central america

association/institution

-The Central American Bank for Economic Integration - CABEI (BCIE in spanish) was founded in 1960. Is an international multilateral development financial institution. Its resources are invested in projects that foster development to reduce poverty and inequality; strengthen regional integration and the competitive insertion of its member countries in the global economy; providing special attention to environmental sustainability. Its headquarters are in Tegucigalpa(Honduras) and has regional offices in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama.

• Non-regional countries: Mexico, Taiwan, Argentina, Colombia and Spain. They have deemed important to join CABEI with the aim of having a permanent regional presence, thus enlarging their international projection through supporting founding countries' development. They also have named representatives before CABEI's Board of Directors and Governors' Assembly.
• Vice Minister of Economy and Finance Lee Ho-seung, on behalf of the government of the Republic of Korea, signed a protocol of accession to the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI) at the Government Complex Sejong on December 28.http://www.mofa.go.kr/eng/brd/m_5676/view.do

Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in the Americas, extending from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, and within which pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries. It is one of six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose independently, and the second in the Americas along with Norte Chico (Caral-Supe) in present-day northern coastal Peru. As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures. Beginning as early as 7000 BC, the domestication of cacao, maize, beans, tomato, avocado, vanilla, squash and chili, as well as the turkey and dog, caused a transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherer tribal grouping to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent Formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex mythological and religious tradition, a vigesimal numeric system, and a complex calendric system, a tradition of ball playing, and a distinct architectural style, were diffused through the area. Also in this period, villages began to become socially stratified and develop into chiefdoms with the development of large ceremonial centers, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods, such as obsidian, jade, cacao, cinnabar, Spondylus shells, hematite, and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization did know of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these technologies became culturally important. Among the earliest complex civilizations was the Olmec culture, which inhabited the Gulf coast of Mexico and extended inland and southwards across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in Chiapas, Guatemala and Oaxaca laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica, especially along the Pacific coast.This formative period saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes. In the subsequent Preclassic period, complex urban polities began to develop among the Maya, with the rise of centers such as El Mirador, Calakmul and Tikal, and the Zapotec at Monte Albán. During this period, the first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and the Zapotec cultures, and the Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya hieroglyphic script. Mesoamerica is one of only three regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed (the others being ancient Sumer and China).^[4] In Central Mexico, the height of the Classic period saw the ascendancy of the city of Teotihuacan, which formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area and northward. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around AD 600, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as Xochicalco and Cholula, ensued. At this time during the Epi-Classic period, the Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages. During the early post-Classic period, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec, and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán. Towards the end of the post-Classic period, the Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mesoamerica.

- The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca in Mesoamerica. Archaeological evidence shows that their culture goes back at least 2,500 years. The Zapotec left archaeological evidence at the ancient city of Monte Albán in the form of buildings, ball courts, magnificent tombs and grave goods including finely worked gold jewelry. Monte Albán was one of the first major cities in Mesoamerica and the center of a Zapotec state that dominated much of the territory that today belongs to the Mexican state of Oaxaca.The name Zapotec is an exonym coming from Nahuatl tzapotēcah (singular tzapotēcatl), which means "inhabitants of the place of sapote". The Zapotec referred to themselves by some variant of the term Be'ena'a^{[pronunciation?]}, which means "The People".

• Cosijopii II also Cosiiopii II (1502–1563) was the last sovereign of the kingdom of Zaachila, that was named by the aztecs as Teozapotlan. Such kingdom was located in the west side of the current Mexican state of Oaxaca and during the last period reached the pacific coast of the current Chiapas and Guatemala, the Zaachila kingdom fell down after the spanish colonization. Cosiiopii II Succeeding his father Cosijoeza to the throne in 1529, Cosijopii moved his capital from Zaachila city to Guiengola at some point in the mid-sixteenth century.^[2] The Zapotec areas of Oaxaca were under his command when the conquistadorPedro de Alvarado arrived in Tehuantepec. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, Cosijopii II subsequently "embraced the Catholic Faith,"^[3] apparently turning control over his kingdom to the Spanish. He later built the Convent of Santo Domingo in Tehuantepec.

