name
- chinese translation - 大秦- 後漢書西域傳reference - 大秦國一名犁鞬，以在海西，亦云海西國。地方數千里，有四百餘城。小國役屬者數十。以石為城郭。列置郵亭，皆堊塈之。有松柏諸木百草。人俗力田作，多種樹蠶桑。皆髡頭而衣文繡，乘輜軿白蓋小車，出入擊鼓，建旌旗幡幟。https://ctext.org/hou-han-shu/xi-yu-zhuan/zh
Emblem
- An aquila, or eagle, was a prominent symbol used in ancient Rome, especially as the standard of a Roman legion. A legionary known as an aquilifer, or eagle-bearer, carried this standard. Each legion carried one eagle. The eagle was extremely important to the Roman military, beyond merely being a symbol of a legion. A lost standard was considered an extremely grave occurrence, and the Roman military often went to great lengths to both protect a standard and to recover it if lost; for example, see the aftermath of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, where the Romans spent decades attempting to recover the lost standards of three legions.The signa militaria were the Roman military ensigns or standards. The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have been a handful (manipulus) of straw fixed to the top of a spear or pole. Hence the company of soldiers belonging to it was called a maniple. The bundle of hay or fern was soon succeeded by the figures of animals, of which Pliny the Elder (H.N. x.16) enumerates five: the eagle, the wolf, the ox with the man's head, the horse, and the boar. In the second consulship of Gaius Marius (104 BC) the four quadrupeds were laid aside as standards, the eagle (Aquila) alone being retained. It was made of silver, or bronze, with outstretched wings, but was probably of a relatively small size, since a standard-bearer (signifer) under Julius Caesar is said in circumstances of danger to have wrenched the eagle from its staff and concealed it in the folds of his girdle. Under the later emperors the eagle was carried, as it had been for many centuries, with the legion, a legion being on that account sometimes called aquila (Hirt. Bell. Hisp. 30). Each cohort had for its own ensign the serpent or dragon, which was woven on a square piece of cloth textilis anguis, elevated on a gilt staff, to which a cross-bar was adapted for the purpose, and carried by the draconarius.
- When Constantine embraced Christianity, a figure or emblem of Christ, woven in gold upon purple cloth, was substituted for the head of the emperor. This richly ornamented standard was called labarum. The labarum is still used today by the Orthodox Church in the Sunday service. The entry procession of the chalice whose contents will soon become holy communion is modeled after the procession of the standards of the Roman army.
- Even after the adoption of Christianity as the Roman Empire's religion, the Aquila eagle continued to be used as a symbol. During the reign of Eastern Roman Emperor Isaac I Komnenos, the single-headed eagle was modified to double-headed to symbolise the Empire's dominance over East and West.
Le Bas-Empire constitue avec le Haut-Empire une des deux découpes historiographiques de l'Empire romain dans l'historiographie romaine vue par les historiens français. Ces termes sont des concepts très usuels, mais leurs limites chronologiques respectives ne sont pas fixées de façon unanime. On fixe la plupart du temps cette période entre les années 284 et 476. Le Bas-Empire est la période finale de l'Empire romain. L'expression date de 1752, avec le début de la publication de l'Histoire du Bas-Empire, de Charles Le Beau, publiée entre 1752 et 1817, et comptant 28 volumes. L'emploi de l'adjectif « bas » n'était pas négatif, puisqu'il désigne la période la plus proche du présent, par opposition à « haut ». Néanmoins, le terme de Bas-Empire a eu longtemps une connotation péjorative chez les historiens français, qui y voyaient une période de décadence. À l'heure actuelle, où la mode est à la réhabilitation de cette période, certains historiens préfèrent des appellations plus neutres telles que Empire romain tardif ou Antiquité tardive, suivant les terminologies allemande (Spätrömische Zeit, Spätantike) ou italienne (tardo Impero, tardoantico). Quoi qu'il en soit, ce terme, consacré par un long usage, reste très employé. Les auteurs débattent sur le début de la période; certains proposent la fin de la dynastie des Antonins, d'autres le renversement de la dynastie des Sévères, d'autres encore le début du règne de Dioclétien. En effet, la caractéristique du Bas-Empire serait précisément l'instauration d'un régime absolu, le Dominat, qui se substituerait à un régime autocratique mais "éclairé" caractérisant le Haut-Empire, le Principat fondé par Auguste (suivant une tradition historiographique allemande du xixe siècle, un peu obsolète). Sa date de fin coïncide en Occident avec la fin de l’Empire romain d'Occident en 476, lorsque le dernier empereur (Romulus Augustule) fut déposé, et l'empire romain formellement réunifié. Elle reste cependant floue en ce qui concerne l’Empire romain d'Orient, où la transition avec l'Empire byzantin n'est pas marquée par un événement aussi spectaculaire.
