, which pre-dated the Hellenes in Greece. What do we have left from their civilizations? Etruscan pottery, Minoan stuff preserved on Cyprus and Crete (including the story of King Midas). We also have The Histories, written by the Greek Herodotus (lived 484 - 430 BC) who wrote about the geography and customs of all the known lands — including North Africa, today’s Russia north of the Caspian and Black Seas, and other parts of Eastern Europe. https://www.quora.com/What-was-Europe-like-before-the-Indo-European-invasion
Gaul (Latin: Gallia) was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age that was inhabited by Celtictribes, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg, Belgium, most of Switzerland, Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine. It covered an area of 494,000 km2 (191,000 sq mi). According to the testimony of Julius Caesar, Gaul was divided into three parts: Gallia Celtica, Belgica and Aquitania. Archaeologically, the Gauls were bearers of the La Tène culture, which extended across all of Gaul, as well as east to Raetia, Noricum, Pannonia and southwestern Germania during the 5th to 1st centuries BC.[citation needed] During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Gaul fell under Roman rule: Gallia Cisalpina was conquered in 203 BC and Gallia Narbonensis in 123 BC. Gaul was invaded after 120 BC by the Cimbri and the Teutons, who were in turn defeated by the Romans by 103 BC. Julius Caesar finally subdued the remaining parts of Gaul in his campaigns of 58 to 51 BC. Roman control of Gaul lasted for five centuries, until the last Roman rump state, the Domain of Soissons, fell to the Franks in AD 486. While the Celtic Gauls had lost their original identities and language during Late Antiquity, becoming amalgamated into a Gallo-Roman culture, Gallia remained the conventional name of the territory throughout the Early Middle Ages, until it acquired a new identity as the CapetianKingdom of France in the high medieval period. Gallia remains a name of France in modern Greek(Γαλλία) and modern Latin (besides the alternatives Francia and Francogallia).
- gauls (people)
- The Gauls were Celts who lived in Gaul (roughly speaking modern day France and parts of Switzerland, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands). The cradle of their civilization lay in central France and Switzerland, from whence they spread in Gaul around the mid 1st millennium BC; later, they invaded regions like Italy, the Iberian peninsula, the Balkans and Asia Minor. The Gauls spoke Gaulish, a Celtic language, and were organized in various tribes. They were eventually conquered by the Romans in the 1st c. BC. A mixed culture was gradually developed.https://www.quora.com/What-s-the-difference-between-the-Gauls-and-the-Franks
- The Ruteni ("The blond ones") were a tribe of Gaul. They were located in the modern region of Aveyron,[2] and were known as producers of lead.
- more details in french version
The Iberian Peninsula /aɪˈbɪəriən pəˈnɪnsjʊlə/, also known as Iberia /aɪˈbɪəriə/, is located in the southwest corner of Europe. The peninsula is principally divided between Portugal and Spain, comprising most of their territory. It also includes Andorra and a small part of France along the peninsula's northeastern edge, as well as Gibraltar on its south coast, a small peninsula that forms an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. The English word Iberia was adapted from the use of the Ancient Greek word Ἰβηρία (Ibēría) by Greek geographers under the rule of the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. At that time, the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabo's 'Iberia' was delineated from Keltikē (Gaul) by the Pyrenees[3] and included the entire land mass southwest (he says "west") of there. The ancient Greeks reached the Iberian Peninsula, of which they had heard from the Phoenicians, by voyaging westward on the Mediterranean. Hecataeus of Miletus was the first known to use the term Iberia, which he wrote about circa 500 BC.[6] Herodotus of Halicarnassus says of the Phocaeans that "it was they who made the Greeks acquainted with... Iberia."[7] According to Strabo,[8] prior historians used Iberia to mean the country "this side of the Ἶβηρος (Ibēros)" as far north as the river Rhône in France, but currently they set the Pyrenees as the limit. Polybius respects that limit,[9] but identifies Iberia as the Mediterranean side as far south as Gibraltar, with the Atlantic side having no name. Elsewhere[10] he says that Saguntum is "on the seaward foot of the range of hills connecting Iberia and Celtiberia." Strabo[11] refers to the Carretanians as people "of the Iberian stock" living in the Pyrenees, who are distinct from either Celts or Celtiberians. According to Charles Ebel, the ancient sources in both Latin and Greek use Hispania and Hiberia (Greek: Iberia) as synonyms. The confusion of the words was because of an overlapping in political and geographic perspectives. The Latin word Hiberia, similar to the Greek Iberia, literally translates to "land of the Hiberians". This word was derived from the river Ebro, which the Romans called Hiberus. Hiber (Iberian) was thus used as a term for peoples living near the river Ebro.[3][12] The first mention in Roman literature was by the annalist poet Ennius in 200 BC. Virgil refers to the Ipacatos Hiberos ("restless Iberi") in his Georgics.[16] The Roman geographers and other prose writers from the time of the late Roman Republic called the entire peninsula Hispania. As they became politically interested in the former Carthaginian territories, the Romans began to use the names Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior for 'near' and 'far' Hispania. At the time Hispania was made up of three Roman provinces: Hispania Baetica, Hispania Tarraconensis, and Lusitania. Strabo says[8] that the Romans use Hispania and Iberia synonymously, distinguishing between the nearnorthern and the far southern provinces. (The name "Iberia" was ambiguous, being also the name of the Kingdom of Iberia in the Caucasus.) Whatever language may generally have been spoken on the peninsula soon gave way to Latin, except for that of the Vascones, which was preserved as a language isolate by the barrier of the Pyrenees.The Iberian Peninsula has always been associated with the Ebro, Ibēros in ancient Greek and Ibērus or Hibērus in Latin. The association was so well known it was hardly necessary to state; for example, Ibēria was the country "this side of the Ibērus" in Strabo. Pliny goes so far as to assert that the Greeks had called "the whole of Spain" Hiberia because of the Hiberus River.[17] The river appears in the Ebro Treaty of 226 BC between Rome and Carthage, setting the limit of Carthaginian interest at the Ebro. The fullest description of the treaty, stated in Appian,[18] uses Ibērus. With reference to this border, Polybius[19] states that the "native name" is Ibēr, apparently the original word, stripped of its Greek or Latin -os or -us termination. The early range of these natives, which geographers and historians place from today's southern Spain to today's southern France along the Mediterranean coast, is marked by instances of a readable script expressing a yet unknown language, dubbed "Iberian." Whether this was the native name or was given to them by the Greeks for their residence on the Ebro remains unknown. Credence in Polybius imposes certain limitations on etymologizing: if the language remains unknown, the meanings of the words, including Iber, must also remain unknown. In modern Basque, the word ibar means "valley" or "watered meadow", while ibai means "river", but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with these Basque names. In Serbia, there is river Ibar, but there is no proof relating the etymology of the Ebro River with this Serbian river name.
- iberia concept
- mostly founded by british settlers during the first years of 20th c
- the suite for piano iberia (composed between 1905 and 1909)
- french geographers and travelers seldom used the concept iberie. Something similar can be said of german travelers and geographers. They preferred the term "iberian peninsula" or simply referred to "iberia" when writing about the ancient times of the roman empire
- spanish and portuguese historians of antiquity have consistently made use of the term as the best marker for territory no yet conquered by the romans, which then went on to be labeled "hispania".
- now regareded as a new metaphor signifying multinational spain
- usage and meaning of iberian peninsula
- widespread use in disciplines such as geology, natural sciences, and geography. It has constituted, and still constitutes a mosaic of different ethic groups and languages.
- nations - spain, portugal, andorra, gibraltar
- at least 5 languages enjoying official status - castillan, portuguese, catalan, galician, basque and english
- a political concept (iberismo) employed by several political and cultural actors beginning in mid 19thcentury. It was a utopian horizon that accompanied federal republican projects, workers' internationalism, substate nationalist projections of a new spain and even monarchist projects.
- iberian anarchist federation formed in 1927
- non-stalin dissident communists of marxist union's workers party formed during the spanish civil war (1936-39)
- to portuguese authoritarian monarchists after 1910, have echoed a rhetorical appeal to an iberian unified polity.
- in almost all cases, the term "iberia" was used merely as a label of substitution, in order to avoid the words that were uncomfortable: the "portuguese republic" or "spain", depending on the respective objective they aimed at: an iberian monarchy or a "union of iberian socialist republics". The term was meant to express a lack of satisfaction with the existing political regime in spain, in portugal or in both nation-states.
- spanish intellectuals shared a tendency to regard portugal merely as a part of spain that had been unduly separated from the national core in 1640. When they used the term "iberia", it was just spain (in some cases, ancient spain) that was meant
- alternative constructs - hispanity (hispanidad) until the 1980s and lusophonia (lusofonia) until the present day
- catalan and galician nationalists dreamed of another iberia, one that would go beyond the existing nation states and adopt a federal or confederal structure, based on the free association of linguistic ethnonations of the peninsula -- portugal plus galicia as a shared linguistic space, whereas basque culture was simply left aside or if basque and galician cultures are included as equal partners and not dissolved into the portuguese and castilian cultural spheres.
- described in spanish and portuguese textbooks as the set of tribes and peoples that inhabited the peninsula before the arrival of foreign conquerors: the carthaginians and especially the romans.
- following the gothic invasions and consolidation of gothic kingdoms in 5th c, they merged itno the first united polity of the whole peninsula, the visigoth kingdom, particularly after its conversion to catholicism (and the abandonment of heretical arianism) by the king recaredo in year 574). Peninsular unity was considered as a legacy from greco-roman culture. Catholicism had acted as a unifying element favoring the fusion of iberians and goths with the civilisation of the romans
- characterised by - pathological drive for individualism, only compensated by generosity, bravery and disdain of materialistic values.
- portuguese historian joaquim p. oliveira martins and the spanish rafael altamira (around 1900) were of view that iberian contributed to world civilisation through imperial expansion, and had incorporated the luso-hispanic peoples of america, africa, and asia into a shared destiny.
- portuguese discoveries as well as columbus' discovery of america in 1492 and subsequent overseas expansion of unifed spanish monarchy defined a period that led to iberian - particularly castilian - imperial hegemony in the world for a century and a half.
- consolidation of enduring authoritarian dictatorships (1926-74 in portugal; 1939-1975 in spain) characterised by their catholic-traditionalist slant, and their survival after 1945
- protugal and spain's entry in EEC in 1986
- emerged in 1990s and dated back to mid-19th c, when french, italian and british attempts at undermining the predominance of spanish language in the americas. For portugal, it is a strategy to overcome the contradiction of the huge imbalance in size, power and economic influence between the ancient metropolis (portugal) and the former colony (brazil)
- Al-Andalus (Arabic: الأنْدَلُس, trans. al-ʼAndalus; Spanish: al-Ándalus; Portuguese: al-Ândalus; Catalan: al-Àndalus; Berber: Andalus), also known as Muslim Spain, Islamic Iberia, or Moorish Spain, was a medieval Muslim territory and cultural domain occupying at its peak most of what are today Spain and Portugal. At its greatest geographical extent in the 8th century, southern France—Septimania—was briefly under its control. The name more generally describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims (given the generic name of Moors) at various times between 711 and 1492, though the boundaries changed constantly as the Christian Reconquista progressed, eventually shrinking to the south around modern-day Andalusia and then to the Emirate of Granada. Following the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, al-Andalus, then at its greatest extent, was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to modern Andalusia, Portugal and Galicia, Castile and León, Navarre, Aragon, the County of Barcelona, and Septimania.