- In Mesoamerican folk religion, a nagual or nahual (both pronounced [na'wal]) is a human being who has the power to transform either spiritually or physically into an animal form: most commonly jaguar, puma and wolf, but also other animals such as donkeys, birds, dogs or coyotes. Such a nagual is believed to use their powers for good or evil according to their personality. Specific beliefs vary, but the general concept of nagualism is pan-Mesoamerican. Nagualism is linked with pre-Columbian shamanistic practices through Preclassic Olmec depictions which are interpreted as human beings transforming themselves into animals. The system is linked with the Mesoamerican calendrical system, used for divination rituals. The birth date often determines if a person will be a nagual. Mesoamerican belief in tonalism, wherein every person has an animal counterpart to which his life force is linked, is also part of the definition of nagualism. In English the word is often translated as "transforming witch", but translations without the negative connotations of the word witch would be "transforming trickster" or "shape shifter".

• manuscript hunter

• stories about nagual dwell in mount rayudeja and guiengola

• followers gather in secret councils to celebrate their forbidden cult's rites and clandestinely conspire against their conquerors.  The caves in state of oaxaca (despite great vigilance of dominicans) were the final refuge for relgion preached by quetzalcoatl.  It was in this context taht the formidable secret society known as nagualism operated for almost 2 centuries throughout all of mexico and central america. Nagualism harkens back to practices under ancient toltec law such as drawing up horoscopes for newborns and giving them a name that is in phase with their calendar.  As an offering to chalchiuhtlicue (goddess of water, or juno, sister of rain gods known as tlaloques. She was said to control the sea and rivers and had the power to create stormy or turbulent waters), blood was drawn from a child's ear or from under his or her tongue as a purification ceremony comparable to a baptism.  The reestablished their hierarchy or modeled their organisation on the catholic church.  Its stonghold in guatemala was in samayac (a large town in the province of suchitepequez.  The pontiff there had a large number of ministers of lower rank under his jurisdiction.  The last high priest, who was imprisoned in 1703 by the franciscan, father antonio margil de jesus, died at the monastery of cristo-crucificado in antigua, guatemala.The high priestess of the underground temple in huehuetan, which was founded by votan, in the province of soconusco, chiapas, the birthplace of american civilisation, was prohibited from practising her functions in 1697. In tehuantepec, where cocijopij had been the priest of mitla, his illegitimate son coquitela held the position for more than 50 years after his father's death. Before the end of 16th c, the zapotec indians twice rose up in the hopes of regaining their independence. In the insurrection of 1550, surprisingly enough, their leader took the name quetzalcoatl. in 1713, the tzendal rebellion, which went on for an entire year in chiapas, brought spanish rule to the brink. Governor general of guatemala came to ciudad real in person to find a way to stifle this rebellion. (an annual mass is celebrated in the cathedral of this city to give thanks to god for having saved the colony from such a threat). There was a widespread insurrection in 1763.  Merida, the state's capital, was the site of a lengthy siege. The cities of valladolid and bacalar were both taken over and horribly pillaged in recent times. As a result, two-thirds of the peninsula was in the hands of triumphant maya people. 

The Federal Republic of Central America (Spanish: República Federal de Centroamérica), also called the United Provinces of Central America (Spanish: Provincias Unidas del Centro de América) in its first year of creation, was a sovereign state in Central America consisting of the territories of the former Captaincy General of Guatemala of New Spain. It existed from September 1823 to 1841, and was a republican democracy. It is also sometimes incorrectly referred to in English as the United States of Central America. The republic consisted of the present-day Central American countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (Panama was part of Bolivar's República de Colombia in 1821). In the 1830s, a sixth state was added – Los Altos, with its capital in Quetzaltenango – occupying parts of what are now the western highlands of Guatemala and Chiapas state in southern Mexico. Shortly after Central America declared independence from the Spanish Empire, some of its countries were annexed by the First Mexican Empire in 1822 and then Central America formed the Federal Republic in 1823. From 1838 to 1840, the federation descended into civil war, with conservatives fighting against liberals and separatists fighting to secede. These factions were unable to overcome their ideological differences and the federation dissolved after a series of bloody conflicts.

- Francisco Morazán (Spanish pronunciation: [fɾanˈsisko moɾaˈsan]; born October 3, 1792 – September 15, 1842) was a Central American politician who was president of the Federal Republic of Central America from 1830 to 1839. Before he was president of Central America he was the head of state of Honduras.^[1] He rose to prominence at the battle of La Trinidad (es) on November 11, 1827. Morazán then dominated the political and military scene of Central America until his execution in 1842. In the political arena, Francisco Morazán was recognized as a visionary and great thinker, as he attempted to transform Central America into one large and progressive nation. He enacted liberal reforms in the new Federal Republic of Central America, including freedom of the press, freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Morazán also limited church power by making marriage secular and abolishing government-aided tithing. These reforms made him some powerful enemies, and his period of rule was marked by bitter infighting between liberals and conservatives.^[1] But through his military skills, Morazán was able to keep a firm grip on power until 1837, when the Federal Republic became irrevocably fractured. This was exploited by the conservative leaders, who rallied around the leadership of Rafael Carrera and n order to protect their own interests, ended up dividing Central America into five nations.

