- The "Dark Ages" is a historical periodization traditionally referring to the Middle Ages, that asserts that a demographic, cultural, and economic deterioration occurred in Western Europe following the decline of the Roman Empire. The term employs traditional light-versus-darkness imagery to contrast the era's "darkness" (lack of records) with earlier and later periods of "light" (abundance of records).The concept of a "Dark Age" originated in the 1330s with the Italian scholar Petrarch, who regarded the post-Roman centuries as "dark" compared to the light of classical antiquity. The phrase "Dark Age" itself derives from the Latin saeculum obscurum, originally applied by Caesar Baronius in 1602 to a tumultuous period in the 10th and 11th centuries. The concept thus came to characterize the entire Middle Ages as a time of intellectual darkness between the fall of Rome and the Renaissance; this became especially popular during the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment. As the accomplishments of the era came to be better understood in the 18th and 20th centuries, scholars began restricting the "Dark Ages" appellation to the Early Middle Ages(c. 5th–10th century). The majority of modern scholars avoid the term altogether due to its negative connotations, finding it misleading and inaccurate. The original definition remains in popular use, and popular culture often employs it as a vehicle to depict the Middle Ages as a time of backwardness, extending its pejorative use and expanding its scope.
- https://www.quora.com/Were-Middle-Ages-really-so-dark-and-backwards-compare-to-eg-Roman-Empire
- Generally, the Dark Ages meant improvement for the life of an ordinary person compared to Late Antiquity. Taxation decreased overall into a fraction what they were. Local production recovered. Nutrition improved, as imported carbohydrates were superseded by locally grown legumes and protein of fish and small game. Society became much simpler. Surprisingly little was actually lost during the Dark Ages. The only institution irrevocably lost was slavery. It meant there was no more expendable, unpaid, and easily coerced labour for massive construction projects. Only two innovations were lost: papyrus and concrete. But much was invented during those centuries: things like wheeled plough, efficient horsecollar, overshot waterwheel, windmill, Catalan forge, spurs, stirrups, cantled saddle, rotation of crops and Lateen sail. The disappearance of slavery also meant that agriculture became much more efficient, as the peasants now had a much stronger motivation to work for themselves than the plantation owner’s scourge. Rise of Feudalism now meant everyone was considered a human being (in the Roman law, slaves were not persons but chattel) and everyone had his law-defined place in the society and his judicial rights and responsibilities. https://www.quora.com/How-far-did-the-Dark-Ages-set-us-back
- https://www.quora.com/What-ended-the-Dark-Ages The four great Carolingian regents - Charles Martel, Pepin the Short, Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Louis the Pious - managed to unify the Frankish domain, pacify their lands, end the internal wars and stabilize the society. Usually AD 800 is considered as the end of the Dark Ages.It meant also the rise of education, codification of laws, re-emergence of towns and resurrenge of commerce and monetary economy.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-is-the-Ottoman-Empires-conquest-of-Constantinople-in-1453-regarded-as-the-end-of-the-Middle-Ages The last 200 years of the Byzantine Empire may have been weak militarily and economically but in terms of art and learning they were actually virtually an apogee. So the idea goes that after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 Greek artists and scholars fled west to Italy. The scholars brought knowledge of the Ancient Greek language which had largely been lost in West, and the Ancient Greek classics, particularly Plato and Aristotle, which again had either been lost or were read in translation. They also brought Ancient Greek mathematics like Euclid and Pythagoras and were more in touch with the latest arab science too. And the artists brought their own skills, their own proto-renaissance ideas and ways of doing things, like we saw in the shadows of the Hagia Sophia Deesis. And so the idea is, right or wrong, that this injection of Greco-Byzantine intellectuals and artists after the fall of Constantinople played a key role in launching the renaissance, And that’s why 1453 is considered the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance.the plague began to die down after around 1400 and populations began to rebound in a disrupted society. And from 1450 there was a climate ‘upturn’ that was extremely beneficial to the northern mediterranean. This led to a massive increase in population and it fed the glory days of the Ottoman Empire, Renaissance Italy and Imperial Spain and Portugal in the 1500s. The 1450s actually mark a pretty good turning point in that process, where populations have recovered to their pre-plague level and actually begin to boom beyond them. More people and a good climate means more land is being brought under cultivation, and so there’s more taxes and more food production surplus. There is more money for the elites to compete by financing building, art and learning. So that helps make 1453 ‘work’ as transition date.
The ecumene (US) or oecumene (UK; Greek: οἰκουμένη, oikouménē, lit. "inhabited") was an ancient Greek term for the known world, the inhabited world, or the habitable world. Under the Roman Empire, it came to refer to civilization and the secular and religious imperial administration. In present usage, it is used as the noun form of "ecumenical" and describes the Christian Church as a unified whole or the unified modern world civilization. It is also used in cartography to describe a type of world map (mappa mundi) used in late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.The Greek term cited above is the feminine present middle participle of the verb οἰκέω (oikéō, "to inhabit") and is a clipped form of οἰκουμένη γῆ (oikouménē gē, "inhabited world").
Occitania
- Occitania (Occitan: Occitània, IPA: [uksiˈtanjɔ],[ukʃiˈtanjɔ], [usiˈtanjɔ], [uksiˈtanja] or [utsiˈtanjɔ], also sometimes lo País d'Òc, "the Oc Country") is the historical region in southern Europe where Occitan was historically the main language spoken, and where it is sometimes still used, for the most part as a second language. This cultural area roughly encompasses the southern half of France, as well as Monaco and smaller parts of Italy(Occitan Valleys, Guardia Piemontese) andSpain (Aran Valley). Occitania has been recognized as a linguistic and cultural concept since the Middle Ages, but has never been a legal nor a political entity under this name, although the territory was united in Roman times as the Seven Provinces (Latin: Septem Provinciæ) and in the early Middle Ages (Aquitanica or the Visigothic Kingdom of Toulouse) before the French conquest started in the early 13th century.Under later Roman rule (after 355), most of Occitania was known as Aquitania, itself part of the Seven Provinces within a wider Provincia Romana (modern Provence), while the northern provinces of what is now France were called Gallia (Gaul). Currently about a half million people out of 16 million in the area have a proficient knowledge of Occitan, although the languages more usually spoken in the area are French, Italian,Catalan and Spanish. Since 2006, the Occitan language has been an official language ofCatalonia, which includes the Aran Valleywhere Occitan gained official status in 1990.
- literature
- William IX (Occitan: Guilhèm de Peitieus; Guilhem de Poitou French: Guillaume de Poitiers,) (22 October 1071 – 10 February 1127), called the Troubador, was the Duke of Aquitaine and Gascony and Count of Poitou (as William VII) between 1086 and his death. He was also one of the leaders of the Crusade of 1101. Though his political and military achievements have a certain historical importance, he is best known as the earliest troubadour[1] — a vernacularlyric poet in the Occitan language — whose work survived.
- A troubadour (English /ˈtruːbədʊər/, French: [tʁubaduʁ];Occitan: trobador, IPA: [tɾuβaˈðu]) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word troubadour is etymologically masculine, a female troubadour is usually called a trobairitz. The troubadour school or tradition began in the late 11th century in Occitania, but it subsequently spread into Italyand Spain. Under the influence of the troubadours, related movements sprang up throughout Europe: the Minnesangin Germany, trovadorismo in Galicia and Portugal, and that of the trouvères in northernFrance. Dante Alighieri in his De vulgari eloquentia defined the troubadour lyric as fictio rethorica musicaque poita: rhetorical, musical, and poetical fiction. After the "classical" period around the turn of the 13th century and a mid-century resurgence, the art of the troubadours declined in the 14th century and eventually died out around the time of the Black Death(1348).
- Bernart de ventadorn was one of the most renowned and influential troubadours. One of the most widely known songs is can vei la lauzeta mover.
- Bertran de Born (Occitan: [beɾˈtɾan de ˈbɔɾn]; 1140s – by 1215) was a baron from the Limousin in France, and one of the major Occitantroubadours of the twelfth century.His first datable work is a sirventes (political or satirical song) of 1181, but it is clear from this he already had a reputation as a poet. In 1182, he was present at his overlord Henry II of England's court at Argentan. That same year, he had joined in Henry the Young King's revolt against his younger brother, Richard, Count of Poitou and Duke of Aquitaine. He wrote songs encouraging Aimar V of Limoges and others to rebel, and took the oath against Richard at Limoges. His brother Constantine took the opposing side, and Bertran drove him out of the castle in July. Henry the Young King, whom Bertran had praised and criticised in his poems, died on campaign in June 1183 in Martel. Bertran wrote a planh(lament), in his memory, Mon chan fenisc ab dol et ab maltraire. (Another planh for Henry, Si tuit li dol e.l plor e.l marrimen, formerly attributed to Bertran, is now thought to be the work of Rigaut de Berbezill). In his punitive campaign against the rebels, Richard, aided by Alfonso II of Aragon, besieged Autafort and gave it to Constantine de Born. Henry II, however, is reported to have been moved by Bertran's lament for his son, and returned the castle to the poet. Constantine seems to have become a mercenary. Bertran was reconciled also with Richard, whom he supported in turn against Philip II of France.
- The Comtessa de Dia (Countess of Die), possibly named Beatritz or Isoarda (fl. c. 1175 or c. 1212), was a trobairitz (female troubadour). She is only known as the comtessa de Dia in contemporary documents, but was most likely the daughter of Count Isoard II of Diá (a town northeast of Montelimar in southern France). According to her vida, she was married to William of Poitiers, but was in love with and sang about Raimbaut of Orange (1146-1173).
- Adam de la Halle, also known as Adam le Bossu (Adam the Hunchback) (1245–50 – 1285–88?, or after 1306) was a French-born trouvère, poet and musician. Adam's literary and musical works include chansonsand jeux-partis (poetic debates) in the style of the trouvères; polyphonic rondel and motets in the style of early liturgical polyphony; and a musical play, "Jeu de Robin et Marion" (c. 1282-83), which is considered the earliest surviving secular French play with music. He was a member of the Confrérie des jongleurs et bourgeois d'Arras.
- Walther von der Vogelweide (c. 1170 – c. 1230) was a Minnesänger, who composed and performed love-songs and political songs ("Sprüche") in Middle High German. Notable songs include the love-song "Under der linden", his contemplative "Elegy", and the religious Palästinalied (paletine song), for which the melody has survived.
- Arnaut Daniel (Occitan: [aɾˈnawd daniˈɛl]; fl. 1180–1200) was an Occitan troubadour of the 12th century, praised by Dante as a "the best smith" (miglior fabbro) and called a "grand master of love" (gran maestro d'amore) by Petrarch. In the 20th century he was lauded by Ezra Pound in the The Spirit of Romance (1910) as the greatest poet to have ever lived.
- music
- Jubilemus, exultemus, contains historical chronicles of limoges along with tropes, versus, musical dramas, and office services from the surrounding area. It is written in aquitanian notation of that region.
The Duchy of Lorraine (French: Lorraine, IPA: [lɔʁɛn]; German: Lothringen), originally Upper Lorraine, was a duchy now included in the larger present-day region of Lorraine in northeastern France. Its capital was Nancy. It was founded in 959 following the division of Lotharingia into two separate duchies: Upper and Lower Lorraine, the westernmost parts of the Holy Roman Empire. The Lower duchy was quickly dismantled, while Upper Lorraine came to be known as simply the Duchy of Lorraine. The Duchy of Lorraine was coveted and briefly occupied by the Dukes of Burgundy and the Kings of France. In 1737, the Duchy was given to Stanisław Leszczyński, the former king of Poland, who had lost his throne as a result of the War of the Polish Succession, with the understanding that it would fall to the French crown on his death. When Stanisław died on 23 February 1766, Lorraine was annexed by France and reorganized as a province.
- In 1737, after the War of the Polish Succession, Lorraine was part of an agreement between France, the House of Habsburg and the Lorraine House of Vaudémont: The Duchy was given to Stanisław Leszczyński, the former king of Poland and father-in-law to King Louis XV of France, who, despite French support, had lost out to a candidate backed by Russia and Austria in the War of the Polish Succession. The Lorraine duke Francis Stephen, betrothed to the Emperor's daughter Archduchess Maria Theresa, was compensated with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, where the last Medici ruler had recently died without issue. France also promised to support Maria Theresa as heir to the Habsburg possessions under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713. Leszczyński received Lorraine with the understanding that it would fall to the French crown on his death. When Stanisław died on 23 February 1766, Lorraine was annexed by France and reorganized as a province by the French government.