- hkej 7nov17 shum article
- https://www.quora.com/In-800-when-the-Moors-had-firmly-controlled-Iberia-for-all-of-the-living-memory-how-deeply-had-Moorish-civilization-pervaded-the-belief-systems-cultures-and-languages-through-Arabic-and-Berber-of-the-region “Martyrs of Cordoba” - the voluntary martyrdom of around 50 Mozarabic Christians for openly defying Shariah Law under the rule of Abdurahman II and Mohamed I in the Emirate of Cordoba. They were executed for insulting the Islamic faith over a period of 9 years (850–859 AD). After over a century of Islamic rule, with Christians being both protected and discriminated against under the Dhimmi regime, a number of Mozarabic Christians were extremely concerned by what they saw as a rapid Arabization and Islamization of the general population of Al Andalus. Among them was the cleric Eulogio de Córdoba who, like his teacher and friend Álvaro de Córdoba, composed a series of works exalting religious Martyrdom. Both were convinced that the Christians in Al-Andalus were living in "deadly times" and the only solution was dying for their faith, in order to bring the failings of Islam to the attention of the wider population. Academic Eduardo Manzano explains how Eulogio hoped that the martyrdom of a few would generate an unstoppable movement similar to what the Roman Empire faced with Christianity. He saw Islam as some kind of new Pagan Rome. By demonizing Islam they attempted to stop the strong attraction the religion had for members of their own community. He saw how young Christians seemed to be far more fond of Arabic poetry and literature than the sacred Patrisic texts of the Catholic Church. Eulogio managed to convince a few dozen Christians in Córdoba to appear before the Muslim judges or “Qadis” and utter insults against the Muslim religion and the Prophet Muhammad, knowing they would be sentenced to death. 50 Cordoba born Christian Mozarabs were executed. Among them were Aurelio and his wife Sabigoto, who were convinced by Eulogio to martyr themselves, and thus attain paradise, despite the fact they were leaving two little girls as orphans. Few followed their lead. In 852, the Bishop of Cordoba had a meeting with the Emir to find a way to stop these actions and eventually Eulogio himself was executed in 859 after which they stopped altogether. Both historians Eduardo Manzano Moreno and José Ángel García de Cortázar highlight that this was never a mass movement but restricted to the most intransigent rich families in the capital of the Emirate, who were desperate to find a way to stop the progressive arabization of the peninsula. This was leading to a gradual loss of social control by these privileged groups, who were used to occupying religious institutions and monastic domains. The abandonment of Christian temples or their occupation by Muslims was not the result of a specific order by the Emir but of a fundamental shift in Andalusi society. Regardless, the movement was a failure. Even at the time, the Mozarabic Church hierarchy refused to refer to those executed as martyrs. Unlike the Christian martyrdoms during Roman Hispania, these events have fallen into obscurity among modern Spaniards, most of whom have never heard of them. This is surprising considering martyrdom is the basis of the Christian religion, and the struggle against Islam a core component of Spain’s nation building process during the 19th century. Both Christianity and pre-existing Romance dialects would eventually disappear from the southern half of Spain, particularly as a result of the religious intransigence of North African based Almohad and Almoravid conquerors during the 11th century, continuous contacts with the rest of the Islamic world and Moorish civilian settlement. The idea that Moors were an alien elite ruling over a fundamentally unchanged Latin and Christian population in Al Andalus is something of a “nativist” myth. Al Andalus was culturally and ethnically assimilated faster than places like Persia or even Egypt. By the 12th century, it was not just fully Islamized, but fully Arabized.
- The Kingdom of Asturias (Latin: Regnum Asturorum) was a kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula founded in 718 by the Visigothic nobleman Pelagius of Asturias (Spanish: Pelayo). It was the first Christian political entity established after the Umayyad conquest of Visigoth Hispania in 718 or 722. That year, Pelagius defeated an Umayyad army at the Battle of Covadonga, in what is usually regarded as the beginning of the Reconquista. The Kingdom of Asturias transitioned into the Kingdom of León in 924, when Fruela II of Asturias became king with his royal court in León.
- The Nasrid dynasty (Arabic: بنو نصر banū Naṣr) was the last Arab Muslim dynasty in Iberia, ruling the Emirate of Granada from 1230 until 1492. The Nasrid dynasty rose to power after the defeat of the Almohad Caliphate in 1212 at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa. Twenty-three emirs ruled Granada from the founding of the dynasty in 1230 by Mohammed I ibn Nasr until January 2, 1492, when Muhammad XII surrendered to the Christian Spanish kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. Today, the most visible evidence of the Nasrids is the Alhambra palace complex built under their rule.The Nasrid dynasty was descended from the Arab Banu'l-Ahmar tribe,[1] and claimed direct male-line descent from Sa'd ibn Ubadah the chief of the Banu Khazraj tribe and one of the companions of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. The nasab of Yusuf (nicknamed "al-Ahmar", meaning "the Red").
- maps
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-kingdoms-including-the-Kingdom-of-Asturias-emerge-really-quickly-after-the-Umayyads-had-control-of-Iberia-And-why-were-the-Umayyads-not-able-to-suppress-any-of-them
Goths were an East Germanic people, two of whose branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the emergence of Medieval Europe. The Goths dominated a vast area, which at its peak under the Germanic kingErmanaric and his sub-king Athanaric possibly extended all the way from the Danube to the Don, and from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea. The Goths spoke the Gothic language, one of the extinct East Germanic languages. It was last spoken in Crimea in the 18th century by the Crimean Goths; the least-powerful, least-known, and almost paradoxically, the longest-lasting of the Gothic communities.
- swedish gothicism developed in sweden in 17th century to legitimise sweden's military power historically, as well as 18th century danish patriotism with its interest in danish antiquity.
- in sweden and denmark, after the napoleonic wars, romantic historical dreams were formulated in the aesthetic mode of neo-gothicism. Gothic symbols from the viking age, with the free peasant, the odalbonde, as an ideal were emphasised.
- ostrogoths- Totila, original name Baduila (died July 1, 552), was the penultimate King of the Ostrogoths, reigning from 541 to 552 AD. A skilled military and political leader, Totila reversed the tide of the Gothic War, recovering by 543 almost all the territories in Italy that the Eastern Roman Empire had captured from his Kingdom in 540. A relative of Theudis, sword-bearer of Theodoric the Great and king of the Visigoths, Totila was elected king by Ostrogothic nobles in the autumn of 541 after King Witigis had been carried off prisoner to Constantinople. Totila proved himself both as a military and political leader, winning the support of the lower classes by liberating slaves and distributing land to the peasants. After a successful defence at Verona, Totila pursued and defeated a numerically superior army at the Battle of Faventia in 542 AD. Totila followed these victories by defeating the Romans outside Florence and capturing Naples. By 543, fighting on land and sea, he had reconqured the bulk of the lost territory. Rome held out, and Totila appealed unsuccessfully to the Senate in a letter reminding them of the loyalty of the Romans to his predecessor Theodoric the Great. In the spring of 544 the Eastern Roman emperorJustinian I sent his general Belisarius to Italy to counterattack, but Totila captured Rome in 546 from Belisarius and depopulated the city after a yearlong siege. When Totila left to fight the Byzantines in Lucania, south of Naples, Belisarius retook Rome and rebuilt its fortifications. After Belisarius retreated to Constantinople in 549, Totila recaptured Rome, going on to complete the reconquest of Italy and Sicily. By the end of 550, Totila had recaptured all but Ravenna and four coastal towns. The following year Justinian sent his general Narses with a force of 35,000 Lombards, Gepids and Heruli to Italy in a march around the Adriatic to approach Ravenna from the north. In the Battle of Taginae, a decisive engagement during the summer of 552, in the Apennines near present-day Fabriano, the Gothic army was defeated, and Totila was mortally wounded. Totila was succeeded by his relative, Teia, who later died at the Battle of Mons Lactarius. Pockets of resistance, reinforced by Franks and Alemanni who had invaded Italy in 553, continued until 562, when the Byzantines were in control of the whole of the country. The country was so ravaged by war that any return to normal life proved impossible, and only three years after Justinian's death in 565, most of the country was conquered by Alboin of the Lombards, who absorbed the remaining Ostrogothic population.
The Ligures (singular Ligus or Ligur; English: Ligurians, Greek: Λίγυες) were an ancient Indo-European people who appear to have originated in, and gave their name to, Liguria, a region of north-western Italy.[1] Elements of the Ligures appear to have migrated to other areas of western Europe, including the Iberian peninsula. Little is known of the Old Ligurian language. It is generally believed to have been an Indo-European language with particularly strong Celtic affinities, as well as similarities to Italic languages. Only some proper names have survived, such as the inflectional suffix -asca or -asco "village". Because of the strong Celtic influences on their language and culture, they were known in antiquity as Celto-Ligurians (in Greek Κελτολίγυες Keltolígues). According to Plutarch, the Ligurians called themselves Ambrones, which could indicate a relationship with the Ambrones of northern Europe. Strabo tells that they were of a different race from the Celts (by which he means Gauls), who inhabited the rest of the Alps, though they resembled them in their mode of life. Aeschylus represents Hercules as contending with the Ligures on the stony plains, near the mouths of the Rhone, and Herodotus speaks of Ligures inhabiting the country above Massilia (modern Marseilles, founded by the Greeks). Thucydides also speaks of the Ligures having expelled the Sicanians, an Iberian tribe, from the banks of the river Sicanus, in Iberia.
- Baveno is a town and comune in the province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola, part of Piedmont, northern Italy. Baveno was occupied in the pre-Roman Iron Age by the Lepontii, a tribe of the Ligures.
- in hotel meina, questioning in Baveno for jews was mentioned
墨洛温王朝（法语：Mérovingiens，又譯梅羅文王朝或梅羅文加王朝） The Merovingians (/ˌmɛroʊˈvɪndʒiən/) were a Salian Frankish dynasty that ruled the Franksfor nearly 300 years in a region known as Francia in Latin, beginning in the middle of the 5th century. Their territory largely corresponded to ancient Gaul as well as the Roman provinces of Raetia, Germania Superior and the southern part of Germania. The semi legendary Merovech was supposed to have founded the Merovingian dynasty, but it was his famous grandson Clovis I (ruled c.481–511) who united all of Gaul under Merovingian rule. After the death of Clovis, there were frequent clashes between different branches of the family, but when threatened by its neighbours the Merovingians presented a strong united front. During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role. The Merovingian rule ended in March 752 when Pope Zacharyformally deposed Childeric III.[1][2] Zachary's successor, Pope Stephen II, confirmed and anointed Pepin the Short in 754, beginning the Carolingian monarchy. The Merovingian ruling family were sometimes referred to as the "long-haired kings" (Latin reges criniti) by contemporaries, as their long hair distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short. The term "Merovingian" comes from medieval Latin Merovingior Merohingi ("sons of Merovech"), an alteration of an unattested Old Dutch form, akin to their dynasty's Old English name Merewīowing,[3] with the final -ing being a typical patronymicsuffix.