Lusitania (/ˌluːsɪˈteɪniə/, Portuguese: Lusitânia, Spanish: Lusitania) or Hispania Lusitana was an ancient Iberian Roman province including approximately all of modern Portugal south of the Douro river and part of modern Spain (the present autonomous community of Extremadura and a small part of the province of Salamanca). It was named after the Lusitani or Lusitanian people (an Indo-European people). Its capital was Emerita Augusta (currently Mérida, Spain), and it was initially part of the Roman Republic province of Hispania Ulterior, before becoming a province of its own in the Roman Empire. Romans first came to the territory around the mid 2nd century BC. A war with Lusitanian tribes followed, from 155 to 139 BC. In 27 BC, the province was created. The etymology of the name of the Lusitani (who gave the Roman province their name) remains unclear. Popular etymology connected the name to a supposed Roman demigod Lusus, whereas some early-modern scholars[which?] suggested that Lus was a form of the Celtic Lugus followed by another (unattested) root *tan-, supposed to mean "tribe", while others derived the name from Lucis, an ancient people mentioned in Avienus' Ora Maritima (4th century CE) and from tan (-stan in Iranian), or from tain, meaning "a region" or implying "a country of waters", a root word that formerly meant a prince or sovereign governor of a region. Ancient Romans, such as Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 3.5) and Varro (116 – 27 BCE, cited by Pliny), speculated that the name Lusitania had Roman origins, as when Pliny says "lusum enim Liberi Patris aut lyssam cum eo bacchantium nomen dedisse Lusitaniae et Pana praefectum eius universae" [Lusitania takes its name from the Lusus associated with Bacchus and the Lyssa of his Bacchantes, and Pan is its governor]. Lusus is usually translated as "game" or "play", while lyssa is a borrowing from the Greek λυσσα, "frenzy" or "rage", and sometimes Rage personified; for later poets, Lusus and Lyssa become flesh-and-blood companions (even children) of Bacchus. Luís de Camões' epic Os Lusíadas (1572), which portrays Lusus as the founder of Lusitania, extends these ideas, which have no connection with modern etymology. In his work, Geography, the classical geographer Strabo (died ca. 24 CE) suggests a change had occurred in the use of the name "Lusitanian". He mentions a group who had once been called "Lusitanians" living north of the Douro river but were called in his day "Callacans".
- As with the Roman names of many European countries, Lusitania was and is often used as an alternative name for Portugal, especially in formal or literary and poetic contexts. The 16th century colony that would eventually become Brazil was initially founded as "New Lusitania". In common use are such terms as Lusophone, meaning Portuguese-speaking, and Lusitanic, referring to the Community of Portuguese Language Countries—once Portugal's colonies and presently independent countries still sharing some common heritage.