- Two regional languages survive in the region. Lorraine Franconian, known as francique or platt (lorrain) in French, is a Germanic dialect spoken by a minority in the northern part of the region.
- joan of arc came of duchy of bar which is related / included in this region
The Duchy of Normandy grew out of the 911 Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between King Charles III of West Francia and Rollo, leader of the Vikings. The duchy was named for its inhabitants, the Normans. From 1066 until 1204 it was held by the kings of England, except for the brief rule of Robert Curthose (1087–1106), eldest son of William the Conqueror but unsuccessful claimant to the English throne; and Geoffrey Plantagenet (1144–1150), husband of Empress Matilda and father of Henry II. In 1202, Philip II of France declared Normandy forfeit to him and seized it by force of arms in 1204. It remained disputed territory until the Treaty of Paris of 1259, when the English sovereign ceded his claim except for the Channel Islands; i.e., the Bailiwicks of Guernsey and Jersey, and their dependencies (including Sark). In the Kingdom of France, the duchy was occasionally set apart as an appanage to be ruled by a member of the royal family. After 1469, however, it was permanently united to the royal domain, although the title was occasionally conferred as an honorific upon junior members of the royal family. The last French duke of Normandy in this sense was Louis-Charles, duke from 1785 to 1789.There were two distinct patterns of Norse settlement in the duchy. In the Danish area in the Roumois and the Caux, settlers intermingled with the indigenous Gallo-Romance-speaking population. Rollo shared out the large estates with his companions and gave agricultural land to his other followers. Danish settlers cleared their own land to farm it, and there was no segregation of populations. In the northern Cotentin on the other hand, the population was purely Norwegian. Coastal features bore Norse names as did the three pagi of Haga, Sarnes and Helganes (as late as 1027). The Norwegians may even have set up a þing, an assembly of all free men, whose meeting place may be preserved in the name of Le Tingland. Within a few generations of the founding of Normandy in 911, however, the Scandinavian settlers had intermarried with the natives and adopted much of their culture.[12] But in 911, Normandy was not a political nor monetary unit. Frankish culture remained dominant and according to some scholars, 10th century Normandy was characterized by a diverse Scandinavian population interacting with the "local Frankish matrix" that existed in the region. In the end, the Normans stressed assimilation with the local population.[7] In the 11th century, the anonymous author of the Miracles of Saint Wulfram referred to the formation of a Norman identity as "shaping [of] all races into one single people".
- In the Middle Ages, the Duke of Normandy was the ruler of the Duchy of Normandy in north-western France. The duchy arose out of a grant of land to the Viking leader Rollo by the French king Charles III in 911. In 924 and again in 933, Normandy was expanded by royal grant. Rollo's male-line descendants continued to rule it down to 1135. In 1202 the French king Philip II declared Normandy a forfeited fief and by 1204 his army had conquered it. It remained a French royal province thereafter, still called the Duchy of Normandy, but only occasionally granted to a duke of the royal house as an apanage. From 1066, when William II conquered England, becoming King William I, the title Duke of Normandy was often held by the King of England. In 1087, William died and the title passed to his eldest son, Robert Curthose, while his second surviving son, William Rufus, inherited England. In 1096, Robert mortgaged Normandy to William, who was succeeded by another brother, Henry I, in 1100. In 1106, Henry conquered Normandy. It remained with the King of England down to 1144, when, during the civil war known as the Anarchy, it was conquered by Geoffrey Plantagenet, the Count of Anjou. Geoffrey's son, Henry II, inherited Normandy (1150) and then England (1154), reuniting the two titles. In 1202, King Philip II of France, as feudal suzerain, declared Normandy forfeit and by 1204 his armies had conquered it. Henry III finally renounced the English claim in the Treaty of Paris (1259). Thereafter, the duchy formed an integral part of the French royal demesne. The kings of the House of Valois started a tradition of granting the title to their heirs apparent. The title was granted four times (1332, 1350, 1465, 1785) between the French conquest of Normandy and the dissolution of the French monarchy in 1792. The French Revolution brought an end to the Duchy of Normandy as a political entity, by then a province of France, and it was replaced by several départements.
- In the Channel Islands, the British monarch is known as the "Duke of Normandy", notwithstanding the fact that the current monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, is a woman. The Islands owe allegiance to her in her role as their duke. The Channel Islands are the last remaining part of the former Duchy of Normandy to remain under the rule of the British monarch. Although the English monarchy relinquished claims to continental Normandy and other French claims in 1259 (in the Treaty of Paris), the Channel Islands (except for Chausey under French sovereignty) remain Crown dependencies of the British throne. The British historian Ben Pimlott noted that while Queen Elizabeth II was on a visit to mainland Normandy in May 1967, French locals began to doff their hats and shout "Vive la Duchesse!", to which the Queen supposedly replied "Well, I am The Duke of Normandy!". Both Channel Islands legislatures refer to Elizabeth II in writing as "The Queen in the right of Jersey" or "The Queen in the right of Guernsey" respectively.[citation needed] However, the Queen is referred to as "The Duke of Normandy", the title used by the islanders, especially during their loyal toast, where they[11] say, "The Duke of Normandy, our Queen", or The Queen, our Duke" or, in French "La Reine, notre Duc", rather than simply "The Queen", as is the practice in the United Kingdom.
- Technically, the King of England as Duke of Normandy was a vassal to the King of France. Even after losing Normandy, the King of England held other land in France under the feudal system and remained a vassal, one of the problems that led to the Hundred Years War.https://www.quora.com/Medieval-borders-changed-very-frequently-Would-the-average-peasant-particularly-care-if-say-they-went-from-being-French-to-English-subjects-Was-there-a-sense-of-patriotism-to-their-former-state-How-did-daily-life
The Kingdom of Castile (/kæˈstiːl/; Spanish: Reino de Castilla, Latin: Regnum Castellae) was a large and powerful state on the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region. It began as the County of Castile (Condado de Castilla), an eastern frontier lordship of the Kingdom of León in the 9th century. During the 10th century its counts increased their autonomy, but it was not until 1065 that it was separated from León and became a kingdom in its own right. Between 1072 and 1157 it was again united with León, and after 1230 this union became permanent. Throughout this period the Castilian kings made extensive conquests in southern Iberia at the expense of the Islamic principalities. Castile and León, with their southern acquisitions, came to be known collectively as the Crown of Castile, a term that also came to encompass overseas expansion.
- 11th and 12th centuries: Expansion and union with the Kingdom of León
- During the 12th century, Europe enjoyed a great advance in intellectual achievements sparked in part by the kingdom of Castile's conquest of the great cultural center of Toledo (1085). There Arabic classics were discovered, and contacts established with the knowledge and works of Muslim scientists. In the first half of the century a program of translations, traditionally called the "School of Toledo", was undertaken which rendered many philosophical and scientific works from the classical Greek and the Islamic worlds into Latin. Many European scholars, including Daniel of Morley and Gerard of Cremona travelled to Toledo to gain further education. The Way of St. James further enhanced the cultural exchange between the kingdoms of Castile and León and the rest of Europe. The 12th century saw the establishment of many new religious orders, after the European fashion, such as Calatrava, Alcántara and Santiago; and the foundation of many Cistercian abbeys.
- music
- Cantigas de santa maria is a collection of 400 songs (cantigas) in honour of virgin mary. King alfonso el sabio supervised its preparations around 1270-90
- 長崎蛋糕的發源地其實 並不是長崎，它最早起源於中世紀 伊比利亞半島上的古國卡斯提拉（ CASTELLA）。在十六至十七世紀 的日本，德川幕府對外政策轉變為 閉關鎖國，僅開放長崎等極少數地 方作為港口，葡萄牙傳教士們到民 間活動，這種香甜、細膩的糕點立 刻讓百姓驚為天人，他們上前詢問 名字，對方回答：這是卡斯提拉的 蛋糕。因此 「卡斯提拉」才是它真 正的名字，至於後來在長崎被發揚光大，整個 世界倒是更習慣於接受這第二故鄉。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20181127/PDF/b7_screen.pdf
- in 1890s idea of iberia is being questioned in catalonia, basque county, and galicia. The iberian space seemed to the excessively dominated by a hegemonic power called castile (or spanish speaking lands)
The Crusades were a series of religious wars sanctioned by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The most commonly known Crusades were the campaigns in the Eastern Mediterranean aimed at recovering the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The term "Crusades" is also applied to other church-sanctioned campaigns, such as Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars or the Baltic Crusades. These were fought for a variety of reasons including the suppression of paganism and heresy, the resolution of conflict among rival Roman Catholic groups, or for political and territorial advantage.
- background
- [talking maps] Medieval christianity had its own tradition of pilgrims travelling to its sacred places, as well as imagining heaven and hell. Examples of such pilgrimages were first recorded in 4thc. With the spread of islam from 7thc, these pilgrimages routes faced significant disruption, a factr that significantly influenced the christian crusades from 1096 to 1291.
- the first crusader group to arrive in Constantinople were Peter the Hermit's rabble. Emperor Alexios was dismayed to see the unwashed, ill-disciplined mob that he got when he begged for reinforcements from the West. They had massacred the Jewish residents in the Rhineland region of the Holy Roman Empire.Already they were starting riots. They had never seen so much gold & silver piled up on the tables of money changers at the agora. They went mad & simply grabbed them. The city garrison had to put some of them down. Alexios quickly ferried all of them across to Anatolia. Peter the Hermit hung around the city for a while.Then the Turks set upon them and massacred them all. Peter disappeared from history. Then finally the armies of the nobles arrived. This was a more organized and disciplined force. Alexios personally talked to each noble and made them swear fealty to him. In return Alexios promised to supply them with food & heavy siege weapons.So he ferried them across to Anatolia and they conquered Nicaea for Alexios. Then they conquered the city of Dorylaeum. Another noble split and became ruler of Edessa. The Crusaders then conquered Antioch and finally Jerusalem in 1099.Since Anna Komnene was contemptuous of “Franks, Normans, Celts, Turks & Armenians”. She wasn't that impressed with them. But their success spoke for themselves. The Western European knight was a game changer in the East. Only when the Mamluks of Egypt were able to match them in heavy cavalry were they able to kick them out of Acre in 1291.https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-Eastern-Roman-reaction-to-the-martial-successes-of-the-First-Crusade
- he story of Armida, a Saracen sorceress and Rinaldo, a soldier in the First Crusade, was created by the Italian poet Torquato Tasso. In his epic Gerusalemme liberata, Rinaldo is a fierce and determined warrior who is also honorable and handsome. Armida has been sent to stop the Christians from completing their mission and is about to murder the sleeping soldier, but instead she falls in love. She creates an enchanted garden where she holds him a lovesick prisoner. Eventually Charles and Ubaldo, two of his fellow Crusaders, find him and hold a shield to his face, so he can see his image and remember who he is. Rinaldo barely can resist Armida’s pleadings, but his comrades insist that he return to his Christian duties. At the close of the poem, when the pagans have lost the final battle, Rinaldo, remembering his promise to be her champion still, prevents her from giving way to her suicidal impulses and offers to restore her to her lost throne. She gives in at this, and like the other Saracen warrior woman, Clorinda, earlier in the piece, becomes a Christian and his “handmaid”. Many painters and composers were inspired by Tasso's tale. The works that resulted often added or subtracted an element; Tasso himself continued to edit the story for years. In some versions, Armida is converted to Christianity, in others, she rages and destroys her own enchanted garden. She occupies a place in the literature of abandoned women such as the tragic Dido, who committed suicide, and the evil Circe, whom Odysseus abandoned to complete his voyage, but she is considered by many to be more human, and thus more compelling and sympathetic, than either of them.
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-lesser-known-facts-about-the-Crusades
- https://www.quora.com/After-the-fall-of-Constantinople-why-wasn-t-there-a-Crusade-called-by-the-Pope-Also-why-wasn-t-there-another-country-that-saw-the-strategic-importance-of-Constantinople-and-why-didn-t-they-attack-to-claim-it-for
In the medieval chanson de geste cycle of the Matter of France, the paladins or Twelve Peers are the twelve foremost knights of Charlemagne's court, comparable to the Knights of the Round Table in Arthurian romance. They represent the valour of Christian chivalry against the Saraceninvasion of Europe. Their most notable appearance is in The Song of Roland, narrating the heroic death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. The historical nucleus of the legendary material of the "Matter of France" cycle is the Umayyad invasion of Gaul and the subsequent conflict between the Frankish Empire and the Emirate of Córdoba in the Marca Hispanica. The term paladin is from Old French, ultimately from Latin palātīnus, the title given to the closest retainers of the Roman emperors.The earliest recorded instance of the word paladin in the English language dates to 1592, in Delia (Sonnet XLVI) by Samuel Daniel.[1] It entered English through the Middle French word paladin, which itself derived from the Latin palatinus.[1] A presumptive Old French form *palaisin was already loaned into late Middle English as palasin in c. 1400. The word is derived from the Latin palatinus, most likely through the Old French palatin, ultimately from the name of Palatine Hill is also translated "of the palace" in the Frankish title of Mayor of the Palace.[1]Over time this word came to refer to other high-level officials in the imperial, majestic and royal courts.[2] The word palatine, used in various European countries in the medieval and modern eras, has the same derivation. By the 13th century words referring specifically to Charlemagne's peers began appearing in European languages; the earliest is the Italian paladino. Modern French has paladin, Spanish has paladín or paladino (reflecting alternate derivations from the French and Italian), while German has Paladin.[1] By extension, paladin has come to refer to any chivalrous hero such as King Arthur's Knights of the Round Table.