The Carolingian Empire (800–888) was a large empire in western and central Europe during the early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as kings of the Franks since 751 and as kings of the Lombards of Italy from 774. In 800, the Frankish king Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III in an effort to revive the Roman Empire in the west during a vacancy in the throne of the eastern Roman Empire. After a civil war (840–43) following the death of Emperor Louis the Pious, the empire was divided into autonomous kingdoms, with one king still recognised as emperor, but with little authority outside his own kingdom. The unity of the empire and the hereditary right of the Carolingians continued to be acknowledged. In 884, Charles the Fat reunited all the kingdoms for the last time, but he died in 888 and the empire immediately split up. With the only remaining legitimate male of the dynasty a child, the nobility elected regional kings from outside the dynasty or, in the case of the eastern kingdom, an illegitimate Carolingian. The illegitimate line continued to rule in the east until 911, while in the western kingdom the legitimate Carolingian dynasty was restored in 898 and ruled until 987 with an interruption from 922 to 936.
- military
- The Franks, like most medieval armies, had a core of peasant levies, who were usually ill-trained and badly equipped. The heavy cavalry were the only part of the army which was professional, and it was made up of the noble class. This class of nobles would go on to become known as the “sword nobles.”https://www.quora.com/Could-Charlemagne-have-defeated-Julius-Caesar-in-an-open-battle
- end
- https://www.quora.com/How-and-why-did-the-Holy-Roman-Empire-become-the-godforsaken-mess-of-borders-that-we-all-know-and-love-How-did-the-post-Charlemagne-Kingdom-of-Germany-descend-into-the-chaos-it-was-in-the-early-modern-era When Charlemagne died in 814. The Vikings began their raids. So when the Treaty of Verdun was signed in 843. The empire was divided into West Francia, Middle Francia and East Francia.Just as the Viking attacks were picking up. The Magyars migrated to Europe and began their raids in the 900s.Western Francia solved it's Viking problem in 911 by making a deal with Viking Jarl Hrolfr (Rollo). He was given the Duchy of Normandy. He & his men converted to Christianity and became the French Navy. The last Emperor of the Romans, Berengar died in 924. Otto the Great defeated the Hungarians at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. He was crowned Emperor of the Romans in 962. The last Carolingian King of West Francia died childless and Hugh Carpet was elected as King of the Franks in 987. Modern France, Germany, Benelux, Burgundy, Lombardy, Switzerland & the Papal States really evolved separately and would not reunite, despite several attempts throughout the millennium.
Lotharingia from Latin Lotharii regnum was a medieval successor kingdom of the Carolingian Empire, comprising the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, North Rhine-Westphalia (Germany), Rhineland-Palatinate (Germany), Saarland (Germany), and Lorraine (France). It was named after King Lothair II who received this territory after the kingdom of Middle Francia of his father Lothair I was divided among his sons in 855. Lotharingia was born out of the tripartite division in 855 of the kingdom of Middle Francia, which itself was formed after the threefold division of the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun of 843. Neither Lotharingia nor Middle Francia had any natural coherence, but each was conceived after territorial division of a larger realm. Conflict between East and West Francia over Lotharingia was based on the fact that these were the old Frankish homelands of Austrasia, so possession of them was of great prestige.
- The House of Reginar (later known as the House of Brabant) was a kin-group in Lotharingia during the Carolingian and Ottonian centuries. They were the first dynasty of the County of Hainault and they supplied two Dukes of Lorraine and the Landgraves and later Dukes of Brabant, Dukes of Lothier and Dukes of Limburg. The main branch extinguished in 1355, leaving its duchies to the House of Luxembourg which in turn left them to the House of Valois-Burgundy in 1383. It includes the House of Hesse which ruled Hesse from 1264 until 1918 and still exists today.Their eldest ancestor is Gilbert, Count of the Maasgau (mentioned in 841) who served King Lothair I, but defected to Lothair's half-brother Charles the Bald during the civil war of 840–843. In 846 Gilbert abducted an unnamed daughter of Lothair and married her in an attempt to force Lothair to reinstate him. Reginar, Duke of Lorraine (c. 850–916) is believed to be Gilbert's son. Following the death of Charles the Fat, the Reginarids began a long fight with the Conradines for supremacy in Lotharingia.[1] When they triumphed, in 910, it was in electing Charles the Simple as king. It was the combined forces of Bruno I of Lorraine and the Carolingians of West Francia that finally broke the Reginarids' hold on power.[2] In 958, Reginar III had his lands confiscated and redistributed to Gerard, Count of Metz, of the Matfridings, enemies of his family since the reign of Zwentibold. The Reginarids supported Lothair of France against Otto II, but they made a deal with the latter in 978. Nonetheless, the Reginarids were not longer a unified family by the end of the tenth century. Their descendants in Mons and Louvain continued their spirit of opposition to the king, however.[6] The house also produced a queen-consort of England in the form of Adeliza of Leuven, who married Henry I of England.
- The House of Reginar (later known as the House of Brabant) was a kin-group in Lotharingia during the Carolingian and Ottonian centuries. They were the first dynasty of the County of Hainault and they supplied two Dukes of Lorraine and the Landgraves and later Dukes of Brabant, Dukes of Lothier and Dukes of Limburg. The main branch extinguished in 1355, leaving its duchies to the House of Luxembourg which in turn left them to the House of Valois-Burgundy in 1383. It includes the House of Hesse which ruled Hesse from 1264 until 1918 and still exists today.Their eldest ancestor is Gilbert, Count of the Maasgau (mentioned in 841) who served King Lothair I, but defected to Lothair's half-brother Charles the Bald during the civil war of 840–843. In 846 Gilbert abducted an unnamed daughter of Lothair and married her in an attempt to force Lothair to reinstate him. Reginar, Duke of Lorraine (c. 850–916) is believed to be Gilbert's son. Following the death of Charles the Fat, the Reginarids began a long fight with the Conradines for supremacy in Lotharingia.[1] When they triumphed, in 910, it was in electing Charles the Simple as king. It was the combined forces of Bruno I of Lorraine and the Carolingians of West Francia that finally broke the Reginarids' hold on power.[2] In 958, Reginar III had his lands confiscated and redistributed to Gerard, Count of Metz, of the Matfridings, enemies of his family since the reign of Zwentibold. The Reginarids supported Lothair of France against Otto II, but they made a deal with the latter in 978. Nonetheless, the Reginarids were not longer a unified family by the end of the tenth century. Their descendants in Mons and Louvain continued their spirit of opposition to the king, however.[6] The house also produced a queen-consort of England in the form of Adeliza of Leuven, who married Henry I of England.
The Battle of the Catalaunian Plains (orFields), also called the Battle of Châlons or the Battle of Maurica, took place on June 20th, 451 AD between a coalition led by theRoman general Flavius Aetius and theVisigothic king Theodoric I against theHuns and their vassals commanded by their king Attila. It was one of the last major military operations of the Western Roman Empire, although Germanicfoederati composed the majority of the coalition army. The battle was strategically inconclusive: the Romans stopped the Huns' attempt to establish vassals inRoman Gaul, and installed Merovech as king of the Franks. However, the Huns successfully looted and pillaged much of Gaul and crippled the military capacity of the Romans and Visigoths. The Hunnic Empire was later dismantled by a coalition of their Germanic vassals at the Battle of Nedao in 454.
Castile, leon
- Alfonso X (also occasionally Alphonso, Alphonse, or Alfons, 23 November 1221 – 4 April 1284), called the Wise (Spanish: el Sabio), was the King of Castile, León and Galicia from 30 May 1252 until his death. During the Imperial election of 1257, a dissident faction chose him to be King of the Romans (Latin: Rex Romanorum; German: Römisch-deutscher König) on 1 April. He renounced his imperial claim in 1275, and in creating an alliance with England in 1254, his claim on Gascony as well.Alfonso X fostered the development of a cosmopolitan court that encouraged learning. Jews, Muslims, and Christians had prominent roles in his court. As a result of his encouraging the translation of works from Arabic and Latin into the vernacular of Castile, many intellectual changes took place, perhaps the most notable being encouragement of the use of Castilian as a primary language of higher learning, science, and law. Alfonso was a prolific author of Galician poetry, such as the Cantigas de Santa Maria, which are equally notable for their musical notation as for their literary merit. (also the "scorpions") Alfonso's scientific interests—he is sometimes nicknamed the Astrologer (el Astrólogo)—led him to sponsor the creation of the Alfonsine tables, and the Alphonsus crater on the moon is named after him. As a legislator he introduced the first vernacular law code in Spain, the Siete Partidas. He created the Mesta, an association of sheep farmers in the central plain, but debased the coinage to finance his claim to the German crown. He fought a successful war with Portugal, but a less successful one with Granada. The end of his reign was marred by a civil war with his eldest surviving son, the future Sancho IV, which continued after his death.
At the Battle of Muret on 12 September 1213 the Crusader army of Simon IV de Montfort defeated the Catharist, Aragonese and Catalan forces of Peter II of Aragon, at Muret near Toulouse.
The Hundred Years' War is the modern term for a series of conflicts waged from 1337 to 1453 by the House of Plantagenet, rulers of the Kingdom of England, against the House of Valois, rulers of the Kingdom of France, for control of the Kingdom of France. Each side drew many allies into the war. It was one of the most notable conflicts of the Middle Ages, in which five generations of kings from two rival dynasties fought for the throne of the largest kingdom in Western Europe. The war marked both the height of chivalry and its subsequent decline, and the development of strong national identities in both countries.
- in 1453, french troops retook possession of chateau latour which was occupied by the british, and marked the end of english rule over the medoc region. The name of chateau batailley comes from the word "bataille" (meaning battle), in memory of the battle that took place
- in 1453, french troops retook possession of chateau latour which was occupied by the british, and marked the end of english rule over the medoc region. The name of chateau batailley comes from the word "bataille" (meaning battle), in memory of the battle that took place
Division of new world
- The Treaty of Tordesillas (Portuguese:Tratado de Tordesilhas [tɾɐˈtaðu ðɨ tuɾðɨˈziʎɐʃ], Spanish: Tratado de Tordesillas [tɾaˈtaðo ðe toɾðeˈsiʎas]), signed at Tordesillason June 7, 1494, and authenticated atSetúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and the Crown of Castile, along ameridian 370 leagues west of theCape Verde islands, off the west coast of Africa. This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde islands (already Portuguese) and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Castile and León), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia(Cuba and Hispaniola). The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Castile. The treaty was signed by Spain,2 July 1494 and by Portugal,5 September 1494. The other side of the world was divided a few decades later by the Treaty of Zaragoza or Saragossa, signed on 22 April 1529, which specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. Originals of both treaties are kept at theArchivo General de Indias in Spain and at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. This treaty would be observed fairly well by Spain and Portugal, despite considerable ignorance as to the geography of the New World; however, it omitted all of the other European powers. Those countries generally ignored the treaty, particularly those that became Protestant after the Reformation.