Cisalpine Gaul (Gallia Cisalpina), also called Gallia Citerior or Gallia Togata, was the part of Italy inhabited by Celts (Gauls) during the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. Conquered by the Roman Republic in the 220s BC, it was a Roman province from c. 81 BC until 42 BC, when it was merged into Roman Italy. Until that time, it was considered part of Gaul, precisely that part of Gaul on the "hither side of the Alps" (from the perspective of the Romans), as opposed to Transalpine Gaul("on the far side of the Alps"). Gallia Cisalpina was further subdivided into Gallia Cispadana and Gallia Transpadana, i.e. its portions south and north of the Po River, respectively. The Roman province of the 1st century BC was bounded on the north and west by the Alps, in the south as far as Placentia by the river Po, and then by the Apennines and the river Rubicon, and in the east by the Adriatic Sea. In 49 BC all inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul received Roman citizenship, and eventually the province was divided among four of the eleven regions of Italy: Regio VIII Gallia Cispadana, Regio IX Liguria, Regio X Venetia et Histria and Regio XI Gallia Transpadana.
- The Rubicon River marked its southern boundary with Italia proper. By crossing this river in 49 BC with his battle-hardened legions, returning from the conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar precipitated the civil war within the Roman Republic which led, eventually, to the establishment of the Roman Empire. To this day the term "crossing the Rubicon" means, figuratively, "reaching the point of no return".
- The Rubicon River marked its southern boundary with Italia proper. By crossing this river in 49 BC with his battle-hardened legions, returning from the conquest of Gaul, Julius Caesar precipitated the civil war within the Roman Republic which led, eventually, to the establishment of the Roman Empire. To this day the term "crossing the Rubicon" means, figuratively, "reaching the point of no return".
palestine
- in 168 bce, a large group of palestinian jews led by judas maccabaeus waged a full scale war aginst the selecid king of syria, antiochus IV and his armies. The rebels fought to put an end to the onslaught of cultural and social changes taking place within palestine. This westernization process was quietly sanctioned by the priestly class, but it filled the hearts of average palestinians with disdain. Following antiochu's decision to turn the jerusalem temple into a temple of greek god zeus, jews revolted in 164 bce and successfully achieved the goal of turning the temple to the god of the jews.
- in 142 bce, simon, judas maccabeus' brother fought another battle against the seleucid army in palestine and won independence for judea for a brief period of time prior to roman occuption in 63 bce.
- jesus of nazareth was a jew and christianity began as an apocalyptic sect of palestinian judaism. Several decades after the death of jesus, the 4 gospels came into existence,.
- in 168 bce, a large group of palestinian jews led by judas maccabaeus waged a full scale war aginst the selecid king of syria, antiochus IV and his armies. The rebels fought to put an end to the onslaught of cultural and social changes taking place within palestine. This westernization process was quietly sanctioned by the priestly class, but it filled the hearts of average palestinians with disdain. Following antiochu's decision to turn the jerusalem temple into a temple of greek god zeus, jews revolted in 164 bce and successfully achieved the goal of turning the temple to the god of the jews.
- in 142 bce, simon, judas maccabeus' brother fought another battle against the seleucid army in palestine and won independence for judea for a brief period of time prior to roman occuption in 63 bce.
- jesus of nazareth was a jew and christianity began as an apocalyptic sect of palestinian judaism. Several decades after the death of jesus, the 4 gospels came into existence,.
Until the 1st century BC, roman legions were temporary citizen levies, raised for specific campaigns and disbanded after them. By the early 1st century BC, legions were mixed volunteer/conscript units. Legions became standing units, which could remain intact long after a particular campaign was finished. Large numbers of new legions were raised by rival warlords for the civil wars of the period 49–31 BC. However, when Augustus became sole ruler in 31 BC, he disbanded about half of the over 50 legions then in existence. The remaining 28 legions became the core of the early Imperial army of the Principate (27 BC – 284 AD), most lasting over three centuries. Augustus and his immediate successors transformed legions into permanent units, staffed by entirely career soldiers on standard 25-year terms. During the Dominate (late Empire, 284–476), legions were also professional, but are little understood due to scarcity of evidence compared to the Principate. What is clear is that late legions were radically different in size, structure, and tactical role from their predecessors, despite several retaining early period names. This was the result of the military reforms of Emperors Diocletian and Constantine I, and of further developments during the 4th century.