- https://www.quora.com/After-the-fall-of-Constantinople-why-wasn-t-there-a-Crusade-called-by-the-Pope-Also-why-wasn-t-there-another-country-that-saw-the-strategic-importance-of-Constantinople-and-why-didn-t-they-attack-to-claim-it-for
In the medieval chanson de geste cycle of the Matter of France, the paladins or Twelve Peers are the twelve foremost knights of Charlemagne's court, comparable to the Knights of the Round Table in Arthurian romance. They represent the valour of Christian chivalry against the Saraceninvasion of Europe. Their most notable appearance is in The Song of Roland, narrating the heroic death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. The historical nucleus of the legendary material of the "Matter of France" cycle is the Umayyad invasion of Gaul and the subsequent conflict between the Frankish Empire and the Emirate of Córdoba in the Marca Hispanica. The term paladin is from Old French, ultimately from Latin palātīnus, the title given to the closest retainers of the Roman emperors.The earliest recorded instance of the word paladin in the English language dates to 1592, in Delia (Sonnet XLVI) by Samuel Daniel.[1] It entered English through the Middle French word paladin, which itself derived from the Latin palatinus.[1] A presumptive Old French form *palaisin was already loaned into late Middle English as palasin in c. 1400. The word is derived from the Latin palatinus, most likely through the Old French palatin, ultimately from the name of Palatine Hill is also translated "of the palace" in the Frankish title of Mayor of the Palace.[1]Over time this word came to refer to other high-level officials in the imperial, majestic and royal courts.[2] The word palatine, used in various European countries in the medieval and modern eras, has the same derivation. By the 13th century words referring specifically to Charlemagne's peers began appearing in European languages; the earliest is the Italian paladino. Modern French has paladin, Spanish has paladín or paladino (reflecting alternate derivations from the French and Italian), while German has Paladin.[1] By extension, paladin has come to refer to any chivalrous hero such as King Arthur's Knights of the Round Table.
- In the Roman imperial period, a palatinus was one of the closest retainers of the emperor, who lived in the imperial residence as part of the emperor's household. The title survived into the medieval period, as comes palatinus. However, the modern spelling paladin is now reserved for the fictional characters of the chanson de geste, while the conventional English translation of comes palatinus is count palatine. After the fall of Rome, a new feudal type of title, also known simply as palatinus, started developing. The Frankish kings of the Merovingian dynasty (reigned 480–750) employed a high official, the comes palatinus, who at first assisted the king in his judicial duties and at a later date discharged many of these himself. Other counts palatine were employed on military and administrative work. In the Visigothic Kingdom, the Officium Palatinum consisted of a number of men with the title of count that managed the various departments of the royal household. The Comes Cubiculariorum oversaw the chamberlains, the Comes Scanciorun directed the cup-bearers, the Comes Stabulorum directed the equerries in charge of the stables, etc. The Ostrogothic Kingdom also maintained palatine counts with titles such as Comes Patrimonium, who was in charge of the patrimonial or private real estate of the king, and others. The system was maintained by the Carolingian sovereigns (reigned 751–987). A Frankish capitulary of 882 and Hincmar, archbishop of Reims, writing about the same time, testify to the extent to which the judicial work of the Frankish Empire had passed into their hands. Instead of remaining near the person of the king, some of the counts palatine were sent to various parts of his empire to act as judges and governors, the districts ruled by them being called palatinates.[3] By the High Middle Ages, the title "count" had become increasingly common, to the point that both great magnates who ruled regions that were the size of duchies, and local castle-lords, might style themselves "count". As the great magnates began to centralize their power over their local castle-lords, they felt the need to assert the difference between themselves and these minor "counts". Therefore, several of these great magnates began styling themselves "Count Palatine", signifying great counts ruling regions equivalent to duchies, such as the Counts Palatine of Champagne in the 13th century. The Count Palatine of the Rhine served as prince-elector from "time immemorial" (with Wigeric of Lotharingia reaching back to the late Carolingian era), noted as such in a papal letter of 1261, and confirmed as elector in the Golden Bull of 1356. Palatin was also used as a title in the Kingdom of Hungary.
- 最早出现的圣骑士不是查理曼的同僚，而是他的仆人羅蘭。罗兰在歷史上確有其人，曾出现在查理曼传记人艾因哈德的笔下，关于他的其他故事就不得而知了。在十二世纪末，圣骑士依据圆桌会议的形式向国王汇报；对他们最早的传奇描绘是斐埃拉布拉（Fierabras），时间约为1170左右。十二勇士的名字根据传奇的不同而不同，有时人数会超过十二人。所有查理曼的圣骑士故事都有罗兰和奥利佛的故事；其他常常出现的人物包括杜平大主教（Archbishop Turpin）、丹麦的奥吉尔（Ogier the Dane）、 波尔多的霍恩（Huon of Bordeaux）、斐埃拉布拉、蒙托邦的雷诺（Renaud de Montauban）、和冈隆（Ganelon）。圣骑士的形象深入许多《武功歌》、以及与查理曼有关的故事当中。上述提及的斐埃拉布拉是撒拉森巨人，他夺回了圣物，归还给罗马，皈依了天主教，之后被收编。在《查理曼朝圣（或查理曼的耶路撒冷和君士坦丁堡之旅）》（Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne），他们护送国王前往耶路撒冷和君士坦丁堡朝圣，胜过了拜占庭皇帝雨果。然而，《罗兰之歌》才是他们最辉煌的时刻，描绘了他们保护查理曼抵御安达卢斯的撒拉森人，和因冈隆背叛所导致他们在奥雷亚加战役中的牺牲。《罗兰之歌》列出了十二个圣骑士，包括查理曼的侄子，圣骑士首领罗兰；罗兰的朋友和同僚奥利佛等人。其他人物以被认为是诗篇中的成员，如杜平大主教和丹麦的奥吉尔等。意大利文艺复兴作家博亚尔多和阿里奥斯托的作品流传深广，受到莎士比亚的尊重，对后世圣骑士文学、诗歌、传奇等贡献巨大。他们的作品《热恋的罗兰》、《疯狂的罗兰》将圣骑士推入更为奇幻的冒险当中。其中，圣骑士名单各不相同，但人数都保持在数字十二上。[6]博亚尔多和阿里奥斯托的圣骑士是查理曼的侄子、圣骑士首领罗兰；罗兰的对头奥利佛；斐埃拉布拉；奥利佛的侄子阿斯托爾福（Astolfo）；奥吉尔；叛徒冈隆，后者出现在但丁的《神曲》当中；[7]里纳尔多（Renaud de Montauban）；巫师马格里斯（Maugris）；奥兰多的朋友弗洛里斯马特（Florismart）；布戈尼（Guy de Bourgogne）；纳莫斯（Naimon或Namus）；查理曼的顾问玻利维亚大公；奥图尔（Otuel）。意大利奥兰多斯（Orlandos）在随后的几个世纪当中给许多作曲家带来了灵感，创作了许多關於聖騎士的歌剧和音乐作品。後來查理曼文学衰落，在十九世纪時由一群浪漫主义者和维多利亚诗人、作家、艺术家們創作出亞瑟王傳奇，騎士文學再度復興，而亞瑟王的爆紅和受歡迎程度讓原為故事主角的查理曼和他的建國班底徹底被人們淡忘，改由虛構的亞瑟王傳承「聖騎士」忠勇剛毅的精神。
- ethiopia
- The Ethiopians were not expelled from Jerusalem. Ethiopians continued to maintain a presence in Jerusalem throughout the crusader period. However, they were temporarily expelled from the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, along with other Orthodox monks, when the Latins first took control of the city.This “expulsion” did not last, and Michael the Great (aka Michael the Syrian), Patriarch of the Jacobite (or Syriac) Orthodox Church 1166-1199, could write: ‘The Franks never raised any difficulty about matters of doctrine, or tried to formulate it in one way only for Christians of differing race and language, but accepted as a Christian anybody who venerated the cross, without further examination.’[i] In short, the experience of local churches based on their own testimony was not oppression. The Ethiopians were no exception.Indeed, the massive renovation of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher undertaken by the Franks and completed in 1149 consciously and sensitively included separate altars for the various denominations under the same literal and metaphorical shared roof — only the Ethiopian community was so small it didn’t quite rate inclusion and had to wait until Saladin provided space after his conquest of the city in 1187.Nevertheless, there is documentary evidence of Ethiopian monks and nuns in the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Kingdom of Cyprus during the period of Frankish rule.https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Crusaders-expel-Ethiopian-monks-from-Jerusalem
- legacy
- croatia
- 在聖布雷斯教堂前的 中 央 廣 場 上 遇見了它─奧蘭多石柱（ Orlando Column）。長劍、塔盾、重甲，嚴肅、專注、凝重 ，正是筆者想像中中世紀騎士應該有的樣子 ！這位在意大利語中被叫做奧蘭多（Orlando ）的騎士，有個更加響亮的英文名字─ Roland！ 「騎士羅蘭」 是查理曼大帝麾下的 首席騎士，是史上第一個被冠以 「聖騎士」 （Paladin）稱號的人，驍勇善戰的同時，為 人正直，騎士美德無可挑剔。如同中華文化 圈中對關羽關雲長的推崇，經過十一世紀古 法語史詩《羅蘭之歌》以及後輩無數人口耳 相傳的故事，羅蘭已經從一個勇敢的軍事將 領，變成了人們心目中半神半人的騎士精神 象徵。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190920/PDF/a32_screen.pdf
Catharism (/ˈkæθərɪzəm/; from the Greek: καθαροί, katharoi, "the pure [ones]") was a Christian dualist or Gnostic revival movement that thrived in some areas of Southern Europe, particularly what is now northern Italy and southern France, between the 12th and 14th centuries. The followers were known as Cathars and are now mainly remembered for a prolonged period of persecution by the Catholic Church, which did not recognise their belief as being Christian. Catharism appeared in Europe in the Languedoc region of France in the 11th century and this is when the name first appears. The adherents were sometimes known as Albigensians, after the city Albi in southern France where the movement first took hold. The belief system may have originated in Persia or the Byzantine Empire[citation needed]. Catharism was initially taught by ascetic leaders who set few guidelines, and, thus, some Catharist practices and beliefs varied by region and over time. The Catholic Church denounced its practices including the Consolamentum ritual, by which Cathar individuals were baptized and raised to the status of "perfect". Catharism may have had its roots in the Paulician movement in Armenia and eastern Byzantine Anatolia and certainly in the Bogomils of the First Bulgarian Empire, who were influenced by the Paulicians resettled in Thrace (Philipopolis) by the Byzantines. Though the term Cathar(/ˈkæθɑːr/) has been used for centuries to identify the movement, whether the movement identified itself with this name is debated. In Cathar texts, the terms Good Men (Bons Hommes), Good Women (Bonnes Femmes), or Good Christians (Bons Chrétiens) are the common terms of self-identification. The idea of two gods or principles, one good and the other evil, was central to Cathar beliefs. This was antithetical to the monotheistic Catholic Church, whose fundamental principle was that there was only one God, who created all things visible and invisible. Cathars believed that the good God was the God of the New Testament and the creator of the spiritual realm. They believed the evil God was the God of the Old Testament, creator of the physical world whom many Cathars, and particularly their persecutors, identified as Satan. Cathars thought human spirits were the genderless spirits of angels trapped in the material realm of the evil god, destined to be reincarnated until they achieved salvation through the consolamentum, when they could return to the benign God. From the beginning of his reign, Pope Innocent III attempted to end Catharism by sending missionaries and by persuading the local authorities to act against them. In 1208, Innocent's papal legate Pierre de Castelnau was murdered while returning to Rome after excommunicating Count Raymond VI of Toulouse, who, in his view, was too lenient with the Cathars.[13]Pope Innocent III then abandoned the option of sending Catholic missionaries and jurists, declared Pierre de Castelnau a martyr and launched the Albigensian Crusade which all but ended Catharism.