- hkej 14dec17 shum article
- not every territory in the map was actually under Portuguese rule. Most of the African shores, and many places in India and modern Indonésia had some sort of Feitoria, a fortified warehouse/trading post/castle which at some point was under Portugal. Of course that not EVERY beach on Africa was 100% under Portuguese control, but there was a certain Monopoly of trade with local tribes.However, neither most of Africa, Asia nor Oceania were under a tight Portuguese rule. It even took some time for Portuguese control of their share of South America to become firm.https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Portuguese-rule-almost-half-the-world-despite-being-a-tiny-peninsula-itself
The Italian Wars, often referred to as the Great Italian Wars or the Great Wars of Italy and sometimes as the Habsburg–Valois Wars or the Renaissance Wars, were a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, most of the city-states of Italy, the Papal States, the Republic of Venice, most of the major states of Western Europe (France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Scotland) as well as the Ottoman Empire. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milanand the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for power and territory among their various participants, and were marked with an increasing number of alliances, counter-alliances, and betrayals.Following the Wars in Lombardy between Venice and Milan, which ended in 1454, Northern Italy had been largely at peace during the reigns of Cosimo de' Medici and Lorenzo de' Medici in Florence, with the notable exception of the War of Ferrara in 1482–1484. Charles VIII of France improved relations with other European rulers in the run up to the First Italian War by negotiating a series of treaties: in 1493, France negotiated the Treaty of Senlis with the Holy Roman Empire; on 19 January 1493, France and the Crown of Aragon signed the Treaty of Barcelona; and later in 1493, France and England signed the Treaty of Étaples.Ludovico Sforza of Milan, seeking an ally against the Republic of Venice, encouraged Charles VIII of France to invade Italy, using the Angevin claim to the throne of Naples as a pretext. When Ferdinand I of Naples died in 1494, Charles VIII invaded the peninsula with a French Army[3] of twenty-five thousand men (including 8,000 Swiss mercenaries), possibly hoping to use Naples as a base for a crusade against the Ottoman Turks.
- The Treaty of London in 1518 was a non-aggression pact between the major European nations. The signatories were Burgundy, France, England, the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, the Papal States and Spain, all of whom agreed not to attack one another and to come to the aid of any that were under attack.The treaty was designed by Cardinal Wolsey and so came to be signed by the ambassadors of the nations concerned in London.[3] Pope Leo X originally called for a five-year peace while the monarchs of Europe helped him fight back the rising power of the Ottoman Empire, which was encroaching into the Balkans.[2] Wolsey was very keen on instead making lasting peace and persuaded Henry to avoid war and take a more diplomatic route in foreign affairs.
- The Treaty of London in 1518 was a non-aggression pact between the major European nations. The signatories were Burgundy, France, England, the Holy Roman Empire, the Netherlands, the Papal States and Spain, all of whom agreed not to attack one another and to come to the aid of any that were under attack.The treaty was designed by Cardinal Wolsey and so came to be signed by the ambassadors of the nations concerned in London.[3] Pope Leo X originally called for a five-year peace while the monarchs of Europe helped him fight back the rising power of the Ottoman Empire, which was encroaching into the Balkans.[2] Wolsey was very keen on instead making lasting peace and persuaded Henry to avoid war and take a more diplomatic route in foreign affairs.
- The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis was signed between Henry II of France and Philip II of Spainon 3 April 1559, at Le Cateau-Cambrésis, around twenty kilometers south-east of Cambrai.[14]Under its terms, France restored Piedmont and Savoy to the Duke of Savoy, and Corsica to the Republic of Genoa, but retained Saluzzo, Calais and the Three Bishoprics: Metz, Toul, and Verdun.[15] Spain retained Franche-Comté, but, more importantly, the treaty confirmed its direct control of Milan, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and the State of Presidi in Italy. The Duchy of Florence and the Republic of Venice preserved sovereignty while the Papacy and Genoa became key allies of Spain. Piedmont-Savoy gained independence from France due to the fact that Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy led the Imperial forces during the decisive Battle of St Quentin (1557). Ultimately, the treaty ended the 60 year, Habsburg-Valois wars. Spanish control of Milan lasted until the early-18th century War of Spanish Succession and a branch of the Spanish royal family remained in power in the South of Italy until Garibaldi's late-19th century Expedition of the Thousand.
- national contests for religious future escalated when it was considered that the treaty bound catholic monarchs in a joint endeavour to crush protestantism. -->backdrop for rise of calvinism
The Battle of Lepanto was a naval engagement taking place on 7 October 1571 in which a fleet of the Holy League, a coalition of European Catholic maritime states arranged by Pope Pius V, financed by Habsburg Spain and led by admiral Don John of Austria, inflicted a major defeat on the fleet of the Ottoman Empire in the Gulf of Patras, where the Ottoman forces sailing westwards from their naval station in Lepanto (the Venetian name of ancient Naupactus Ναύπακτος, Ottomanİnebahtı) met the fleet of the Holy League sailing east from Messina, Sicily. In the history of naval warfare, Lepanto marks the last major engagement in the Western world to be fought entirely or almost entirely between rowing vessels, the galleys and galeasses which were still the direct descendants of the ancient trireme warships. The battle was in essence an "infantry battle on floating platforms". It was the largest naval battle in Western history since classical antiquity, involving more than 400 warships. Over the following decades, the increasing importance of the galleon and the line of battle tactic would displace the galley as the major warship of its era, marking the beginning of the "Age of Sail". The victory of the Holy League is of great importance in the history of Europe and of the Ottoman Empire, marking the turning-point of Ottoman military expansion into the Mediterranean, although the Ottoman wars in Europe would continue for another century. It has long been compared to the Battle of Salamis both for tactical parallels and for its crucial importance in the defense of Europe against imperial expansion. It was also of great symbolic importance in a period when Europe was torn by its own wars of religion following the Protestant Reformation, strengthening the position of Philip II of Spain as the "Most Catholic King" and defender of Christendom against Muslim incursion, although this was mitigated by the defeat of the Spanish Armada by the Royal Navy of England in 1588.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Spanish-Empire-fall The Spanish Empire reached its zenith in 1571 following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire at Lepanto. Spanish colonies were present in the Americas, the Philippines, Africa and the Pacific. The Hapsburg Monarchy in Spain also enjoyed domination in Italy (particularly Sicily and Naples) as well as the Low Countries. In 1580 Philip II (r.1556-1598), the Spanish king, became the sovereign for Portugal extending his domain into Spain’s Iberian neighbor via the apparatus of the Council of Portugal. As the seventeenth century approached, Spain was less able to hang on to her territory in North America and the Caribbean as a result of fierce competition from the English, French and Dutch. In particular Spain struggled to meet the demands of the Indies for consumer goods with merchants from the rival European trading powers moving in to fill the shortfall. Spain was forced to defend her Empire as English pirates plundered Spanish merchant ships. In 1588 the defeat of the Spanish Armada turned the naval balance equation in favor of Elizabeth’s England (although this did happen overnight with the English suffering a setback with the failed Counter Armada - English Armada - Wikipedia).
Philip III (r. 1598-1621) tried to stave off decline but the Castilian Plague of 1596-1602 greatly decimated the population of the heartland. In 1607 Spain moved toward bankruptcy as she struggled in a bitter war with the United Provinces (largely the modern day Netherlands).
The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) was an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England that was never formally declared.[citation needed] The war was punctuated by widely separated battles, and began with England's military expedition in 1585 to theNetherlands under the command of the Earl of Leicester in support of the resistance of the States General to Habsburg rule. The English enjoyed major victories at Cádiz in 1587, and over the Spanish Armada in 1588, but gradually lost the initiative after the severe defeats of the English Armada in 1589 and the Drake–Hawkins and Essex–Raleigh expeditions in 1595 and 1597 respectively. Two further Spanish armadas were sent in 1596 and 1597 but were frustrated in their objectives mainly because of adverse weather and poor planning. The war became deadlocked around the turn of the 17th century during campaigns in Brittany and Ireland. It was brought to an end with the Treaty of London, negotiated in 1604 between representatives of the new king of Spain, Philip III, and the new king of England, James I. England and Spain agreed to cease their military interventions in the Spanish Netherlands and Ireland, respectively, and the English ended high seas privateering. The Treaty of London (1604) restored the status quo ante bellum.[1][6] The Protestant reformation in England had been protected and James and his ministers refused the Spanish demand for Catholic toleration in England. English support for the Dutch rebellion against the Spanish king, the original cause of the war, was ended and the Spanish king continued the siege of Ostend. English trade with the Spanish Netherlands city of Antwerp was also restored, while the nascent illegal trade with the Spanish colonies in the New World, was brought to an end. Spain's upgrading of the convoy system had allowed it to defend its treasure fleets and retain its New World colonies. The war had also diverted Tudor colonial efforts and effective English settlement in North America was delayed until the 17th century. On the other hand, English privateering had devastated the Spanish private merchant marine and Spanish commerce would be increasingly carried on Dutch and English ships.[1] A treaty had been concluded the previous year between James I and the Irish rebels.
- Defenestration of Prague precipitated the Thirty Years' War. Immediately after the defenestration, the Protestant estates and Catholic Habsburgs started gathering allies for war. After the death of Matthias in 1619, Ferdinand II was elected Holy Roman Emperor. At the same time, the Bohemian estates deposed him as King of Bohemia and replaced him with Frederick V, Elector Palatine, a leading Calvinist and son-in-law of the Protestant James VI and I, King of Scotland, England and Ireland. Because they deposed a properly chosen king, the Protestants could not gather the international support they needed for war. Just two years after the defenestration, Ferdinand and the Catholics regained power in the Battle of White Mountain on November 8, 1620. This became known as the first battle in the Thirty Years' War.
- The Peace of Westphalia (German: Westfälischer Friede) was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphaliancities of Osnabrück and Münster, effectively ending the European wars of religion. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire between the Habsburgs and their Catholic allies on one side, and the Protestant powers (Sweden, Denmark, Dutch, and Holy Roman principalities) and their Catholic (France) Anti-Habsburg allies on the other. The treaties also ended the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spainand the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognising the independence of the Dutch Republic.
- The Treaty of the Pyrenees (French: Traité des Pyrénées, Spanish: Tratado de los Pirineos, Catalan: Tractat dels Pirineus, Portuguese: Tratado dos Pirenéus) was signed on 7 November 1659 to end the 1635-1659 war between France and Spain, a war that was initially a part of the wider Thirty Years' War. It was signed on Pheasant Island, a river island on the border between the two countries which has remained a French-Spanish condominium since the treaty. The kings Louis XIV of France and Philip IV of Spain were represented by their chief ministers, Cardinal Mazarin and Don Luis Méndez de Haro, respectively.
The Battle of Gangut (Russian: Гангутское сражение, Finnish: Riilahden taistelu,Finland Swedish:Slaget vid Rilax, Swedish:Sjöslaget vid Hangöudd) took place on 27 JulyJul./ 7 August 1714Greg. during theGreat Northern War (1700–21), in the waters of Riilahti Bay, north of the Hanko Peninsula, near the site of the modern-day city of Hanko, Finland, between theSwedish Navy and Imperial Russian Navy. It was the first important victory of the Russian fleet in its history.