• José Francisco Morazán Quezada was born on October 3, 1792, in Tegucigalpa (then in the Captaincy General of Guatemala, now the capital of Honduras) during the waning years of Spanish colonial rule to Eusebio Morazán Alemán and Guadalupe Quezada Borjas, both members of an upper-class Creole family dedicated to trade and agriculture. His grandparents were Juan Bautista Morazán (a Corsican immigrant) and María Borjas Alvarenga. Thirteen days after his birth Morazán was baptized at San Miguel Arcángel church, by father Juan Francisco Márquez.
• [manuscript hunter] morazan administration (extolled by english and yankees, ransacked monasteries, expelled their residents, looted churches, disposed of majority of government buildings and took all profits for itself, stripped the government palace of the clock that once adorned its facade

The Ladino people are a mix of mestizo or hispanicized peoples in Latin America, principally in Central America. The demonym Ladino is a Spanish word that derives from Latino. Ladino is an exonym invented^{[by whom?]} of the colonial era to refer to those Spanish-speakers who were not colonial elites of Peninsulares, Criollos, or indigenous peoples. In popular use, the term ladino commonly refers to non-indigenous Guatemalans, as well as mestizos and westernized amerindians. The word was popularly thought to be derived from a mix of Latino and ladrón, the Spanish word for "thief", but is not necessarily or popularly considered a pejorative.^[6] The word is actually derived from the old Spanish ladino (inherited from the same Latin root that the word latino was later borrowed from), originally referring to those who spoke Romance languages in medieval times, and later also developing the separate meaning of "crafty" or "astute". In the Central American colonial context, it was first used refer to those Amerindians who came to speak only Spanish, and later included their mestizo descendants. Ladino is sometimes used to refer to the mestizo middle class, or to the population of indigenous peoples who have attained some level of upward social mobility above the largely impoverished indigenous masses. This relates especially to achieving some material wealth and adopting a North American lifestyle. In many areas of Guatemala, it is used in a wider sense, meaning "any Guatemalan whose primary language is Spanish". Indigenist rhetoric sometimes uses ladino in the second sense, as a derogatory term for indigenous peoples who are seen as having betrayed their homes by becoming part of the middle class. Some may deny indigenous heritage to assimilate. 

- however - [manuscript hunter] - ladino is the name given to the mixed raced people born of whites and indians or blacks, which implies a superior education or intellect in comparison to both indians and blacks. 

culture

- [manuscript hunter] during the period of unending civil wars, shoes are distinctive and unmistakable sign of social class.  Those with shoes are ipso facto given the rank of officer (education not matter).

costume

- Huipil [ˈwipil] (from the Nahuatl word huīpīlli [wiːˈpiːlːi]) is the most common traditional garment worn by indigenous women from central Mexico to Central America. It is a loose-fitting tunic, generally made from two or three rectangular pieces of fabric which are then joined together with stitching, ribbons or fabric strips, with an opening for the head and, if the sides are sewn, openings for the arms. Traditional huipils, especially ceremonial ones, are usually made with fabric woven on a backstrap loom and are heavily decorated with designs woven into the fabric, embroidery, ribbons, lace and more. However, some huipils are also made from commercial fabric. Lengths of the huipil can vary from a short blouse-like garment or long enough to reach the floor. The style of traditional huipils generally indicates the ethnicity and community of the wearer as each have their own methods of creating the fabric and decorations. Some huipils have intricate and meaningful designs. Ceremonial huipils are the most elaborate and are reserved for weddings, burials, women of high rank and even to dress the statues of saints.

language

- brasseur speculated that the region's indigenous languages may have scandinavian origins; he had seen evidence that names of native animals - mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and insets - of trees, plants, minerals, remedies, and potions, all derive from the mexican language; books were vuh which is pronounced like buch in german

usa

- The United States said on Friday it had recalled its top diplomats in the Dominican Republic, El Salvador and Panama over those countries’ decisions to no longer recognize Taiwan. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-china-taiwan/us-recalls-diplomats-in-el-salvador-panama-dominican-republic-over-taiwan-idUSKCN1LO00N