- The origins of the Cathars' beliefs are unclear, but most theories agree they came from the Byzantine Empire, mostly by the trade routes and spread from the First Bulgarian Empire to the Netherlands. The name of Bulgarians (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigensians, and they maintained an association with the similar Christian movement of the Bogomils ("Friends of God") of Thrace. "That there was a substantial transmission of ritual and ideas from Bogomilism to Catharism is beyond reasonable doubt."[15] Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils and the Paulicians, who influenced them, as well as the earlier Marcionites, who were found in the same areas as the Paulicians, the Manicheans and the Christian Gnostics of the first few centuries AD, although, as many scholars, most notably Mark Pegg, have pointed out, it would be erroneous to extrapolate direct, historical connections based on theoretical similarities perceived by modern scholars.
- Mirepoix (Occitan: Mirapeis, supposedly from mire peis, meaning see the fish) is a commune in the Ariège department in southwestern France.
- Dépendante du comté de Foix, la ville fut gagnée par le catharisme à la fin du xiie siècle. Un concile en 1206 y rassembla 600 cathares. La ville fut prise en 1209 par Simon de Montfort qu'il donna à un de ses lieutenants Guy de Lévis, d'où la famille de Lévis-Mirepoix.
Inquisition
- The Medieval Inquisition was a series of Inquisitions (Catholic Church bodies charged with suppressing heresy) from around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition(1184–1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). TheMedieval Inquisition was established in response to movements considered apostate or heretical toChristianity, in particular Catharism and Waldensians inSouthern France and Northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow. The Cathars were first noted in the 1140s in Southern France, and the Waldensians around 1170 in Northern Italy. Before this point, individual heretics such as Peter of Bruis had often challenged the Church. However, the Cathars were the first mass organization in the second millennium that posed a serious threat to the authority of the Church. This article covers only these early inquisitions, not the Roman Inquisition of the 16th century onwards, or the somewhat different phenomenon of the Spanish Inquisition of the late 15th century, which was under the control of the Spanish monarchy using local clergy. The Portuguese Inquisition of the 16th century and various colonial branches followed the same pattern.
societal stucture
- The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom(Christian Europe) from the medieval period to early modern Europe. Different systems for dividing society members into estates developed and evolved over time. The best known system is the French Ancien Regime(Old Regime), a three-estate system used until the French Revolution (1789–1799). Monarchy was for the king and the queen and this system was made up of clergy (The First Estate) nobles (The Second Estate) peasants and bourgeoisie (The Third Estate) In some regions notably Scandinavia and Russia, burghers (the urban merchant class) and rural commoners were split into separate estates, creating a four-estate system with rural commoners ranking the lowest as the Fourth Estate. Furthermore, the non-landowning poor could be left outside the estates, leaving them without political rights. In England, a two-estate system evolved that combined nobility and clergy into one lordly estate with "commons" as the second estate. This system produced the two houses of parliament, the House of Commons and the House of Lords. In southern Germany, a three-estate system of nobility (princes and high clergy), knights, and burghers was used. In Scotland, the Three Estates were the Clergy (First Estate), Nobility (Second Estate), and Shire Commissioners, or "burghers" (Third Estate), representing the bourgeois, middle class, and lower class. The Estates made up a Scottish Parliament. Today the terms three estates and estates of the realm may sometimes be re-interpreted to refer to the modern separation of powers in government into the legislature, administration, and the judiciary. Additionally the term fourth estate usually refers to forces outside the established power structure (evoking medieval three-estate systems), most commonly in reference to the independent press or media. Historically, in Northern and Eastern Europe, the Fourth Estate meant rural commoners.
- https://www.quora.com/Did-nobles-in-the-Middle-Ages-think-of-the-peasantry-as-fellow-human-beings The common, over-simplified view of society was that it was one of inter-dependence between those who tilled the soil (peasants), those who prayed (clerics) and those who fought (nobles and knights). This gave all three “estates” equal value, like the three legs of a stool.ALL charitable institutions were financed — massively — by the nobility. There were NO state or public institutions. All social welfare functions from orphanages to hospices and including medical care were carried out by religious institutions funded exclusively from donations and patronage, overwhelmingly from the nobility. Furthermore, the ranks of the clergy that performed these charitable functions came predominantly from the upper-class. That means that the bulk of the monks and nuns who looked after the abandoned, the destitute, the sick, and the dying were from the landed class. Yet, these viewed the poor in their care not merely as human beings but as their masters. Thus, the Knights Hospitaller called themselves “the serfs of the poor.”
- royal court
- https://www.quora.com/In-films-Kings-and-Queens-are-always-depicted-as-sitting-on-their-thrones-all-day-unless-at-a-dining-hall-or-major-event-On-a-normal-day-what-would-they-actually-do The practice of governance in the west changed a lot over the course of the Middle Ages. Two changes in particular affected royals' daily life. The first was the rise of bureaucracy, creeping slowly upwards until the 12th or 13th century when it really took off. The second was the dominance and slow decline of "peripatetic" government--that is, "moving around." The entire royal court would up and haul from lord to bishop-lord to lord to city and back. Early and high medieval chronicles from Germany are filled with "The king spent Christmas at Augsburg and the New Year at the palace of the bishop of Trier and in March he created Eberhard as bishop of Bamberg at that palace." The point being--for much of the Middle Ages, kings spent a lot of their time traveling! (The situation is more ambiguous for queens. We see plenty of queens regnant in the late Middle Ages, mostly of smaller principalities, so both time and place made their governments much less peripatetic. It's not always clear from chronicle accounts whether queens consort were travelling with their husbands, and in many cases, we'd expect not.) But royals couldn't be on the road or leading armies 100% of the time. When we look at daily activities, it's important to keep in mind that kingship and queenship were more than listening to advisors and making decisions. "Political culture"--rituals, appearances, relationships--was almost or even equally vital to political power and governance.
- https://www.quora.com/During-the-Middle-Ages-between-about-900-and-1300-Europe-experienced-one-of-the-longest-periods-of-sustained-growth-in-human-history-What-factors-led-to-this-tremendous-expansion The Cluniac reforms. Around 900 Christianity seemed to be about to be extinct in the West. From the perspective of the East (Eastern part of the Roman Empire called Byzantium be western scholars who did not like it) it looked like the idea of civilisation in the West had been a bad idea. The East had been civilised for ever and showed no signs of a collapse.
Some men in the West decided to do something to save Christianity in the West. The result was a set of revolutionary changes. The Revolutionaries themselves labelled the changes Reforms because the Church consider decisions made by a Common Church Council sacrosanct and impossibly to change. So they declared that it was not changes only attempts to restore the Church in how it originally was. (Do not tell your Catholic friends. They will be sad if you do). The Reformers where aiming for a cultural revolution. They were extremely successful and created The Catholic Church, Medieval Europe as we know it and the 300 years of economical growth. How was it possible? First: Significant economic growth is generated by a simple action as creating Peace. Imagine if Vikings/Magyars/Muslim raider repeatedly burn down your home and carries away anything of value (including your wife and daughter) and then suddenly stops doing so. The improvements will be significant. How did they do it? Magyar and Scandinavians were converted to Christians. The Muslims was managed by Christian counteroffensives called Chrusades. Western Europe was, if not safe so almost safe, from slave raiders. Another even worse problem was internal Christian conflicts. The pre-Reforms nobility was more like gangs of criminals than anything like what we consider aristocracy. As long as the Christian leaders of the West were Mafia style gangs the people would suffer and no organised resistance to barbaric invasion was possible. How were the criminal gangs transformed? It was done be making a deal with them. They would be upgraded from thugs to rewarded nobility. All they had to do was to accept some basic rules called chivalry. You could argue that it was only a confession of the mouth but amazing enough: It worked. Not always. Not all the times. Not at once but it worked. Then a process of civilisation started.
- The polity that emerged on Christmas Day 800 after Romulus Augustulus was deposed in 476 was no longer based on the Mediterranean. It was based north of the Alps. Albeit at its core Charlemagne's empire was allied with the Bishop of Rome. Which provided literate clerics to run his bureaucracy, education, indoctrination of the pagan tribes he conquered and communication. However his society was lacking in gold & silver to enable a functioning cash economy.
- The polity that emerged on Christmas Day 800 after Romulus Augustulus was deposed in 476 was no longer based on the Mediterranean. It was based north of the Alps. Albeit at its core Charlemagne's empire was allied with the Bishop of Rome. Which provided literate clerics to run his bureaucracy, education, indoctrination of the pagan tribes he conquered and communication. However his society was lacking in gold & silver to enable a functioning cash economy.
So society was divided into 3 Estates. The First Estate were the clergy. Whose functions were already mentioned. The Second Estate were the nobility or warrior caste. They were the muscle. So they were granted fiefdoms to support them. Hence feudalism. The third estate were the commoners. Except for a few townsfolk (burghers, which included guildsmen who were paid in gold and silver) and Jews who paid cash as taxes. The vast majority were indentured into serfdom. Money only returned to Western Europe during the Crusades.https://www.quora.com/How-did-a-new-European-civilization-develop-after-the-fall-of-the-Roman-Empire
- social mobility
We have very specific examples of the grandsons of serfs being knights. We know that the grandsons of free but non-gentry familes could become tenants-in-chief (nobles) in the crusader states. (The Ibelins came from non-noble, Italian stock.) However, I repeat, the path to nobility was through service, military service, not wealth. Here’s the kind of thing that could and did happen again and again. 1. a serf obtains his freedom, 2. his free son marries well enough to educate his sons, 3. these sons intermingle with the lower fringes of the gentry, 4. one of their sons is therefore given a chance to train as a squire and later get knighted, 5. the knight can now marry into the gentry, 6. the knight or one of his sons is able to obtain land/a fief, 7. now the family is getting established and respectable, sons can be placed with richer knights/knights of higher status, or even with a nobleman, 8. one of these is given a fief, or goes to the crusader states/Iberia/Prussia and makes good there, winning a title, or 9. the status of the family finally enables the sons to enter royal service, and 10. in service to the king, they attract his attention enough to be given a titled heiress or a vacant title. William Marshal is a famous example of a man who went from landless knight to Earl of Pembroke — but his mother was a sister of the Earl of Salisbury and his father was a high-ranking crown official.https://www.quora.com/Was-it-possible-to-buy-a-noble-title-in-medieval-Europe
The bourgeoisie emerged as a historical and political phenomenon in the 11th century when the bourgs of Central and Western Europe developed into cities dedicated to commerce. This urban expansion was possible thanks to economic concentration due to the appearance of protective self-organisation into guilds. Guilds arose when individual businessmen (such as craftsmen, artisans and merchants) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater rents than previously agreed. In the event, by the end of the Middle Ages (ca. AD 1500), under régimes of the early national monarchies of Western Europe, the bourgeoisie acted in self-interest, and politically supported the king or queen against legal and financial disorder caused by the greed of the feudal lords.[citation needed] In the late-16th and early 17th centuries, the bourgeoisies of England and the Netherlands had become the financial – thus political – forces that deposed the feudal order; economic power had vanquished military power in the realm of politics.During the 17th and 18th centuries, the bourgeoisie were the politically progressive social class who supported the principles of constitutional government and of natural right, against the Law of Privilege and the claims of rule by divine right that the nobles and prelates had autonomously exercised during the feudal order. The English Civil War (1642–51), the American War of Independence (1775–83), and French Revolution (1789–99) were partly motivated by the desire by the bourgeoisie to rid themselves of the feudal and royal encroachments on their personal liberty, commercial prospects, and the ownership of property. In the 19th century, the bourgeoisie propounded liberalism, and gained political rights, religious rights, and civil liberties for themselves and the lower social classes; thus the bourgeoisie was a progressive philosophic and political force in Western societies. After the Industrial Revolution (1750–1850), by the mid-19th century the great expansion of the bourgeoisie social class caused its stratification – by business activity and by economic function – into the haute bourgeoisie (bankers and industrialists) and the petite bourgeoisie (tradesmen and white-collar workers). Moreover, by the end of the 19th century, the capitalists (the original bourgeoisie) had ascended to the upper class, while the developments of technology and technical occupations allowed the rise of working-class men and women to the lower strata of the bourgeoisie; yet the social progress was incidental.