The Pacte de Famille (French pronunciation: [pakt də famij], Family Compact; Spanish: Pacto de Familia) is one of three separate, but similar alliances between the Bourbon kings ofFrance and Spain.The first of these (Primer Pacto de Familia) was made on November 7, 1733 by King Philip V of Spain and King Louis XV of France in the Treaty of the Escorial. The second Family Compact was made on October 25, 1743 again by King Philip V of Spain and King Louis XV of France in the Treaty of Fontainebleau. This pact was signed in the middle of the War of Austrian Succession. The third Family Compact was made on 15 August 1761 by King Charles III of Spain and Louis XV in the Treaty of Paris. Charles III was the son of Philip V, making him Louis's first cousin. At this time France was fighting the Seven Years' War against Great Britain. Charles's alliance reversed the policy of his predecessor, Ferdinand VI, who wished to keep Spain out of the war. The agreement involved Spain's allies Naples and Tuscany. When Spain became involved, the Britishoccupied the Philippines and Cuba. Charles III recovered these possessions in the Treaty of Paris (1763), but ceded Florida to the British.
year 1806
- conferation of the rhine set up
- holy roman empire ended
- france at war with prussia
- french victory at jena and auerstadt
- napoleon introduced the continental system
The Peninsular War (1807–1814) was amilitary conflict between Napoleon's empire and the allied powers of Spain,Britain and Portugal for control of theIberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, and escalated in 1808 when France turned on Spain, its ally until then. The war on the peninsula lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, and is regarded as one of the firstwars of national liberation, significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare.
The Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805/11 Frimaire An XIV FRC), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of the most important and decisive engagements of the Napoleonic Wars. In what is widely regarded as the greatest ever victory achieved by Napoleon, the Grande Armée of France defeated a larger Russian and Austrian army led by Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. The battle occurred near the town of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire (modern-day Slavkov u Brna in the Czech Republic). Austerlitz brought the War of the Third Coalition to a rapid end, with the Treaty of Pressburg signed by the Austrians later in the month. The battle is often cited as a tactical masterpiece, in the same league as other historic engagements like Cannae or Gaugamela.
- The Pont d'Austerlitz is a bridge which crosses the Seine River in Paris, France. It owes its name to the battle of Austerlitz (1805).Il tire son nom en souvenir de la victoire remportée à Austerlitz sur les Russes et les Autrichiens, le 2 décembre 1805.
The Holy Alliance (German: Heilige Allianz; Russian:Священный союз, Svyashchennyy soyuz; also called theGrand Alliance) was a coalition created by the monarchistgreat powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. It was created after the ultimate defeat of Napoleon at the behest of Tsar Alexander I of Russia and signed in Parison 26 September 1815.[1] The intention of the alliance was to restrain republicanism and secularism in Europe in the wake of the devastating French Revolutionary Wars, and the alliance nominally succeeded in this up until the Crimean War (1853–1856). Otto von Bismarck managed to reunite the Holy Alliance after the unification of Germany, but the alliance again faltered by the 1880s over Austrian and Russian conflicts of interest with regard to the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. By extension, the Alliance can be considered the most potent prevention against any other general wars on the continent of Europe between 1815 and 1914.
- according to A. pearce higgins, the alliance was subsequently adhered to by nearly all the monarchs of europe, except the british king
congress of vienna
- ?????? FT 2dec19 picture in letters to editor page captioned revelry held up 1815 congress of vienna
General Treaty of the Territorial Commission of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, signed at Frankfurt-on-Main, 20 July 1819
The Biedermeier period refers to an era in Central Europe between 1815 and 1848 during which the middle class grew and arts appealed to common sensibilities. It began with the time of the Congress of Vienna at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and ended with the onset of theEuropean revolutions in 1848. Although the term itself is a historical reference, it is predominantly used to denote the artistic styles that flourished in the fields of literature, music, the visual arts and interior design.
The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, which was a part of the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. It has widely been noted that the causes, in one case involving an argument over a key, have never revealed a "greater confusion of purpose", yet led to a war noted for its "notoriously incompetent international butchery."
- [manuscript hunter] the siege of sevastopol was the final and determining battle of the crimean war
The Balkan League was an alliance formed by a series of bilateral treaties concluded in 1912 between the Balkan states of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia andMontenegro, and directed against the Ottoman Empire, which at the time still controlled much of the Balkan peninsula. The Balkans had been in a state of turmoil since the early 1900s, with years of guerrilla warfare in Macedonia followed by the Young Turk Revolution and the protracted Bosnian Crisis. The outbreak of the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 had further weakened the Ottomans and emboldened the Balkan states. Under Russian influence, Serbia and Bulgariasettled their differences and signed an alliance, originally directed against Austria-Hungary on 13 March 1912, but by adding a secret chapter to it essentially redirected the alliance against the Ottoman Empire. Serbia then signed a mutual alliance with Montenegro, while Bulgaria did the same with Greece. The League was victorious in the First Balkan War which broke out in October 1912, where it successfully wrestled control of almost all European Ottoman territories. Following this victory however, the old differences between the allies re-emerged over the division of the spoils, particularlyMacedonia, leading to the effective break-up of the League, and soon after, on 16 June 1913, Bulgaria attacked her erstwhile allies, beginning the Second Balkan War.
- The House of Habsburg (/ˈhæps.bɜːrɡ/;German pronunciation: [ˈhaːps.bʊʁk]), orHouse of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740. The house also produced emperors and kings of theKingdom of Bohemia, Kingdom of England(Jure uxoris King), Kingdom of France(Queen consort), Kingdom of Germany,Kingdom of Hungary, Empire of Russia,Kingdom of Croatia, Second Mexican Empire, Kingdom of Ireland (Jure uxorisKing), Kingdom of Portugal, and Habsburg Spain, as well as rulers of several Dutchand Italian principalities.[dubious ] From the sixteenth century, following the reign ofCharles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they nevertheless maintained close relations and frequently intermarried. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a fortress built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland by Count Radbotof Klettgau, who chose to name his fortress Habsburg. His grandson Otto IIwas the first to take the fortress name as his own, adding "Count of Habsburg" to his title. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries.
- The Przemyslids or Přemyslids (Czech: Přemyslovci, German: Premysliden, Polish: Przemyślidzi), were a Bohemian (Czech) royal dynasty which reigned in Bohemia and Moravia (9th century–1306), and parts ofHungary, Silesia, Austria and Poland. The dynasty's beginnings date back to the 9th century[1] when Przemyslids ruled a tiny territory aroundPrague, populated by the Czech tribe of the Western Slavs. Gradually they expanded, conquering the region of Bohemia, located in the Bohemian basin where it was not threatened by the expansion of the Frankish Empire. The first historically-documented Premyslid Duke was Bořivoj I (867). In the following century, Přemyslids also ruled over Silesia and founded the city of Wroclaw (German: Breslau), derived from the name of a Bohemian duke Vratislaus I, father of Saint Wenceslaus. Under the reign of Prince Boleslaus I the Cruel (935) and his son Boleslaus II the Pious (972), the Přemyslids ruled territory stretching to today's Belarus.
People
- Cnut the Great (Old Norse: Knútr inn ríki; c. 995– 12 November 1035), more commonly known as Canute, was a king ofDenmark, England, Norway and parts ofSweden, together often referred to as the Anglo-Scandinavian or North Sea Empire. After his death, the deaths of his heirs within a decade, and the Norman conquest of England in 1066, his legacy was largely lost to history. The medieval historianNorman Cantor has stated that he was "the most effective king in Anglo-Saxon history", although Cnut himself was Danish, not British or Anglo-Saxon.
- The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe that lived around the modern Dutch Rhine delta in the area that the Romans called Batavia, from the second half of the first century BC to the third century AD. The name is also applied to several military units employed by the Romans that were originally raised among the Batavi. The tribal name, probably a derivation from batawjō ("good island", from Germanic bat- "good, excellent," which is also in the English "better," and awjō "island, land near water"),[1]refers to the region's fertility, today known as the fruitbasket of the Netherlands (the Betuwe). Finds of wooden tablets show that at least some were literate.
- The Franks (Latin: Franci or gens Francorum) are historically first known as a group of Germanic tribes that inhabited the land between the Lower and Middle Rhine in the 3rd century AD, and second as the people of Gaul who merged with the Gallo-Roman populations during succeeding centuries, passing on their name to modern-day France and becoming part of the heritage of the modern French people. Some Franks raided Roman territory, while other Frankish tribes joined the Roman troops of Gaul. In later times, Franks became the military rulers of the northern part of Roman Gaul. With the coronation of their ruler Charlemagne as Imperator Romanorum by Pope Leo III in 800 AD, he and his successors were recognised as legitimate successors to the emperors of the Western Roman Empire.
- On Philip’s orders, the Duke of Alva marched 9,000 men from Milan to the Netherlands. They arrived in August 1567. Alva had four secret orders:
1) to make all areas loyal to Brussels – this would end the power of the magnates.
2) all town rights were to end which would end the power of the merchants
3) there was to be religious uniformity
4) the Netherlands was to pay its full share to finance Philip’s policies.
Alva started a reign of terror. The nobles were arrested (despite being convinced that they were free from such problems) and sent to the Council of Troubles which was nick-named the ‘Council of Blood’ by the locals. Most were released after signing a form of submission. All leaders or potential leaders of resistance were arrested. Town leaders were shown no mercy. In January 1568, 80 leading citizens were executed in Brussels.
- Because of alva's persecution, there has been a saying that flemish refugees fled to england and thus associate with early development of lace industry
- The Peace of Westphalia (German: Westfälischer Friede) was a series of peace treaties signed between May and October 1648 in the Westphaliancities of Osnabrück and Münster, effectively ending the European wars of religion. These treaties ended the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) in the Holy Roman Empire between the Habsburgs and their Catholic allies on one side, and the Protestant powers (Sweden, Denmark, Dutch, and Holy Roman principalities) and their Catholic (France) Anti-Habsburg allies on the other. The treaties also ended the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) between Spainand the Dutch Republic, with Spain formally recognising the independence of the Dutch Republic.
- The Peace of Westphalia established the precedent of peaces established by diplomatic congress, and a new system of political order in central Europe, later called Westphalian sovereignty, based upon the concept of co-existing sovereign states. Inter-state aggression was to be held in check by a balance of power. A norm was established against interference in another state's domestic affairs. As European influence spread across the globe, these Westphalian principles, especially the concept of sovereign states, became central to international law and to the prevailing world order.
- the sad irony for people of prague was that the last heavy offensive against bohemian capital (by sweden) occurred after the signing of the peace.
- huguenot party had to give up its subsidies and its remaining places de surete
- provinces of utrecht and zeeland opposed the negotiations
- possessions principle was applied
- a protestant ruler was restored in the rhineland palatinate, catholic authority was validated in the upper palatinate
- definition of new status quo - agreement of normative year of 1524 remained a mystery
- mandated ecclesiatical restitution in relation to the year 1624
- The Treaty of the Pyrenees (French: Traité des Pyrénées, Spanish: Tratado de los Pirineos, Catalan: Tractat dels Pirineus, Portuguese: Tratado dos Pirenéus) was signed on 7 November 1659 to end the 1635-1659 war between France and Spain, a war that was initially a part of the wider Thirty Years' War. It was signed on Pheasant Island, a river island on the border between the two countries which has remained a French-Spanish condominium since the treaty. The kings Louis XIV of France and Philip IV of Spain were represented by their chief ministers, Cardinal Mazarin and Don Luis Méndez de Haro, respectively.