- alliance for prosperity

• 中美洲多國與台灣斷交後，美國繼召回中美洲三國使節，又取消原定本周在華府舉行的「共榮聯盟」（Alliance for Prosperity）成員國會議。美方以時間安排衝突為由取消會議，成員國薩爾瓦多斥華府擅作主張，對此表示遺憾。「共榮聯盟」於二○一四年成立，美國支援薩爾瓦多、危地馬拉、洪都拉斯三國發展經濟及增強保安，希望藉此制止三國移民湧入美國。惟特朗普政府嚴厲的拘押移民政策，再加上召回駐薩爾瓦多、多明尼加共和國和巴拿馬的外交官，令華府與中美洲多國關係轉差。對於美國的態度轉變，巴拿馬總統瓦雷拉周一發表聲明，表示：「我們尊重其他國家的獨立決策，也永遠要求其他國家尊重我們的決策。」瓦雷拉指巴拿馬身為主權獨立的國家，會根據國家利益做出決定。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20180911/00178_004.html

- https://edition.cnn.com/2019/03/30/politics/state-department-aid-el-slavador-guatemala-honduras/index.html The United States is cutting off aid to the Northern Triangle, otherwise known as the Central American countries of El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras, the State Department told CNN Saturday, one day after President Donald Trump said they had "set up" migrant caravans for entry into the United States."We were paying them tremendous amounts of money. And we're not paying them anymore. Because they haven't done a thing for us. They set up these caravans," Trump said Friday.

uk

- https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-and-central-america-sign-continuity-agreement The UK and Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua and Panama have signed the UK-Central America Association Agreement. Ambassador Ross Denny signed the agreement in Managua, Nicaragua together with Trade and Economic Ministers from each of the six Central American countries. The Agreement will ensure British businesses and consumers benefit from continued trade with Central America after we leave the European Union. It provides tariff-free trade of industrial products together with liberalisation of trade in agricultural food production and fisheries products. Consumers in the UK will continue to benefit from lower prices on goods imported from Central American countries party to this agreement, such as prawns from Honduras and Costa Rican fruit. Consumers in Central America will continue to benefit from lower tariffs on products such as drinks and cars produced in the UK. Trading on these preferential terms rather than on World Trade Organization terms will deliver significant savings and help to support British jobs. It will also help further strengthen the trading relationship between the UK and Central America, which was worth £1 billion in British exports and imports in 2018. The Agreement provides a framework for cooperation and development through political dialogue, increased economic ties and our work on important issues like the environment and human rights, reaffirming Britain’s commitment to a close relationship with Central America.

france

- people

• Claude-Joseph Désiré Charnay (2 May 1828 – 24 October 1915) was a French traveller and archaeologist notable both for his explorations of Mexico and Central America, and for the pioneering use of photography to document his discoveries.The more important of his publications are Le Mexique, souvenirs et impressions de voyage (1863), being his personal report on the expedition of 1857-1861, of which the official report is to be found in Viollet-le-Duc's Cités et ruines américaines: Mitla, Palenqué, Izamal, Chichén-Itzá, Uxmal (1863), vol. 19 of Recueil des voyages et des documents; Les Anciennes villes du Nouveau Monde (1885; English translation, The Ancient Cities of the New World, 1887, by Mmes. Gonino and Conant); a romance, Une Princesse indienne avant la conquête (1888); À travers les forêts vierges (1890); and Manuscrit Ramirez: Histoire de l'origine des Indiens qui habitent la Nouvelle Espagne selon leurs traditions (1903).  He translated Hernán Cortés's letters into French, with the title Lettres de Fernand Cortès à Charles Quint sur la découverte et la conquête du Mexique (1896). He elaborated a theory of Toltec migrations and considered the prehistoric Mexican to be of Asiatic origin, because of supposed observed similarities to Japanese architecture, Chinese decoration, Malaysian language and Cambodian dress, and so on.

taiwan
- 中美洲國家薩爾瓦多去年與台灣斷交後，雙方已取消免簽證待遇。薩爾瓦多近日對三個與台灣有邦交的美洲國家的在台人士，取消免簽證待遇。台灣的外交部回應稱，對薩國政府不友好舉動表示遺憾。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190401/00178_007.html