- The Modern French word bourgeois derived from the Old French burgeis (walled city), which derived from bourg (market town), from the Old Frankish burg (town); in other European languages, the etymologic derivations are the Middle English burgeis, the Middle Dutch burgher, the German Bürger, the Modern English burgess, and the Polish burżuazja, which occasionally is synonymous with the intelligentsia.[5] But in its literal sense, bourgeoisie in old French (burgeis, borjois) means "town dweller." In English, "bourgeoisie" (a French citizen-class) identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, and to upholding the extreme political and economic interests of the capitalist ruling class. In the 18th century, before the French Revolution (1789–99), in the French feudal order, the masculine and feminine terms bourgeois and bourgeoiseidentified the rich men and women who were members of the urban and rural Third Estate – the common people of the French realm, who violently deposed the absolute monarchy of the Bourbon King Louis XVI (r. 1774–91), his clergy, and his aristocrats. Hence, since the 19th century, the term "bourgeoisie" usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society.
- people
- Bourgeois is a French surname.
- Henri Cartier-Bresson (French: [kaʁtje bʁɛsɔ̃]; August 22, 1908 – August 3, 2004) was a French humanist photographer considered a master of candid photography, and an early user of 35 mm film. He pioneered the genre of street photography, and viewed photography as capturing a decisive moment. Henri Cartier-Bresson was born in Chanteloup-en-Brie, Seine-et-Marne, France, the oldest of five children. His father was a wealthy textile manufacturer, whose Cartier-Bresson thread was a staple of French sewing kits. His mother's family were cotton merchants and landowners from Normandy, where Henri spent part of his childhood. The Cartier-Bresson family lived in a bourgeois neighborhood in Paris, Rue de Lisbonne, near Place de l'Europe and Parc Monceau. His parents supported him financially so Henri could pursue photography more freely than his contemporaries. Henri also sketched.
- https://www.quora.com/What-medieval-war-clich%C3%A9s-were-actually-fairly-uncommon-or-didn-t-even-happen-at-all
- https://www.quora.com/Is-it-true-swords-were-barely-used-in-real-battles-occurred-in-the-Middle-Ages
- https://www.quora.com/During-ancient-and-medieval-siege-city-assaults-were-super-dense-slum-districts-considered-impassable-terrain-to-attacking-armies
knights
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-relative-cost-of-a-medieval-knight-compare-to-the-cost-of-a-modern-battle-tank
mercenaries
- Mercenaries were always found in companies. No army would hire individual soldiers unless they were beyond the point of desperation and literally looking for anybody and everybody who could hold a weapon. In medieval Europe mercenaries were the professional backbone of international warfare. In the age before standing armies, when a military force consisted of peasants called up from around the realm, mercenaries afforded a decisive advantage in terms of discipline and fighting effectiveness for those states that could afford them. That was the main problem - affording them. In a time of perennial warfare, mercenary companies were in almost constant demand, and they knew their worth. They could charge a huge amount of money, because they knew that if their prospective employer couldn’t pay, the mercenaries could always find work with their former enemies. Given the amount of money involved, how did medieval kings know that they were getting value for money? They hired a company. Being a member of a mercenary ‘free company’ was a job, a lifestyle and a CV all in one. In the rare times of peace, mercenaries made their living in pillaging and plundering the land, and so anyone who could maintain their position in a company needed to be a good fighter and a good survivor. If someone offered their services on their own, however, they were most likely fugitives from the law, and of dubious ability and reliability. Those times of peace could be brutal. At times, they adopted Viking-esque tactics of extortion and threat, forcing cities to buy their safety with money. Mercenaries often operated in northern Italy, because the vast array of wealthy city states meant plenty of money to be made. In between 1342 and 1399, Siena alone spent 291,379 florins on 37 separate occasions buying off various mercenary companies, and the brigands have been consequentially blamed for the rising supremacy of Florence. A company also served as an organisation and corporation. It had a leader, a treasurer, military captains, administrative staff, legal advisors, and even a public relations officer. The captain of the company was sometimes elected, giving the companies a more democratic air than any country at the time; otherwise he would be chosen by the previous captain, or by the choice of the military commanders. The most famous company is probably the White Company, also known as the English Company, that operated in Italy in the 14th Century. It won its fame by defeating the more established Great Company in battle, and at its highest point it had 3,500 cavalrymen and 2,000 infantrymen. Its impact on warfare in Italy is such that it is often credited with bringing the practice of dismounting men-at-arms to Italy. It also had a monopoly on longbowmen in Italy at the time, courtesy of its English roots. Life in a mercenary company was tough, brutal and difficult, but mercenary companies also provided employment for tens of thousands of ex-soldiers and brigands. They were hated by the ordinary populace, mistrusted by rulers and often despised each other, but they played decisive roles in some of Europe’s most famous wars. The last mercenary company, the Company of the Rose, was disbanded in 1410.
https://www.quora.com/In-the-middle-ages-were-lone-wandering-mercenaries-common-or-were-mercenaries-almost-always-found-in-companies
castle
- https://www.quora.com/How-could-an-ancient-or-medieval-settlement-camouflage-itself-in-a-dense-forest
city
- City rights are a feature of the medieval history of the Low Countries. A liege lord, usually a count, duke or similar member of the high nobility, granted to a town or village he owned certain town privileges that places without city rights did not have. In Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, a town, often proudly, calls itself a city if it obtained a complete package of city rights at some point in its history. Its current population is not relevant, so there are some very small cities. The smallest is Staverden in the Netherlands, with 40 inhabitants. In Belgium, Durbuy is the smallest city, whilst the smallest in Luxembourg is Vianden. When forced by financial problems, feudal landlords offered for sale privileges to settlements from around AD 1000. The total package of these privileges comprises the city rights.Such sales raised (non-recurrent) revenue for the feudal lords, in exchange for the loss of power. Over time, the landlords sold more and more privileges. This resulted in a shift of power within the counties and duchies in the Low Countries from the aristocracy to the bourgeoisie, starting in Flanders. Some of these cities even developed into city-states. The growing economic and military power concentrating in the cities led to a very powerful class of well-to-do merchants and traders.
- The institution of city status gradually came to an end with the development and centralization of a national government. In the Netherlands the last city to receive real city rights[clarification needed] (as defined above) was Willemstad in 1586. During the Dutch Republic, only Blokzijl gained city rights (in 1672). After the Batavian Revolution in 1795, municipalities were styled after the French model and city rights were abolished by law. Although partially restored after 1813, cities did not fully regain the authority they had previously had: law-making and the judiciary had become part of the state. After the Constitution of 1848 and the Municipal Law of 1851, the differences between the legal privileges of cities, towns, and villages were permanently erased. In the early 19th century, when several important towns (especially The Hague) wanted to call themselves cities, the custom of granting city status was briefly revived. The last grant of city status in the Netherlands was to Delfshaven in 1825. But the city status granted during this period was quite different from the privileges bestowed in the Middle Ages, and were merely symbolic. This is also the case for cities such as The Hague and Assen, which received their status during the Napoleonic period.
village
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-typical-size-of-a-medieval-village-where-they-usually-walled-and-what-was-the-typical-population-and-the-number-of-guards-soldiers-needed-to-protect-one
agriculture
- https://www.quora.com/Did-medieval-peasants-own-their-own-tools-If-so-how-could-they-afford-them
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-peasants-living-in-medieval-10th-15th-century-Germany-Bohemia-or-Poland-do-in-winter-In-western-and-southern-Europe-they-planted-winter-crops-but-their-fields-werent-covered-by-snow-So-what-did-they-do
animal husbandry
- It cities people didn’t keep agricultural animals. They had horses, but most big building had stables for them. Remember that in places like England, wolves became extinct by the 14th century, and there aren’t any large predators like cougars or bears, so there was no serious danger of farm animals being eaten by predators. Unless you count fisher eagles, which could take a small lamb.
viticulture
- [ochsle] foundation of monasteries such as kolster eberbach in rheingau region by cistercians (1136), benedictine abbey of st hildegard near rudesheim by st hildegard of bingen or augustinian convent in marienthal on ahr river(1137) are of great importance for viticulture
mills
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-folks-in-the-Middle-Ages-keep-flour-mills-from-exploding-all-the-time
trade
- https://www.quora.com/Where-did-medieval-cities-get-their-food-grains-and-wheat-fish-meat-eggs-cheese-fruits-roots-and-vegetables-from-Did-farmers-live-nearby-If-so-how-was-their-trade-with-the-city-and-how-did-they-get-protection-living
- maritime
financial
- https://www.quora.com/Why-was-it-safer-to-travel-with-a-letter-of-credit-or-transfer-from-a-Medici-bank-during-the-Middle-Ages-than-with-actual-gold-coins-and-couldnt-somebody-just-take-the-letter-from-you-and-withdraw-your-gold-anyway
inns
- https://www.quora.com/How-were-medieval-taverns-and-inns-owned-and-operated
jewelry
- https://www.quora.com/Which-gemstones-were-considered-most-valuable-during-the-Middle-Ages
House servants
- https://www.quora.com/Did-some-people-in-Medieval-days-stay-up-late-and-some-go-to-bed-early-like-it-is-nowadays-or-was-it-different
living condition
- https://www.quora.com/During-the-middle-ages-and-before-did-wealthy-people-practice-personal-hygiene-more-or-less-then-others
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-average-medieval-peasant-defend-their-home
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-biggest-myths-about-medieval-Europe
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-people-cut-their-lawns-in-the-Medieval-Times
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-they-use-for-clocks-and-time-in-the-middle-ages
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-richest-medieval-lords-eat The diet of the Upper Classes would have included: Manchet bread. A vast variety of meats and game including venison, beef, pork, goat, lamb, rabbit, hare, mutton, swans, herons and poultry. Fish - fresh and salt water fish.Everyday food for the poor in the Middle Ages consisted of cabbage, beans, eggs, oatsand brown bread. Sometimes, as a specialty, they would have cheese, bacon or poultry. All classes commonly drank ale or beer. Milk was also available, but usually reserved for younger people.
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-people-use-for-soap-in-the-Middle-Ages
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-toilet-etiquette-like-in-the-middle-ages-If-you-needed-to-go-and-youre-at-a-friends-house-did-you-just-go-in-a-bucket-in-the-corner
- https://www.quora.com/Were-there-slums-in-the-medieval-times
- grass
beard
- https://www.quora.com/How-common-was-shaving-the-beard-in-the-medieval-Europe-among-peasant-and-nobility-In-the-movies-nobility-is-often-cleanly-shaved-is-it-realistic It was a way to make difference to Muslims, who never shaved. Shaving was a way to keep yourself both clean and to distinguish between friend and foe.It depended a lot of the time and the region. At some times clean-shaven faces were in vogue, at some times men had full beards.