- France entered the Thirty Years' War after the Spanish Habsburg victories in the Dutch Revolt in the 1620s and at the Battle of Nördlingen against Sweden in 1634. By 1640, France began to interfere in Spanish politics, aiding the revolt in Catalonia, while Spain responded by aiding the Fronde revolt in France in 1648. During the negotiations for the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, France gained the Sundgau and cut off Spanish access to the Netherlands from Austria, leading to open warfare between the French and Spanish. After 23 years of war, an Anglo-French alliance was victorious at the Battle of the Dunes in June 14, 1658, but the following year the war ground to a halt when the French campaign to take Milan was defeated. Peace was settled by means of the Treaty of the Pyrenees in November 1659.
- Combined with the Peace of Westphalia, it allowed Louis XIV remarkable stability and diplomatic advantage by means of a weakened Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé and a weakened Spanish Crown, along with the agreed dowry, which was an important element in the French king's strategy:All in all, by 1660, when the Swedish occupation of Poland was over, most of the European continent was at peace (Portuguese Restoration War, third stage), and the Bourbons had ended the dominance of the Habsburgs. In the Pyrenees, the treaty resulted in the establishment of border customs and restriction of the free cross-border flow of people and goods.In the context of the territorial changes involved in the Treaty, France gained some territory, on both its northern and southern borders.In the north, France gained French Flanders. In the south:
- On the east: The northern part of Historical Catalonia, including Roussillon, Conflent, Vallespir, Capcir, and French Cerdagne, was transferred to France, i.e. what later came to be known as "Northern Catalonia".
- On the west: The parties agree to put together a field group to compromise a borderline on disputed lands along the Basque Pyrenees, involving Sareta—Zugarramurdi, Ainhoa, etc.— Aldude, and the Spanish wedge of Valcarlos.
- hkej 3oct17 shum article
- One legend is that the croissant was invented in Vienna, either in 1683 or during the earlier siege in 1529, to celebrate the defeat of the Ottoman attack on the city, with the shape referring to the crescents on the Ottoman flags. This version of the origin of the croissant is supported by the fact that croissants in France are a variant ofViennoiserie, and by the French popular belief that Vienna-born Marie Antoinette introduced the pastry to France in 1770. Another legend from Vienna has the first bagel as being a gift to King John III Sobieski to commemorate the King's victory over the Ottomans. It was fashioned in the form of a stirrupto commemorate the victorious charge by the Polish cavalry. The veracity of this legend is uncertain, as there is a reference in 1610 to a bread with a similar-sounding name, which may or may not have been the bagel. There is an often recited story that, after the battle, the Viennese discovered many bags ofcoffee in the abandoned Ottoman encampment. The story goes on that, using this captured stock, Franciszek Jerzy Kulczycki opened the first coffeehouse in Vienna. However, this story was first mentioned in 1783; the first coffeehouse in Vienna had been established by the Armenian Johannes Theodat in 1685.
- https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-most-important-war-that-nobody-talks-about
The Treaty of Utrecht, which established the Peace of Utrecht, is a series of individual peace treaties, rather than a single document, signed by the belligerents in the War of the Spanish Succession, in the Dutch city of Utrecht in March and April 1713. The treaties between several European states, including Spain, Great Britain, France, Portugal, Savoy and the Dutch Republic, helped end the war. The treaties were concluded between the representatives of Louis XIV of France and of his grandson Philip V of Spain on one hand, and representatives of Anne of Great Britain, Victor Amadeus II of Sardinia, John V of Portugal and the United Provinces of the Netherlands on the other. They marked the end of French ambitions of hegemony in Europe expressed in the wars of Louis XIV, and preserved the European system based on the balance of power.
The Battle of Gangut (Russian: Гангутское сражение, Finnish: Riilahden taistelu,Finland Swedish:Slaget vid Rilax, Swedish:Sjöslaget vid Hangöudd) took place on 27 JulyJul./ 7 August 1714Greg. during theGreat Northern War (1700–21), in the waters of Riilahti Bay, north of the Hanko Peninsula, near the site of the modern-day city of Hanko, Finland, between theSwedish Navy and Imperial Russian Navy. It was the first important victory of the Russian fleet in its history.
The Pacte de Famille (French pronunciation: [pakt də famij], Family Compact; Spanish: Pacto de Familia) is one of three separate, but similar alliances between the Bourbon kings ofFrance and Spain.The first of these (Primer Pacto de Familia) was made on November 7, 1733 by King Philip V of Spain and King Louis XV of France in the Treaty of the Escorial. The second Family Compact was made on October 25, 1743 again by King Philip V of Spain and King Louis XV of France in the Treaty of Fontainebleau. This pact was signed in the middle of the War of Austrian Succession. The third Family Compact was made on 15 August 1761 by King Charles III of Spain and Louis XV in the Treaty of Paris. Charles III was the son of Philip V, making him Louis's first cousin. At this time France was fighting the Seven Years' War against Great Britain. Charles's alliance reversed the policy of his predecessor, Ferdinand VI, who wished to keep Spain out of the war. The agreement involved Spain's allies Naples and Tuscany. When Spain became involved, the Britishoccupied the Philippines and Cuba. Charles III recovered these possessions in the Treaty of Paris (1763), but ceded Florida to the British.
The War of the Polish Succession (1733–35) was a major European war sparked by a Polish civil war over the succession to Augustus II, which the other European powers widened in pursuit of their own national interests. France and Spain, the two Bourbon powers, attempted to check the power of the Austrian Habsburgs in western Europe, as did the Kingdom of Prussia, whilst Saxony and Russia mobilized to support the eventual Polish victor. The slight amount of fighting in Poland resulted in the accession of Augustus III, who in addition to Russia and Saxony, was politically supported by the Habsburgs. The war's major military campaigns occurred outside Poland. The Bourbons, supported by Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia, moved against isolated Habsburg territories. In the Rhineland, France successfully took the Duchy of Lorraine, and in Italy, Spain regained control over the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily (lost in the War of the Spanish Succession), while territorial gains in northern Italy were limited despite bloody campaigning. Great Britain's unwillingness to support Habsburg Austria demonstrated major cracks in the Anglo-Austrian Alliance and may have contributed to Austria's military failures. Although a preliminary peace was reached in 1735, the war was formally ended with the Treaty of Vienna (1738), in which Augustus III was confirmed as king of Poland and his opponent Stanisław I (who had received virtually no foreign military support) was awarded the Duchy of Lorraine. Francis Stephen, the duke of Lorraine, was given the Grand Duchy of Tuscany in compensation for the loss of Lorraine. The Duchy of Parmawent to Austria whereas Charles of Parma took the crowns of Naples and Sicily, resulting in territorial gains for the Bourbons. Poland also gave up claims to Livonia and direct control over the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, which, although remaining a Polish fief, was not integrated into Poland proper, and came under strong Russian influence.
year 1806
- conferation of the rhine set up
- holy roman empire ended
- france at war with prussia
- french victory at jena and auerstadt
- napoleon introduced the continental system
The Peninsular War (1807–1814) was amilitary conflict between Napoleon's empire and the allied powers of Spain,Britain and Portugal for control of theIberian Peninsula during the Napoleonic Wars. The war started when French and Spanish armies invaded and occupied Portugal in 1807, and escalated in 1808 when France turned on Spain, its ally until then. The war on the peninsula lasted until the Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon in 1814, and is regarded as one of the firstwars of national liberation, significant for the emergence of large-scale guerrilla warfare.
The Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805/11 Frimaire An XIV FRC), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, was one of the most important and decisive engagements of the Napoleonic Wars. In what is widely regarded as the greatest ever victory achieved by Napoleon, the Grande Armée of France defeated a larger Russian and Austrian army led by Tsar Alexander I and Holy Roman Emperor Francis II. The battle occurred near the town of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire (modern-day Slavkov u Brna in the Czech Republic). Austerlitz brought the War of the Third Coalition to a rapid end, with the Treaty of Pressburg signed by the Austrians later in the month. The battle is often cited as a tactical masterpiece, in the same league as other historic engagements like Cannae or Gaugamela.
- The Pont d'Austerlitz is a bridge which crosses the Seine River in Paris, France. It owes its name to the battle of Austerlitz (1805).Il tire son nom en souvenir de la victoire remportée à Austerlitz sur les Russes et les Autrichiens, le 2 décembre 1805.
The Holy Alliance (German: Heilige Allianz; Russian:Священный союз, Svyashchennyy soyuz; also called theGrand Alliance) was a coalition created by the monarchistgreat powers of Russia, Austria and Prussia. It was created after the ultimate defeat of Napoleon at the behest of Tsar Alexander I of Russia and signed in Parison 26 September 1815.[1] The intention of the alliance was to restrain republicanism and secularism in Europe in the wake of the devastating French Revolutionary Wars, and the alliance nominally succeeded in this up until the Crimean War (1853–1856). Otto von Bismarck managed to reunite the Holy Alliance after the unification of Germany, but the alliance again faltered by the 1880s over Austrian and Russian conflicts of interest with regard to the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire. By extension, the Alliance can be considered the most potent prevention against any other general wars on the continent of Europe between 1815 and 1914.
- according to A. pearce higgins, the alliance was subsequently adhered to by nearly all the monarchs of europe, except the british king
congress of vienna
- ?????? FT 2dec19 picture in letters to editor page captioned revelry held up 1815 congress of vienna
General Treaty of the Territorial Commission of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, signed at Frankfurt-on-Main, 20 July 1819
The Biedermeier period refers to an era in Central Europe between 1815 and 1848 during which the middle class grew and arts appealed to common sensibilities. It began with the time of the Congress of Vienna at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, and ended with the onset of theEuropean revolutions in 1848. Although the term itself is a historical reference, it is predominantly used to denote the artistic styles that flourished in the fields of literature, music, the visual arts and interior design.
The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, which was a part of the Ottoman Empire. The French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. It has widely been noted that the causes, in one case involving an argument over a key, have never revealed a "greater confusion of purpose", yet led to a war noted for its "notoriously incompetent international butchery."
- [manuscript hunter] the siege of sevastopol was the final and determining battle of the crimean war
The Balkan League was an alliance formed by a series of bilateral treaties concluded in 1912 between the Balkan states of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia andMontenegro, and directed against the Ottoman Empire, which at the time still controlled much of the Balkan peninsula. The Balkans had been in a state of turmoil since the early 1900s, with years of guerrilla warfare in Macedonia followed by the Young Turk Revolution and the protracted Bosnian Crisis. The outbreak of the Italo-Turkish War in 1911 had further weakened the Ottomans and emboldened the Balkan states. Under Russian influence, Serbia and Bulgariasettled their differences and signed an alliance, originally directed against Austria-Hungary on 13 March 1912, but by adding a secret chapter to it essentially redirected the alliance against the Ottoman Empire. Serbia then signed a mutual alliance with Montenegro, while Bulgaria did the same with Greece. The League was victorious in the First Balkan War which broke out in October 1912, where it successfully wrestled control of almost all European Ottoman territories. Following this victory however, the old differences between the allies re-emerged over the division of the spoils, particularlyMacedonia, leading to the effective break-up of the League, and soon after, on 16 June 1913, Bulgaria attacked her erstwhile allies, beginning the Second Balkan War.