- Legio I Minervia ("Minerva's First Legion", i.e., "devoted to the goddess Minerva") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army founded in AD 82 by emperor Domitian (r. 81–96), for his campaign against the Germanic tribe of the Chatti. Its cognomen refers to the goddess Minerva, the legion's protector. There are still records of the I Minervia in the Rhine border region in the middle of the 4th century. The legion's emblem is an image of goddess Minerva. Legio I Minervia first, and main, camp was in the city of Bonna (modern Bonn), in the province of Germania Inferior. In 89, they suppressed a revolt of the governor of Germania Superior. Due to this, Domitian gave them the cognomen Pia Fidelis Domitiana (loyal and faithful to Domitian) to acknowledge their support.
rome
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-City-of-Rome-like-in-the-800s-the-ninth-century
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-city-of-ancient-Rome-as-big-as-they-made-it-in-the-movies
imperator
- https://www.quora.com/Why-were-many-Roman-emperors-childless-or-lacked-sons-to-succeed-them
Class
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-City-of-Rome-like-in-the-800s-the-ninth-century
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-city-of-ancient-Rome-as-big-as-they-made-it-in-the-movies
imperator
- https://www.quora.com/Why-were-many-Roman-emperors-childless-or-lacked-sons-to-succeed-them
Class
- Patrician (from Latin: patricius) is a term that originally referred to a group of ruling class families in ancient Rome. Although the distinction was highly significant in the early republic, its relevance waned after the Struggle of the Orders (494 BC to 287 BC) and by the time of the Late Republic and Empire, membership in this group was of only nominal significance. After the fall of the Western Empire it remained a high honorary title in the Byzantine Empire. Medieval patrician classes were once again formally defined groups of leading burgess families in many medieval Italian republics, such as Venice and Genoa, and subsequently "patrician" became a vague term used for aristocrats and the higher bourgeoisie in many countries.
- In ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census. From the 4th century BC or earlier, they were known as commoners (part of the lower social status). Literary references to the plebs, however, usually mean the ordinary citizens of Rome as a whole, as distinguished from the elite—a sense retained by "plebeian" in English. In the very earliest days of Rome, plebeians were any tribe without advisers to the King. In time, the word – which is related to the Greek word for crowd, plethos – came to mean the common people.
- Honestiores and humiliores are two categories of the population of Ancient Rome, roughly high and low casts. The division first appeared in the end of the 2-nd century A.D. The first category consisted of senators, equites, decuriones and some other social classes, the second of all other people. Honestiores had many privileges like they can not be tortured and can be killed by beheading and not damnatio ad bestias or crucifixion.上層民（honesty）とは、ローマ人やゴート人においては、元老院議員階層や貴族、騎士階層、属州における経済的上層階層、土地所有者、富裕な商人、経営者、退役兵士たちを意味していた。元老院議員階層（セナトール貴族）は、もっとも古くかつ最上位のパトリキからもっとも地味な都市参事会員まで、多くの階層で見出すことができる。僧侶も hontiores を構成していた。 212年にカラカラ帝が発布したアントニヌス勅令は、非ローマ市民権保持者に、ローマ市民権のもつ特権を与えることになったが、既に共和政時代から、特権は次第にホネスティオレスに制限されるようになっていった。この場合の特権とは、同じ罰を犯しても、死刑、体罰、強制労働から除外される、などの特権である。同じローマ市民権保持者でも、市民権の特権を行使されない事例が増えてくるのである。パトリキとプレブスの間の現実的相違が解消されるのに代わって、ホネスティオレス（上層民）とフミリオレス （下層民）の区別が取って代わったのである。用語上では、ホネスティオレスは法律的特権だけではなく、名誉や世評、尊厳、影響力など、ローマ社会内での地位を特定するものだった。その裏づけとなったのは、富や社会的責任、名誉などである。この社会的地位には、倫理や美徳が義務として課された。ホネスティオレスとフミリオレスの両者は、（現実には存在していたものの）三世紀以前には用語としては史料に登場しておらず、用語の定義もなされていなかった。しかし市民権保持者内の刑法上の区別は、現実に1世紀から発生しており、ハドリアヌス帝時代に法令に登場し、更にマルクス帝は刑法上の特権の世襲を元老院議員だけではなく、騎士身分にも拡大した[3]。ホネスティオレス（上層民） とフミリオレス （下層民） の間の階層は、ひとつの中間層を構成していて、いくばくかの富を所有し、商人を含み、中級の土地所有者であり、都市の参事会層であり、それ自身がひとつの階級であるように見える。彼らは、上層民のうちのもっとも低い階層においては、もっとも富裕な者であり、下層民のもっとも高い階層においては、もっとも貧しい者である。中間層は僧侶と執事たちを構成しているようにも見える。語源的には"もっとも卑しい者、もっとも貧しい者"を意味し[4]、 下層民（humilior） は、 人類の中でもっとも低い者、世界の中でもっとも低い者を意味した。[5] 自由人、農民、日雇い労働者、技師、貧乏人、土地を持たない者、下級聖職者たちは、下層民に分類された。彼らより上位の者は上層民（hontiors）とされ、彼らより低い者は奴隷だけとなった。解放奴隷は、いかに政治的・社会的地位は高くてもフミリオレスであった。