food
- [booklet obtained from 2019 rbhk polish pavilion] polish people adopted asian spices (pepper, ginger, saffron, cinnamon, nutmeg, 丁香; imported to Gdańsk through netherlands) much earlier than fellow europeans. They used sweet food (sugar, honey, sweetened fruits) and acidic food (lemon, vinegar and sour wine) together in cooking.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-perpetual-stews-from-the-Middle-Ages-fall-out-of-favor-even-though-they-were-sanitary-and-safe-since-no-food-actually-spoiled
I’m not sure everyone bought animals into their homes myself, personally I’m more inclined to think that in large villages they went in the barn or another such building. Cows or oxen were often shared among the whole village, so they were kept safe, and mules are an equine species, so they were probably cared for like horses and could be housed in stables.https://www.quora.com/Was-everything-in-Medieval-England-really-as-filthy-as-it-always-is-portrayed-as-in-movies-like-the-King-Wouldnt-this-have-been-quite-unhygienic-and-smelly/answer/Joanna-Arman-1
viticulture
- [ochsle] foundation of monasteries such as kolster eberbach in rheingau region by cistercians (1136), benedictine abbey of st hildegard near rudesheim by st hildegard of bingen or augustinian convent in marienthal on ahr river(1137) are of great importance for viticulture
mills
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-folks-in-the-Middle-Ages-keep-flour-mills-from-exploding-all-the-time
trade
- https://www.quora.com/Where-did-medieval-cities-get-their-food-grains-and-wheat-fish-meat-eggs-cheese-fruits-roots-and-vegetables-from-Did-farmers-live-nearby-If-so-how-was-their-trade-with-the-city-and-how-did-they-get-protection-living
- maritime
- While Constantinople was historically the most important port for trade with the east, it was never the only one. Italian merchants sailed to ports across the eastern Mediterranean, going up the Nile as far as Cairo. The Ottomans didn’t control the Levant and take Egypt from the Mamluks until 1517. By that time, there were already Spanish colonies in the Americas, British exploration of what was to become Canada, and Portuguese in India. For another, they never really cut off trade through their empire for very long. They were more inclined to restrict trade with the Italians than the later Byzantines had been. The Italians ended up needing the Ottomans rather than vice versa, so the Ottomans were happy to take advantage of the situation and place restrictions on them. Prices in Europe therefore did go up because of higher duties and an occasionally restricted supply through the usual routes.https://www.quora.com/How-significant-was-the-Fall-of-Constantinople-as-an-event-leading-to-the-Age-of-Exploration
financial
- https://www.quora.com/Why-was-it-safer-to-travel-with-a-letter-of-credit-or-transfer-from-a-Medici-bank-during-the-Middle-Ages-than-with-actual-gold-coins-and-couldnt-somebody-just-take-the-letter-from-you-and-withdraw-your-gold-anyway
inns
- https://www.quora.com/How-were-medieval-taverns-and-inns-owned-and-operated
jewelry
- https://www.quora.com/Which-gemstones-were-considered-most-valuable-during-the-Middle-Ages
House servants
- https://www.quora.com/Did-some-people-in-Medieval-days-stay-up-late-and-some-go-to-bed-early-like-it-is-nowadays-or-was-it-different
living condition
- https://www.quora.com/During-the-middle-ages-and-before-did-wealthy-people-practice-personal-hygiene-more-or-less-then-others
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-average-medieval-peasant-defend-their-home
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-biggest-myths-about-medieval-Europe
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-people-cut-their-lawns-in-the-Medieval-Times
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-they-use-for-clocks-and-time-in-the-middle-ages
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-richest-medieval-lords-eat The diet of the Upper Classes would have included: Manchet bread. A vast variety of meats and game including venison, beef, pork, goat, lamb, rabbit, hare, mutton, swans, herons and poultry. Fish - fresh and salt water fish.Everyday food for the poor in the Middle Ages consisted of cabbage, beans, eggs, oatsand brown bread. Sometimes, as a specialty, they would have cheese, bacon or poultry. All classes commonly drank ale or beer. Milk was also available, but usually reserved for younger people.
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-people-use-for-soap-in-the-Middle-Ages
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-toilet-etiquette-like-in-the-middle-ages-If-you-needed-to-go-and-youre-at-a-friends-house-did-you-just-go-in-a-bucket-in-the-corner
- https://www.quora.com/Were-there-slums-in-the-medieval-times
- hygiene
- https://www.quora.com/Were-the-people-of-the-Middle-Ages-really-that-dirty-as-shown-in-movies
They could also wash with a bowl and cloth. People also washed in ponds, steams and rivers. In fact, there are coroners records suggesting it wasn’t uncommon for people to drown when they were doing that. Yes, Coroners existed in the Middle Ages. Its said that people liked to wear linen close to their skin, and the layer of clothing you wore closest to it could be washed fairly easily. In fact, its been said that the Medieval practice of laying clothes out to dry on the grass is the origin of the word ‘laundry’ = ‘lawn dry’.In noble and wealthier houses it wasn’t uncommon for clothes to be stored with dried flowers and herbs folded into them. This was done for two reasons: to make them smell nice, and as in insect repellent. There’s a tradition here in Europe that moths hate the smell of lavender and other strong smells, so people put lavender bags or scented soap in their wardrobes or drawers. People did that in Medieval times too.We’re used to this image of Medieval people strewing rushes on the floor, which became filthy with household debris and were never cleaned. That may not be entirely true. There was a documentary series recently which showed a living history expert gathering reeds, but instead of stewing them randomly on the floor, she wove them into mats.This added an interesting new dynamic, because rush mats would have been a lot neater, and probably more hygienic. They’re easier to change. https://www.quora.com/Was-everything-in-Medieval-England-really-as-filthy-as-it-always-is-portrayed-as-in-movies-like-the-King-Wouldnt-this-have-been-quite-unhygienic-and-smelly
- plumbing
- Hot and cold running water for inside bathing and toilets, while rare and confined for the most part to the upper classes in the Later Middle Ages, was nevertheless known. In some regions, such as Frankish Greece, inside water tanks and toilets have been found in urban dwellings of even more modest citizens. Water was flushed out of houses by means of ceramic piping. In addition, the urban sewage systems of the major cities of the Levant were extremely sophisticated and enabled individual households to hook up with larger, civic drains that emptied into the harbor.https://www.quora.com/What-was-plumbing-in-Medieval-Europe-like
- https://www.quora.com/What-medieval-tradition-is-alive-today (grass) provides security because it provides visibility. An army or infiltrators would not be able to approach easily without being seen, it would give the inhabitants of the castle time to be prepared and arm themselves. Nobody wanted to be lit up with arrows while running across a huge field where you stand out like a sore thumb. And thus - the short/compressed answer - grass became associated with class and status. Fast forward a few hundred years: Owning curated grass has become a sign of status and land ownership.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-do-all-movies-set-in-Medieval-times-never-have-the-sun-shining
- https://www.quora.com/How-common-was-shaving-the-beard-in-the-medieval-Europe-among-peasant-and-nobility-In-the-movies-nobility-is-often-cleanly-shaved-is-it-realistic It was a way to make difference to Muslims, who never shaved. Shaving was a way to keep yourself both clean and to distinguish between friend and foe.It depended a lot of the time and the region. At some times clean-shaven faces were in vogue, at some times men had full beards.
food
- [booklet obtained from 2019 rbhk polish pavilion] polish people adopted asian spices (pepper, ginger, saffron, cinnamon, nutmeg, 丁香; imported to Gdańsk through netherlands) much earlier than fellow europeans. They used sweet food (sugar, honey, sweetened fruits) and acidic food (lemon, vinegar and sour wine) together in cooking.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-perpetual-stews-from-the-Middle-Ages-fall-out-of-favor-even-though-they-were-sanitary-and-safe-since-no-food-actually-spoiled
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-European-peasants-typically-eat-prior-to-the-age-of-exploration-How-would-they-deal-with-the-monotony
technology
- https://www.quora.com/What-Greco-Roman-technologies-were-lost-during-the-Middle-Ages the Dark Ages (476–800) saw many important technological advances which the Romans did not know:
medical
- Monica Green's The Trotula: An English Translation of the Medieval Compendium of Women's Medicine. The Trotula is a gynecological text believed to date to twelfth or thirteenth-century Salerno, and was a widely-read medical text that also summarized much of accepted gynecological practice during its day, including things like contraceptives and treatments for pregnant women.https://www.quora.com/In-medieval-Europe-how-were-miscarriages-typically-dealt-with
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-things-that-medieval-doctors-were-right-about-even-if-the-logic-behind-it-was-wrong The successful use of vinegar, which has strong antiseptic properties, is recorded in treating festering wounds and severe burns, for example. Medieval doctors also understood the need to drain festering wounds.
law
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-common-laws-during-the-Middle-Ages One common law until 1601 was that people unable to work due to physical infirmities , i.e. , missing limbs, blind, etc. or mental illnesses were put out into the wilderness to fend for themselves. “ Highwaymen “, folks who waylaid other , more fortunate people and stole from them or often worse. The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 made safe houses for those people and their families to work as best they could and have some protection. Under the Law, folks in neighboring towns or commons would pay a tax to pay for the upkeep and salaries ( small ) of those who cared for the weak, ill and infirm.
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-typical-crimes-of-the-Medieval-era-and-how-were-they-punishable
- https://www.quora.com/How-common-were-public-executions-in-the-Middle-Ages
- https://www.quora.com/Were-medieval-jail-cells-strong-How-easily-could-prisoners-break-out-assuming-guards-were-out-of-the-picture
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-title-of-the-person-that-administers-the-punishment-in-ancient-England-s-drawn-hang-and-quarter-sentence
marriage
- royal marriage contract https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-Eastern-Roman-Byzantine-Empire-descending-from-the-actual-Roman-Empire-think-of-the-Holy-Roman-Empire-that-wasnt-Roman-at-all
retirement
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-Medieval-peasants-do-once-they-reached-what-we-now-consider-retirement-age-Would-their-families-or-the-church-care-for-them-Was-there-some-kind-of-job-they-could-be-entrusted-with-now-they-cant-plough-a Retirement wasn’t really a thing. People worked as much as they could for as long as they could. As older people started to slow down, they’d do less of the harder stuff and take on less demanding tasks: more weeding the vegetable garden and looking after the kids, less plowing and building walls and houses. At some point, of course, they wouldn’t be productive enough to support themselves. Many older people had families they lived with which would see to their care. However, not everybody did, and it was not unknown for older people to fall into extreme poverty. Childless (whether effectively or actually so) older people were often recipients of charity, but as in pretty much all societies, charitable institutions couldn’t help everybody, and some simply couldn’t be cared for.
bandits
- https://www.quora.com/How-prevalent-was-the-threat-of-bandits-in-medieval-Europe-Is-it-somewhat-exaggerated-in-popular-misconceptions-or-were-there-really-bandits-lurking-all-over-to-prey-on-unwary-and-unguarded-travelers
Art and literature
- Carmina Burana (/ˈkɑːrmᵻnə bʊˈrɑːnə/, Latin for "Songs from Beuern"; "Beuern" is short forBenediktbeuern) is the name given to amanuscript of 254 poems and dramatic texts mostly from the 11th or 12th century, although some are from the 13th century. The pieces are mostly bawdy, irreverent, and satirical. They were written principally in Medieval Latin; a few in Middle High German, and some with traces of Old French or Provençal. Some are macaronic, a mixture of Latin and German or French vernacular. They were written by students and clergy when the Latin idiom was the lingua franca across Italy and western Europe for travelling scholars, universities and theologians. Most of the poems and songs appear to be the work of Goliards, clergy (mostly students) who satirized the Catholic Church. The collection preserves the works of a number of poets, including Peter of Blois, Walter of Châtillon, and an anonymous poet, referred to as the Archpoet. The collection was found in 1803 in the Benedictine monastery of Benediktbeuern, Bavaria, and is now housed in the Bavarian State Library in Munich. Along with the Carmina Cantabrigiensia, the Carmina Burana is considered to be the most important collection of Goliard and vagabond songs. The manuscripts reflect an international European movement, with songs originating fromOccitania, France, England, Scotland, Aragon, Castile and the Holy Roman Empire. Twenty-four poems in Carmina Burana were set to music by Carl Orff in 1936. Orff's composition quickly became popular and a staple piece of the classical music repertoire. The opening and closing movement, "O Fortuna", has been used in numerous films.
- 英國大英博物館周一披露，該國去年出土共1,077件文物，其中一個中世紀鍍銀徽章，刻有騎士騎在山羊背上蝸牛殼的圖案，被英媒戲為中世紀迷因（meme，即表情包）。有考古學家指出，使用蝸牛在當時是懦弱的象徵，該徽章可能有諷刺一些騎士或敵人不義行為的意味，與現代網絡迷因功能相似。徽章在西約克郡龐特佛雷特市（Pontefract）出土，相信可追溯到公元1,200年至1,350年之間，目前在大英博物館展出。它刻了一名頭戴諾曼式風格頭盔、身穿長袖束腰外衣的男子，以雙手合掌姿勢坐在一個巨大蝸牛殼上，腳踩下方的山羊頭部，蘊含宗教意味。大英博物館中世紀後期藏品館長嫩克（Beverley Nenk）稱，徽章圖形頗具諷刺模仿元素，因蝸牛當時常用於裝飾手稿邊緣，被視為懦夫的象徵，因而推測徽章或是諷刺敵方戰時的懦弱行為，或拙劣模仿上層和騎士階級，展示了中世紀物質文化裏常見的幽默。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210325/00180_044.html
modern works related to medieval europe
- Johan and Peewit (French: Johan et Pirlouit) is a Belgian comics series created by Peyo. Since its initial appearance in 1947 it has been published in 13 albums that appeared before the death of Peyo in 1992. Thereafter, a team of comic book creators from Studio Peyo continued to publish the stories. The series is set in Medieval Europe and includes elements of sword-and-sorcery. Johan et Pirlouit provided the framework for the first appearances of The Smurfs.Set in the Middle Ages in an unnamed European kingdom, the series follows the adventures of Johan, a brave young page to the King, and Peewit, his faithful, if boastful and cheating, midget sidekick. Johan rides off in search of adventure with his trusty horse Bayard, while Peewit gallops sporadically, and grudgingly, behind on his goat, Biquette. The pair are driven by duty to their King and the courage to defend the underpowered. Struggles for power between deposed lords and usurping villains form the basis of many of the plots which also contain elements of detective fiction as the pair hunt down traitors and outlaws, as well as fantasy, with witches and sorcerers, giants, ghosts and, above all, the Smurfs.