The Warsaw Pact (formally, the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance, sometimes, informallyWarPac, aka in format to NATO)[1] was acollective defense treaty among the Soviet Union and seven other Soviet satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was created in reaction to the integration of West Germany intoNATO[2][3][4][5] in 1955 per the Paris Pactsof 1954,[6][7][8][9][10] but it is also considered to have been motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe.[11] While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power[12] or counterweight[13]to NATO, there was no direct confrontation between them. Instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs. The Warsaw Pact's largest military engagement wasWarsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia(with the participation of all Pact nations except Romania and Albania).[12] The Pact failed to function when the Revolutions of 1989 spread through Eastern Europe, beginning with the Solidarity movement inPoland and its success in June 1989. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defense and foreign ministers from the remaining member states meeting in Hungary. On 1 July 1991, the Czechoslovak President Václav Havel formally declared an end to the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance which had been established in 1955. The USSR itself wasdissolved in December 1991.
Royalty- The House of Habsburg (/ˈhæps.bɜːrɡ/;German pronunciation: [ˈhaːps.bʊʁk]), orHouse of Austria, was one of the most influential royal houses of Europe. The throne of the Holy Roman Empire was continuously occupied by the Habsburgs between 1438 and 1740. The house also produced emperors and kings of theKingdom of Bohemia, Kingdom of England(Jure uxoris King), Kingdom of France(Queen consort), Kingdom of Germany,Kingdom of Hungary, Empire of Russia,Kingdom of Croatia, Second Mexican Empire, Kingdom of Ireland (Jure uxorisKing), Kingdom of Portugal, and Habsburg Spain, as well as rulers of several Dutchand Italian principalities.[dubious ] From the sixteenth century, following the reign ofCharles V, the dynasty was split between its Austrian and Spanish branches. Although they ruled distinct territories, they nevertheless maintained close relations and frequently intermarried. The House takes its name from Habsburg Castle, a fortress built in the 1020s in present-day Switzerland by Count Radbotof Klettgau, who chose to name his fortress Habsburg. His grandson Otto IIwas the first to take the fortress name as his own, adding "Count of Habsburg" to his title. The House of Habsburg gathered dynastic momentum through the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries.
- Under Habsburg rule, a junta (or jointe) was an administrative body ruled in personal unionwith the Spanish Habsburgs. Juntas existed in Iberia and other European countries; in theLow Countries, the French name jointe was also officially used. Some territories maintained their juntas even after being brought under the imperial Austrian branch of the dynasty.
- The Mayerling Incident is the series of events leading to the apparent murder–suicide of Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria (21 August 1858 – 30 January 1889) and his lover Baroness Mary Vetsera (19 March 1871 – 30 January 1889). Rudolf was the only son of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Empress Elisabeth, and heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Rudolf's mistress was the daughter of Baron Albin Vetsera, a diplomat at the Austrian court. The bodies of the 30-year-old Archduke and the 17-year-old baroness were discovered in the Imperial hunting lodge at Mayerling in the Vienna Woods, fifteen miles southwest of the capital, on the morning of 30 January 1889. The death of the crown prince had momentous consequences for the course of history in the nineteenth century. It had a devastating effect on the already compromised marriage of the Imperial couple and interrupted the security inherent in the immediate line of Habsburg dynastic succession. As Rudolf had no son, the succession would pass to Franz Joseph's brother, Karl Ludwig and his issue, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. This destabilization endangered the growing reconciliation between the Austrian and the Hungarian factions of the empire, which became a catalyst of the developments that led to the assassination of the Archduke and his wife Sophie by Gavrilo Princip, a Yugoslav nationalist and ethnic Serb at Sarajevo in June 1914 and the subsequent drift into the First World War.
- Charles I (Karl Franz Joseph Ludwig Hubert Georg Otto Marie; 17 August 1887 – 1 April 1922) was the last ruler of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. He was the last Emperor of Austria, the last King of Hungary (as Charles IV),[1] and the last monarch belonging to the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. After his uncle Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in 1914 Charles became the designated successor of the Emperor Franz-Josef, Charles I reigned from 1916 until 1918 when he "renounced participation" in state affairs, but did not abdicate. He spent the remaining years of his life attempting to restore the monarchy until his death in 1922. Following his beatification by the Catholic Church in 2004, he has become commonly known as Blessed Charles of Austria.In 1907, he was declared of age and Prince Zdenko Lobkowitz was appointed his chamberlain. In the next few years he carried out his military duties in various Bohemian garrison towns. Charles's relations with his granduncle were not intimate, and those with his uncle Franz Ferdinand were not cordial, with the differences between their wives increasing the existing tension between them. For these reasons, Charles, up to the time of the assassination of his uncle in 1914, obtained no insight into affairs of state, but led the life of a prince not destined for a high political position.In 1911, Charles married Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma. They had met as children but did not see one another for almost ten years, as each pursued their education. In 1909, his Dragoon regiment was stationed at Brandýs nad Labem (Brandeis an der Elbe) in Bohemia, from where he visited his aunt at Franzensbad.[3]:5 It was during one of these visits that Charles and Zita became reacquainted.[3]:5 Due to Franz Ferdinand's morganatic marriage in 1900, his children were excluded from the succession. As a result, the Emperor severely pressured Charles to marry. Zita not only shared Charles' devout Catholicism, but also an impeccably royal lineage.
- france
- https://www.quora.com/Who-has-been-Frances-biggest-rival-historically-Britain-England-or-Germany-Holy-Roman-Empire
- The Przemyslids or Přemyslids (Czech: Přemyslovci, German: Premysliden, Polish: Przemyślidzi), were a Bohemian (Czech) royal dynasty which reigned in Bohemia and Moravia (9th century–1306), and parts ofHungary, Silesia, Austria and Poland. The dynasty's beginnings date back to the 9th century[1] when Przemyslids ruled a tiny territory aroundPrague, populated by the Czech tribe of the Western Slavs. Gradually they expanded, conquering the region of Bohemia, located in the Bohemian basin where it was not threatened by the expansion of the Frankish Empire. The first historically-documented Premyslid Duke was Bořivoj I (867). In the following century, Přemyslids also ruled over Silesia and founded the city of Wroclaw (German: Breslau), derived from the name of a Bohemian duke Vratislaus I, father of Saint Wenceslaus. Under the reign of Prince Boleslaus I the Cruel (935) and his son Boleslaus II the Pious (972), the Přemyslids ruled territory stretching to today's Belarus.
People
- Cnut the Great (Old Norse: Knútr inn ríki; c. 995– 12 November 1035), more commonly known as Canute, was a king ofDenmark, England, Norway and parts ofSweden, together often referred to as the Anglo-Scandinavian or North Sea Empire. After his death, the deaths of his heirs within a decade, and the Norman conquest of England in 1066, his legacy was largely lost to history. The medieval historianNorman Cantor has stated that he was "the most effective king in Anglo-Saxon history", although Cnut himself was Danish, not British or Anglo-Saxon.
- The Batavi were an ancient Germanic tribe that lived around the modern Dutch Rhine delta in the area that the Romans called Batavia, from the second half of the first century BC to the third century AD. The name is also applied to several military units employed by the Romans that were originally raised among the Batavi. The tribal name, probably a derivation from batawjō ("good island", from Germanic bat- "good, excellent," which is also in the English "better," and awjō "island, land near water"),[1]refers to the region's fertility, today known as the fruitbasket of the Netherlands (the Betuwe). Finds of wooden tablets show that at least some were literate.
- The Franks (Latin: Franci or gens Francorum) are historically first known as a group of Germanic tribes that inhabited the land between the Lower and Middle Rhine in the 3rd century AD, and second as the people of Gaul who merged with the Gallo-Roman populations during succeeding centuries, passing on their name to modern-day France and becoming part of the heritage of the modern French people. Some Franks raided Roman territory, while other Frankish tribes joined the Roman troops of Gaul. In later times, Franks became the military rulers of the northern part of Roman Gaul. With the coronation of their ruler Charlemagne as Imperator Romanorum by Pope Leo III in 800 AD, he and his successors were recognised as legitimate successors to the emperors of the Western Roman Empire.
- https://www.quora.com/What-s-the-difference-between-the-Gauls-and-the-Franks The Franks were a Germanic people who appeared in the historical spotlight in the first AD centuries, when Gaul was more or less Roman. They spoke a West Germanic language called Old Franconian and entered Roman territories by crossing the Rhine. Like other Germanic groups, the Franks would raid Roman territories but also get used by the empire as foederati. Upon the dissolution of the Roman imperial authority in the western provinces, small independent Frankish kingdoms appeared in Gaul. The Franks mixed with the Gallo-Romans there as well. The Merovingians united the Franklish lands, until they were sidelined by the Carolingians in the 8th c. Following the dissolution of Charlemagne’s empire in 843, the Kingdom of West Francia was formed, which eventually evolved into France. However, it’s noteworthy that the name “Frank” was used for all Westerners in the Byzantine sources.
- During the Mongol Empire in the 13-14th centuries, the Mongols used the term "Franks" to designate Europeans.[50] The term Frangistan ("Land of the Franks") was used by Muslims to refer to Christian Europe and was commonly used over several centuries in Iran and the Ottoman Empire. The Chinese called the Portuguese Folangji 佛郎機 ("Franks") in the 1520s at the Battle of Tunmen and Battle of Xicaowan. Some other varieties of Mandarin Chinese pronounced the characters as Fah-lan-ki.
- The Mediterranean Lingua Franca (or "Frankish language") was a pidgin first spoken by 11th century European Christians and Muslims in Mediterranean ports that remained in use until the 19th century.Examples of derived words include:
- Frangos (Φράγκος) in Greek
- Frenk in Turkish
- al-Faranj, Afranj and Firinjīyah in Arabic[51]
- Farang, Farangī in Persian, Faranji in Tajik.[52]
- Ferengi or Faranji in some Turkic languages
- Pfirangi in Sanskrit
- Feringhi or Firang in Hindi and Urdu (derived from Persian)
- Phirangee in some other Indian languages
- Parangiar in Tamil
- Parangi in Malayalam; in Sinhala, the word refers specifically to Portuguese people
- Barang in Khmer
- Feringgi in Malay
- Folangji[53] or Fah-lan-ki (佛郎機) and Fulang[54] in Chinese
- Farang (ฝรั่ง) in Thai.[55]
- Pirang ("blonde"), Perangai ("temperament/al") in Bahasa Indonesia
- As both the Anglo-Saxons of England and the early Frisians were formed from largely identical tribal confederacies, their respective languages were very similar. Old Frisian is the most closely related language to Old English and the modern Frisian dialects are in turn the closest related languages to contemporary English, together forming the linguistic category of Anglo-Frisian.