language
- https://www.quora.com/Given-that-the-modern-custom-of-starting-a-letter-with-Dear-name-of-recipient-had-not-yet-been-established-how-would-early-Medieval-English-letters-been-written-specifically-with-regards-to-the-salutations/answer/Mercedes-R-Lackey
sports
- kiv munch-ball
archiving
- https://www.quora.com/Western-monks-are-often-credited-with-saving-civilization-by-preserving-ancient-writings-Were-most-of-those-writings-also-preserved-in-the-East-at-places-like-Byzantium Regards the west, monasteries not only preserved ancient texts but continued to be centers of learning -- not rote learning as in the Koran schools familiar across the world today -- but as centers of inquiry and study, even after the political situation had stabilized. By the 11th century they were very much centers of intellectual inquiry and debate. Peter Abelard (unfortunately more famous for his affair with Heloise than for his philosophy) is just one example of a critical thinker as a theologian, philosopher and logician. Hildegard von Bingen is, of course, another example from the same century. She wrote treatises on medicine and natural history characterized by a high quality of scientific observation. Later scholars of note included Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas.the universities - places dedicated to learning and debate protected by the notion of academic freedom -- evolved in the West out of the Cathedral schools of the Middle Ages. Pope Gregory VII in a papal decree from 1079 regulated Cathedral schools and is credited with thereby providing the framework for independent universities. The first such university was established just nine years later in 1088 at Bologna, Italy. It was followed by the University of Paris in 1150 and the University of Oxford in 1167.
technology
- https://www.quora.com/What-Greco-Roman-technologies-were-lost-during-the-Middle-Ages the Dark Ages (476–800) saw many important technological advances which the Romans did not know:
- Windmill
- Heavy wheeled plough with iron coulter
- Horse collar, enabling horses to be used draught and plow animals
- Catalan forge, making iron cheap and ubiquitous
- Overshot water wheel (much more efficient than Roman waterwheel)
- Trip hammer, automatizing smithwork
- Lateen sail, enabling tacking
- Bookbinding
- Cantled saddle and stirrups
- Lowercase letters, spacing and punctuation
- Parchment and vellum
- Sternpost rudder
- Sophisticated saws
medical
- Monica Green's The Trotula: An English Translation of the Medieval Compendium of Women's Medicine. The Trotula is a gynecological text believed to date to twelfth or thirteenth-century Salerno, and was a widely-read medical text that also summarized much of accepted gynecological practice during its day, including things like contraceptives and treatments for pregnant women.https://www.quora.com/In-medieval-Europe-how-were-miscarriages-typically-dealt-with
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-things-that-medieval-doctors-were-right-about-even-if-the-logic-behind-it-was-wrong The successful use of vinegar, which has strong antiseptic properties, is recorded in treating festering wounds and severe burns, for example. Medieval doctors also understood the need to drain festering wounds.
law
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-common-laws-during-the-Middle-Ages One common law until 1601 was that people unable to work due to physical infirmities , i.e. , missing limbs, blind, etc. or mental illnesses were put out into the wilderness to fend for themselves. “ Highwaymen “, folks who waylaid other , more fortunate people and stole from them or often worse. The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 made safe houses for those people and their families to work as best they could and have some protection. Under the Law, folks in neighboring towns or commons would pay a tax to pay for the upkeep and salaries ( small ) of those who cared for the weak, ill and infirm.
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-typical-crimes-of-the-Medieval-era-and-how-were-they-punishable
- https://www.quora.com/How-common-were-public-executions-in-the-Middle-Ages
- https://www.quora.com/Were-medieval-jail-cells-strong-How-easily-could-prisoners-break-out-assuming-guards-were-out-of-the-picture
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-title-of-the-person-that-administers-the-punishment-in-ancient-England-s-drawn-hang-and-quarter-sentence
marriage
- royal marriage contract https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-Eastern-Roman-Byzantine-Empire-descending-from-the-actual-Roman-Empire-think-of-the-Holy-Roman-Empire-that-wasnt-Roman-at-all
retirement
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-Medieval-peasants-do-once-they-reached-what-we-now-consider-retirement-age-Would-their-families-or-the-church-care-for-them-Was-there-some-kind-of-job-they-could-be-entrusted-with-now-they-cant-plough-a Retirement wasn’t really a thing. People worked as much as they could for as long as they could. As older people started to slow down, they’d do less of the harder stuff and take on less demanding tasks: more weeding the vegetable garden and looking after the kids, less plowing and building walls and houses. At some point, of course, they wouldn’t be productive enough to support themselves. Many older people had families they lived with which would see to their care. However, not everybody did, and it was not unknown for older people to fall into extreme poverty. Childless (whether effectively or actually so) older people were often recipients of charity, but as in pretty much all societies, charitable institutions couldn’t help everybody, and some simply couldn’t be cared for.
bandits
- https://www.quora.com/How-prevalent-was-the-threat-of-bandits-in-medieval-Europe-Is-it-somewhat-exaggerated-in-popular-misconceptions-or-were-there-really-bandits-lurking-all-over-to-prey-on-unwary-and-unguarded-travelers
Art and literature
- Carmina Burana (/ˈkɑːrmᵻnə bʊˈrɑːnə/, Latin for "Songs from Beuern"; "Beuern" is short forBenediktbeuern) is the name given to amanuscript of 254 poems and dramatic texts mostly from the 11th or 12th century, although some are from the 13th century. The pieces are mostly bawdy, irreverent, and satirical. They were written principally in Medieval Latin; a few in Middle High German, and some with traces of Old French or Provençal. Some are macaronic, a mixture of Latin and German or French vernacular. They were written by students and clergy when the Latin idiom was the lingua franca across Italy and western Europe for travelling scholars, universities and theologians. Most of the poems and songs appear to be the work of Goliards, clergy (mostly students) who satirized the Catholic Church. The collection preserves the works of a number of poets, including Peter of Blois, Walter of Châtillon, and an anonymous poet, referred to as the Archpoet. The collection was found in 1803 in the Benedictine monastery of Benediktbeuern, Bavaria, and is now housed in the Bavarian State Library in Munich. Along with the Carmina Cantabrigiensia, the Carmina Burana is considered to be the most important collection of Goliard and vagabond songs. The manuscripts reflect an international European movement, with songs originating fromOccitania, France, England, Scotland, Aragon, Castile and the Holy Roman Empire. Twenty-four poems in Carmina Burana were set to music by Carl Orff in 1936. Orff's composition quickly became popular and a staple piece of the classical music repertoire. The opening and closing movement, "O Fortuna", has been used in numerous films.
- 英國大英博物館周一披露，該國去年出土共1,077件文物，其中一個中世紀鍍銀徽章，刻有騎士騎在山羊背上蝸牛殼的圖案，被英媒戲為中世紀迷因（meme，即表情包）。有考古學家指出，使用蝸牛在當時是懦弱的象徵，該徽章可能有諷刺一些騎士或敵人不義行為的意味，與現代網絡迷因功能相似。徽章在西約克郡龐特佛雷特市（Pontefract）出土，相信可追溯到公元1,200年至1,350年之間，目前在大英博物館展出。它刻了一名頭戴諾曼式風格頭盔、身穿長袖束腰外衣的男子，以雙手合掌姿勢坐在一個巨大蝸牛殼上，腳踩下方的山羊頭部，蘊含宗教意味。大英博物館中世紀後期藏品館長嫩克（Beverley Nenk）稱，徽章圖形頗具諷刺模仿元素，因蝸牛當時常用於裝飾手稿邊緣，被視為懦夫的象徵，因而推測徽章或是諷刺敵方戰時的懦弱行為，或拙劣模仿上層和騎士階級，展示了中世紀物質文化裏常見的幽默。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210325/00180_044.html
modern works related to medieval europe
- Johan and Peewit (French: Johan et Pirlouit) is a Belgian comics series created by Peyo. Since its initial appearance in 1947 it has been published in 13 albums that appeared before the death of Peyo in 1992. Thereafter, a team of comic book creators from Studio Peyo continued to publish the stories. The series is set in Medieval Europe and includes elements of sword-and-sorcery. Johan et Pirlouit provided the framework for the first appearances of The Smurfs.Set in the Middle Ages in an unnamed European kingdom, the series follows the adventures of Johan, a brave young page to the King, and Peewit, his faithful, if boastful and cheating, midget sidekick. Johan rides off in search of adventure with his trusty horse Bayard, while Peewit gallops sporadically, and grudgingly, behind on his goat, Biquette. The pair are driven by duty to their King and the courage to defend the underpowered. Struggles for power between deposed lords and usurping villains form the basis of many of the plots which also contain elements of detective fiction as the pair hunt down traitors and outlaws, as well as fantasy, with witches and sorcerers, giants, ghosts and, above all, the Smurfs.
language
- https://www.quora.com/Given-that-the-modern-custom-of-starting-a-letter-with-Dear-name-of-recipient-had-not-yet-been-established-how-would-early-Medieval-English-letters-been-written-specifically-with-regards-to-the-salutations/answer/Mercedes-R-Lackey
sports
- kiv munch-ball
archiving
- https://www.quora.com/Western-monks-are-often-credited-with-saving-civilization-by-preserving-ancient-writings-Were-most-of-those-writings-also-preserved-in-the-East-at-places-like-Byzantium Regards the west, monasteries not only preserved ancient texts but continued to be centers of learning -- not rote learning as in the Koran schools familiar across the world today -- but as centers of inquiry and study, even after the political situation had stabilized. By the 11th century they were very much centers of intellectual inquiry and debate. Peter Abelard (unfortunately more famous for his affair with Heloise than for his philosophy) is just one example of a critical thinker as a theologian, philosopher and logician. Hildegard von Bingen is, of course, another example from the same century. She wrote treatises on medicine and natural history characterized by a high quality of scientific observation. Later scholars of note included Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas.the universities - places dedicated to learning and debate protected by the notion of academic freedom -- evolved in the West out of the Cathedral schools of the Middle Ages. Pope Gregory VII in a papal decree from 1079 regulated Cathedral schools and is credited with thereby providing the framework for independent universities. The first such university was established just nine years later in 1088 at Bologna, Italy. It was followed by the University of Paris in 1150 and the University of Oxford in 1167.
The learning taught in these universities was not confined to scripture. On the contrary, study of ancient Greek and Roman texts was an essential component of medieval higher education. It is a fallacy -- but a frequently repeated and propagated one -- that knowledge of classical texts were "re-discovered" in the Renaissance after such knowledge was "preserved" by the Muslims. This is nonsense. The University of Bologna at its inception was focused on teaching Roman law -- that is ancient Roman not canon law! The principal sources used for teaching medicine in medieval universities were Hippocrates, Galen and Avicenna. Aristotle and Plato were hotly debated in studies of law, politics, logic, and philosophy. Universities also provided study of mathematics and the natural sciences, based largely on classical but also Byzantine and even Muslim scholars. The university culture at this time, furthermore, was based on debates, disputations, and the requirement to read extensively in order to pass examinations, which entailed defending ones ideas before a panel of established scholars. The concept of "peer review" and defense of a doctrinal dissertation today is based on this medieval tradition.
Website
- www.rouledge.com/cw/blockmans
reference material
- https://www.quora.com/How-long-would-it-take-for-a-messenger-to-go-from-Paris-to-Constantinople-during-the-medieval-era
roman empire
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-medieval-people-think-of-the-Romans
blacks
- https://www.quora.com/Were-there-black-lords-and-ladies-in-medieval-Europe
christianity
- The Investiture Controversy or Investiture Contest was a conflict between church and state in medieval Europe over the ability to appoint local church officials through investiture.[1] By undercutting imperial power, the controversy led to nearly 50 years of civil war in Germany. According to historian Norman Cantor, the investiture controversy was "the turning-point in medieval civilization", marking the end of the Early Middle Ages with the Germanic peoples' "final and decisive" acceptance of Christianity. More importantly, it set the stage for the religious and political system of the High Middle Ages. It began as a power struggle between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV in 1076.[2] There was also a brief but significant investiture struggle between Pope Paschal IIand King Henry I of England from 1103 to 1107. The conflict ended in 1122, when Pope Callixtus II and Emperor Henry V agreed on the Concordat of Worms, which differentiated between the royal and spiritual powers and gave the emperors a limited role in selecting bishops. The outcome was largely a papal victory, but the Emperor still retained considerable power.
catholicism
- Early Christianity restricted science purely to the Clerus, the religious elite of monks and high ranking bishops, archbishops and other heads of the church itself. On purpose, the bulk of the people, farmers, early citizens and even the knights, was kept as illiterates, unable to read and write, left unaware about the valuable knowledge inherited from the antique civilizations.