- language
- Cardinal Jules Raymond Mazarin, 1st Duke of Rethel, Mayenne and Nevers (French: [ʒyl mazaʁɛ̃]; 14 July 1602 – 9 March 1661), born Giulio Raimondo Mazzarini [ˈdʒuːljo raiˈmondo madːzaˈriːno] or Mazarini,[1] was an Italian cardinal, diplomat, and politician, who served as the Chief Minister to the kings of France Louis XIII and Louis XIV from 1642 until his death.Mazarin succeeded his mentor, Cardinal Richelieu. He was a noted collector of art and jewels, particularly diamonds, and he bequeathed the "Mazarin diamonds" to Louis XIV in 1661, some of which remain in the collection of the Louvre museum in Paris.[2] His personal library was the origin of the Bibliothèque Mazarine in Paris. Following the end of the Thirty Years' War, Mazarin, as the de facto ruler of France, played a crucial role in establishing the Westphalian principles that would guide European states' foreign policy and the prevailing world order. Some of these principles, such as the nation state's sovereignty over its territory and domestic affairs and the legal equality among states, remain the basis of international law to this day.
- https://www.quora.com/Is-Frisian-closer-to-Dutch-or-English
Silesia (/saɪliːʒə/ or /saɪliːʃə/; Polish: Śląsk[ɕlɔ̃sk]; German: Schlesien German pronunciation: [ʃleːziːɛn]; Silesian German:Schläsing; Czech: Slezsko; Silesian: Ślůnsk[ɕlonsk]; Latin: Silesia) is a region ofCentral Europe located mostly in Poland, with small parts in the Czech Republic andGermany. It has about 40,000 km2(15,444 sq mi) and almost 8,000,000 inhabitants. Silesia is located along theOder river. It consists of Lower Silesia andUpper Silesia. The region is rich in mineral and natural resources and includes several important industrial areas. Silesia's largest city isWrocław. The biggest metropolitan area is the Upper Silesian metropolitan area, the centre of which is Katowice. Parts of theCzech city of Ostrava fall within the borders of Silesia. Silesia's borders and national affiliation have changed over time, both when it was a hereditary possession of noble housesand after the rise of modern nation-states. The first known states to hold power there were probably those of Greater Moravia at the end of the 9th century and Bohemia early in the 10th century. In the 10th century Silesia was incorporated into the early Polish state, and after its division in the 12th century became a Piast duchy. In the 14th century it became a constituent part of the Bohemian Crown Landsunder the Holy Roman Empire, which passed to the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy in 1526.
- economist 31aug19 article on pfandbrief brought up this name
ancestry
- ????? http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7700356.stm
- ????? DNA taken from an ancient Phoenicians could has shed new light on one of the great early civilisations of the Middle East. Researchers have sequenced the first complete genome of a 2,500-year-old body discovered in Carthage,Tunisia and found the man had European heritage. The man's maternal lineage is believed to have come from the north Mediterranean coast, which would be the first known evidence of a rare European genetic population in North Africa. Scientists say the discovery could throw new light on the history of human movement.
Read more: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3611457/Ancient-DNA-study-finds-Phoenician-Carthage-European-ancestry.html
currency
- The mark was a currency or unit of account in many nations. It is named for the mark unit of weight. The word mark comes from a merging of three Teutonic/Germanic words, Latinisedin 9th-century post-classical Latin as marca, marcha, marha or marcus.[1] It was a measure of weight mainly for gold and silver, commonly used throughout Western Europe and often equivalent to eight ounces. Considerable variations, however, occurred throughout the Middle Ages.
- uk
- In England the "mark" never appeared as a coin but was only a unit of account. It was apparently introduced in the 10th century by the Danes
- [1776 chron] sir richard aston passed sentence requiring payment of fine in marks
Arts, culture
- Mannerism is a style in European art that emerged in the later years of the Italian High Renaissance around 1520, lasting until about 1580 in Italy, when the Baroque style began to replace it. Northern Mannerism continued into the early 17th century. Stylistically, Mannerism encompasses a variety of approaches influenced by, and reacting to, the harmonious ideals associated with artists such asLeonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and early Michelangelo. Where High Renaissance art emphasizes proportion, balance, and ideal beauty, Mannerism exaggerates such qualities, often resulting in compositions that are asymmetrical or unnaturally elegant.[2] Mannerism is notable for its intellectual sophistication as well as its artificial (as opposed to naturalistic) qualities. Mannerism favors compositional tension and instability rather than the balance and clarity of earlier Renaissance painting. Mannerism in literature and music is notable for its highly florid style and intellectual sophistication.[4] The definition of Mannerism and the phases within it continue to be a subject of debate among art historians. For example, some scholars have applied the label to certain early modern forms of literature (especially poetry) and music of the 16th and 17th centuries. The term is also used to refer to some late Gothic painters working in northern Europe from about 1500 to 1530, especially the Antwerp Mannerists—a group unrelated to the Italian movement. Mannerism also has been applied by analogy to the Silver Age of Latin literature.
- A salon is a gathering of people under the roof of an inspiring host, held partly to amuse one another and partly to refine the taste and increase the knowledge of the participants through conversation. These gatherings often consciously followed Horace's definition of the aims of poetry, "either to please or to educate" ("aut delectare aut prodesse"). Salons, commonly associated with French literary and philosophical movements of the 17th and 18th centuries, were carried on until as recently as the 1940s in urban settings. The salon was an Italian invention of the 16th century which flourished in France throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. The salon continued to flourish in Italy throughout the 19th century. In 16th-century Italy, some brilliant circles formed in the smaller courts which resembled salons, often galvanized by the presence of a beautiful and educated patroness such as Isabella d'Este or Elisabetta Gonzaga. One important place for the exchange of ideas was the salon. The word salon first appeared in France in 1664 (from the Italian word salone, itself from sala, the large reception hall of Italian mansions). Literary gatherings before this were often referred to by using the name of the room in which they occurred, like cabinet, réduit, ruelle and alcôve.[1] Before the end of the 17th century, these gatherings were frequently held in the bedroom (treated as a more private form of drawing room): a lady, reclining on her bed, would receive close friends who would sit on chairs or stools drawn around. This practice may be contrasted with the greater formalities of Louis XIV's petit lever, where all stood. Ruelle, literally meaning "narrow street" or "lane", designates the space between a bed and the wall in a bedroom; it was used commonly to designate the gatherings of the "précieuses", the intellectual and literary circles that formed around women in the first half of the 17th century. The first renowned salon in France was the Hôtel de Rambouillet not far from the Palais du Louvre in Paris, which its hostess, Roman-born Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet (1588–1665), ran from 1607 until her death. She established the rules of etiquette of the salon which resembled the earlier codes of Italian chivalry.
- The cotillion (also cotillon or "French country dance") is a social dance, popular in 18th-century Europe and America. Originally for four couples in square formation, it was a courtly version of an English country dance, the forerunner of the quadrille and, in the United States, the square dance. It was for some fifty years regarded as an ideal finale to a ball but was eclipsed in the early 19th century by the quadrille. It became so elaborate that it was sometimes presented as a concert dance performed by trained and rehearsed dancers. The later "German" cotillion included more couples as well as plays and games. The cotillion was introduced into England by 1766 and to America in about 1772. In England from that time onwards there are a large number of references stressing its universal popularity in the best and highest circles of society, and many teaching manuals were published to help recall the vast number of changes that were invented. There is a reference in Robert Burns's 1790 poem Tam o' Shanter to the "cotillion brent-new frae France" (brand new from France).
- A pastel (UK: /ˈpæstəl/; US: /pæˈstɛl/) is an art medium in the form of a stick, consisting of pure powdered pigment and a binder. The pigments used in pastels are the same as those used to produce all colored art media, including oil paints; the binder is of a neutral hue and low saturation. The color effect of pastels is closer to the natural dry pigments than that of any other process. Pastels have been used by artists since the Renaissance, and gained considerable popularity in the 18th century, when a number of notable artists made pastel their primary medium.
- music
- Guillaume Du Fay (French: [dy fa(j)i]; also Dufay, Du Fayt; 5 August, c. 1397[1] – 27 November 1474) was a Franco-Flemishcomposer of the early Renaissance. A central figure in the Burgundian School.
- Antoine Busnois (also Busnoys) (c. 1430 – 6 November 1492) was a Netherlandishcomposer and poet of the early RenaissanceBurgundian School. While also noted as a composer of motets and other sacred music, he was one of the most renowned 15th-century composers of secular chansons.
- Nicolas Gombert (c. 1495 – c. 1560)[1] was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance.
- Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c. 1525 – 2 February 1594) was an Italian Renaissancecomposer of sacred music and the best-known 16th-century representative of the Roman School of musical composition.
three lines of thought
- in imperial germany and hapsburg empire - subdiscipline of eastern european history was institutionalised due to rivalru with tsarist russia. In the interwar period, competing concepts of slavdom and eastern europe. In cold war west germany, adjacent mesoregions such as east central europe, southeastern europe, baltic sea region/northeastern europe, as well as a narrower eastern europe (meaning east slavic speaking lands of russia, ukraine and belarus under soviet rule) were defined
- Braudel's La Mediterranee - two other maritime worlds or seascapes - the baltic sea and black sea, also isthmuses of europe
- halecki's limits and divisions of european history in 1950 - basically identified two regions prior to year AD1000 - christian south and pagan north. For medieval period, he outlined three mesoregions: western, central and eastern europe, with central subdivided into west-central and east-central halves.
etymology
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-place-names-in-Europe-that-derive-from-pre-Proto-Indo-European-languages
reference
- Sir James Cochran Stevenson Runciman, CH, FBA (7 July 1903 - 1 November 2000), known as Steven Runciman, was an English historian best known for his three-volume A History of the Crusades (1951–54).His three-volume history has had a profound impact on common conceptions of the Crusades, primarily portraying the Crusaders negatively and the Muslims favorably. Runciman was a strong admirer of the Byzantine Empire, and consequently held a bias against the Crusaders for the Fourth Crusade evident in his work. While praised by older crusade historians as a storyteller and prose stylist, he is viewed as biased by some contemporary historians.
- post 1945 Oxford History of historical writing comprises detailed chapters on african and arab historgraphies
- Handbook of european economic and social history
- theodor schieder (1968-87) seminal 7-volume handbook of european history
- propylaen history of europe by conservative german historians such as hellmut diwald, ernst walter zeeden and schieder.
- (german language) 10 volume Handbook of history of europe edited by pter blickle or ten volume CH Beck history of europe
- Handbook of european history 1400-1600 or new cambridge history of europe
- cambridge history of europe 1963-89
- cambridge economic history of modern europe
- handbook of history of international relations by duchhardt and knipping 1997-2016
- five volumen russian language history of europe from ancient times to our days
- french language histoire de l'europe
statistics
- https://www.quora.com/If-France-remained-the-dominant-land-power-on-the-European-continent-for-centuries-why-did-it-lag-behind-when-it-came-to-its-economy-Shouldnt-it-be-more-developed-than-Germanys-which-only-unified-150-years-ago
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