Subsequently, only a thin layer of people was able to contribute further to the universal knowledge of the society. Eventually, it turns out to become a statistical problem: the smaller the total number of literate, educated intellectual people, the smaller the pool of creative and inventive minds. At the end, the innovative and creative power of a society suffers from that. Additionally, the church demonized systematically knowledgeable people who were not part of the church itself in order to protect her own power, meaning the power of the pope himself and his subordinates. The famous novel “The name of the rose” by Umberto Ecco, is exactly referring to that phenomenon. Knowledge was reserved to the leaders of the church, in order to protect their own power. They channeled and censored knowledge effectively. In opposite, Islam didn’t have any such religious class. By default, the relation between God and his believers was defined as an immediate, personal relation. No institution, such as the church in Christianity, was intercalated. The believer talks to God directly.https://www.quora.com/Why-was-the-Arabian-civilization-more-advanced-than-the-European-civilization-during-the-Middle-Ages-but-not-in-modern-times
- 時禱書The book of hours is a Christian devotional book popular in the Middle Ages. It is the most common type of surviving medieval illuminated manuscript. Like every manuscript, each manuscript book of hours is unique in one way or another, but most contain a similar collection of texts, prayers and psalms, often with appropriate decorations, for Christian devotion. Illumination or decoration is minimal in many examples, often restricted to decorated capital letters at the start of psalms and other prayers, but books made for wealthy patrons may be extremely lavish, with full-page miniatures. Books of hours were usually written in Latin (the Latin name for them is horae), although there are many entirely or partially written in vernacularEuropean languages, especially Dutch. The English term primer is usually now reserved for those books written in English. Tens of thousands of books of hours have survived to the present day, in libraries and private collections throughout the world. The typical book of hours is an abbreviated form of the breviary which contained the Divine Office recited in monasteries. It was developed for lay people who wished to incorporate elements of monasticism into their devotional life. Reciting the hours typically centered upon the reading of a number of psalms and other prayers. A typical example contains the Calendar of Church feasts, extracts from the Four Gospels, the Mass readings for major feasts, the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the fifteen Psalms of Degrees, the seven Penitential Psalms, a Litany of Saints, an Office for the Dead and the Hours of the Cross.
- 時禱書The book of hours is a Christian devotional book popular in the Middle Ages. It is the most common type of surviving medieval illuminated manuscript. Like every manuscript, each manuscript book of hours is unique in one way or another, but most contain a similar collection of texts, prayers and psalms, often with appropriate decorations, for Christian devotion. Illumination or decoration is minimal in many examples, often restricted to decorated capital letters at the start of psalms and other prayers, but books made for wealthy patrons may be extremely lavish, with full-page miniatures. Books of hours were usually written in Latin (the Latin name for them is horae), although there are many entirely or partially written in vernacularEuropean languages, especially Dutch. The English term primer is usually now reserved for those books written in English. Tens of thousands of books of hours have survived to the present day, in libraries and private collections throughout the world. The typical book of hours is an abbreviated form of the breviary which contained the Divine Office recited in monasteries. It was developed for lay people who wished to incorporate elements of monasticism into their devotional life. Reciting the hours typically centered upon the reading of a number of psalms and other prayers. A typical example contains the Calendar of Church feasts, extracts from the Four Gospels, the Mass readings for major feasts, the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary, the fifteen Psalms of Degrees, the seven Penitential Psalms, a Litany of Saints, an Office for the Dead and the Hours of the Cross.
islam
- Saracen was a term widely used among Christian writers in Europe during the Middle Ages. The term's meaning evolved during its history. In the early centuries of the Common Era, Greek and Latin writings used this term to refer to the people who lived in desert areas in and near the Roman province of Arabia Petraea, and who were specifically distinguished from others as a people known as Arabs. In Europe during the Early Middle Ages, the term came to be associated with tribes of Arabia as well. By the 12th century, "Saracen" had become synonymous with "Muslim" in Medieval Latin literature. Such expansion in the meaning of the term had begun centuries earlier among the Byzantine Greeks, as evidenced in documents from the 8th century. In the Western languages before the 16th century, "Saracen" was commonly used to refer to Muslim Arabs, and the words "Muslim" and "Islam" were generally not used (with a few isolated exceptions).
- The term Saraceni may be derived from the Semitic triliteral root srq "to steal, rob, plunder", and perhaps more specifically from the noun sāriq (Arabic: سارق), pl. sariqīn (سارقين), which means "thief, marauder, plunderer". Other possible Semitic roots are šrq "east" and šrkt "tribe, confederation". Ptolemy's 2nd century work, Geography, describes Sarakēnḗ (Ancient Greek: Σαρακηνή) as a region in the northern Sinai Peninsula. Ptolemy also mentions a people called the Sarakēnoí (Ancient Greek: οἱ Σαρακηνοί) living in the northwestern Arabian Peninsula (near neighbor to the Sinai). Eusebius in his Ecclesiastical history narrates an account wherein Pope Dionysius of Alexandria mentions Saracens in a letter while describing the persecution of Christians by the Roman emperor Decius: "Many were, in the Arabian mountain, enslaved by the barbarous 'sarkenoi'."[2][3] The Augustan History also refers to an attack by "Saraceni" on Pescennius Niger's army in Egypt in 193, but provides little information as to identifying them. Both Hippolytus of Rome and Uranius mention three distinct peoples in Arabia during the first half of the third century: the "Taeni", the "Saraceni" and the "Arabes".[2][3] The "Taeni", later identified with the Arab people called "Tayy", were located around Khaybar (an oasis north of Medina) and also in an area stretching up to the Euphrates. The "Saraceni" were placed north of them. These Saracens, located in the northern Hejaz, were described as people with a certain military ability who were opponents of the Roman Empire and who were classified by the Romans as barbarians. The Saracens are described as forming the "equites" (heavy cavalry) from Phoenicia and Thamud. In one document the defeated enemies of Diocletian's campaign in the Syrian Desert are described as Saracens. Other 4th century military reports make no mention of Arabs but refer to as 'Saracens' groups ranging as far east as Mesopotamia that were involved in battles on both the Sasanian and Roman sides. The Saracens were named in the Roman administrative document Notitia Dignitatum—dating from the time of Theodosius I in the 4th century—as comprising distinctive units in the Roman army. They were distinguished in the document from Arabs.
- 撒拉森人，或譯薩拉森人，係源自阿拉伯文的「東方人（شرقيين、sharqiyyin）」，轉寫成希臘文作Σαρακηνοί、Sarakēnoí，拉丁文作Saracen（撒拉堅），中文則受英語化或晚期拉丁語顎化的影響而習慣譯成「撒拉森」。在西方的歷史文獻中，撒拉森最常用來籠統地泛稱伊斯蘭的阿拉伯帝國。在早期的羅馬帝國時代，撒拉森只用以指稱西奈半島上的阿拉伯游牧民族。後來的東羅馬帝國則將這個名字，套用在所有阿拉伯民族上。伊斯蘭教興起於西亞，特別在十一世紀末期的十字軍東征後，以基督教信仰為主的歐洲人。「撒拉森」指居住在北非且以海盜為業的穆斯林。實際上，歷史上並不存在所謂的「撒拉森帝國」。歐洲人在七世紀以後的文獻中，單方面地稱穆斯林為撒拉森人。以平等中立的觀點，現代人應將「撒拉森帝國」這種稱呼，還原為當時當地人民所使用的名詞：阿拉伯哈里發王朝、倭馬亞王朝、阿拔斯王朝。
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-crusaders-counter-Saracen-horse-archers
- Saracens Football Club (/ˈsærəsənz/) are an English professional rugby union football club based in London, England. Saracens were founded in 1876 by the Old Boys of the Philological School in Marylebone, London (later to become St Marylebone Grammar School). The club's name is said to come from the "endurance, enthusiasm and perceived invincibility of Saladin's desert warriors of the 12th century". The fact that their local rivals were called the Crusaders may also have been a factor.[5] The Crescent and Star appearing in the club's emblem are reminiscent of those appearing on the flag of the Ottoman Empire.
- australian company saracen mineral (est 1987)
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-socially-accepted-in-the-Middle-Ages-that-today-would-be-perceived-as-terrible
- [tr berg] the prayer book map from mid 1200s, on which there are two islands to north of norway, ipboria and aramphe, which are named for two peoples - the hyperboreans and arampheans - who the greeks believed lived in the far north. In 1410, cardinal pierre d'ailly wrote in his tractatus de imagine mundi: beyond thule, the last island of the ocean, after one day's sail frommsea is frozen and stiff. At the poles there live great ghosts and ferocious beasts, the enemies of men
sweden
- Medieval Week, Gotland in august
ireland
- https://www.quora.com/Why-is-medieval-Ireland-so-much-behind-the-rest-of-Europe-in-terms-of-military-development
byzantine
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-Medieval-Europe-view-the-Byzantine-Empire
moors
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Moors-bring-Europe-out-of-the-Dark-Ages Most notably, they recovered the works of Aristotle through Spanish sources in the 12th century. That said, the 12th century is well after the end of what’s usually considered the Dark Ages, which is usually considered to have ended with Charlemagne at the beginning of the 9th century.
middle east
- comparison
- https://www.quora.com/Was-Europe-in-the-High-Middle-Ages-really-less-developed-than-the-Middle-East-at-the-same-time
africa
- west africa
- 美國西北大學的博物館自上周六起，舉辦名為「黃金商隊，時間碎片」的展覽。主辦單位從馬里、摩洛哥及尼日利亞等西非國家，借來多件中世紀藝術品。是次展覽的目的是要證明，西非在中世紀時是連接歐洲、非洲及中東的貿易和文化中心。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190128/00180_032.html
china
- http://www.chinadailyasia.com/lifeandart/2017-01/25/content_15563493.html A first-of-its-kind academic center, established at Zhejiang University in December, is prepared to offer the world Chinese perspectives on early English and European literary studies. The Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies has Hao Tianhu, a key researcher, as its director.
rest of the world
- China, usually the center of wealth, power, and sophistication, starts out in a bad way. The Chinese are in a long interregnum which has been going on since the collapse of the Han dynasty. India is mostly ruled by the Gupta empire. And the Byzantine empire is going through ups and downs, notably reaching its greatest extent under Justinian in the early 6th century. In the later period, in China, the Tang dynasty pulls China back together again for something of a golden age. The Guptas fall apart, leaving a variety of successor states. But the big news is the rise of Islam. The caliphate displaces the Persians, takes North Africa from the Byzantine empire, which goes into something of a downward trajectory for a bit, and by the end of the “Dark Ages,” they’re having a golden age of their own.In the Americas, Peru sees the rise and fall of the Moche civilization, while the Maya are entering the height of their classical phase. Farther north, corn agriculture is spreading into what will someday be the United States, though more sophisticated pueblo societies have not quite yet emerged.https://www.quora.com/What-happened-during-the-European-Dark-Ages-in-other-parts-of-the-world
worth a read
- https://www.quora.com/Apparently-the-Dark-Ages-of-Medieval-Europe-are-a-complete-myth-Is-this-true
- https://www.quora.com/What-common-medieval-fantasy-tropes-have-little-to-no-basis-in-real-medieval-European-history
- https://www.quora.com/How-terrible-were-the-living-conditions-in-medieval-Europe
- https://www.quora.com/What-great-towns-and-cities-of-medieval-Europe-have-now-faded-into-relative-obscurity Quite a lot of them. I remember reading Andrew Marr’s history of the world, and he listed then ten largest and most influential cities in the world just prior to the rise of the Mongol Empire.None of them still exist today. The great flowers of Asian civilisation were wiped from the map.
- maps
Now, none of those cities were in Medieval Europe, but it does illustrate the point that time change and fortunes change dramatically across the centuries.When I was last in the Czech Republic I visited a small town named Kutna Hora which has a magnificent cathedral despite being a tiny town today. But during the Bohemian period it was the largest producer of silver in the world thanks to a local silver mine. But the man ran dry, and Kutna Hora is now just a minor town on the tourist trail after being one of the most influential places in Central Europe.
- maps
- [t r berg] oldest surviving map of middle ages drawn in late 600s or early 700s - africa is named cam (it was said that noah's ham had travelled south aftervthe great flood); europe ans asia are named after noah's other two sons, japheth and shem; south of africa is a large terra inhabitatabilis.
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