The Bar Kokhba revolt (Hebrew: מרד בר כוכבא; Mered Bar Kokhba) was a rebellion of the Jews of the Roman province of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire. Fought circa 132–136 CE, it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars, so it is also known as The Third Jewish–Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt. Some historians also refer to it as the Second Revolt of Judea, not counting the Kitos War (115–117 CE), which had only marginally been fought in Judea.
- In ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census. From the 4th century BC or earlier, they were known as commoners (part of the lower social status). Literary references to the plebs, however, usually mean the ordinary citizens of Rome as a whole, as distinguished from the elite—a sense retained by "plebeian" in English. In the very earliest days of Rome, plebeians were any tribe without advisers to the King. In time, the word – which is related to the Greek word for crowd, plethos – came to mean the common people.
- The gens Caecilia was a plebeian[i] family at Rome. Members of this gens are mentioned in history as early as the fifth century BC, but the first of the Caecilii who obtained the consulship was Lucius Caecilius Metellus Denter, in 284 BC.Like other Roman families in the later times of the Republic, the Caecilii traced their origin to a mythical personage, Caeculus, the founder of Praeneste. He was said to be the son of Vulcan, and engendered by a spark; a similar story was told of Servius Tullius. He was exposed as an infant, but preserved by his divine father, and raised by maidens. He grew up amongst the shepherds, and became a highwayman. Coming of age, he called upon the people of the countryside to build a new town, convincing them with the aid of a miracle. An alternative tradition claimed that the Caecilii were descended from Caecas, one of the companions of Aeneas, who came with him to Italy after the sack of Troy. The praenomina used by the Caecilii during the Republic are Lucius, Quintus, Gaius, and Marcus. Titus appears only towards the very end of the Republic, and is not known to have been used by the great house of the Caecilii Metelli.
- Cecilia, also known as Saint Cecilia, (Latin: Sancta Caecilia, English: alternate spelling - Cecilia) is the patroness of musicians. It is written that as the musicians played at her wedding she "sang in her heart to the Lord". Her feast day is celebrated in the Latin Catholic, Eastern Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches and in some churches of the Anglican Communion on November 22.The church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere is reputedly built on the site of the house in which she lived. The original church was constructed in the fourth century; during the ninth century, Pope Paschal I had remains which were supposedly hers buried there. The name "Cecilia" applied generally to Roman women who belonged to the plebeian clan of the Caecilii. Legends and hagiographies, mistaking it for a personal name, suggest fanciful etymologies. Among those cited by Chaucer in "The Second Nun's Tale" are: lily of heaven, the way for the blind, contemplation of heaven and the active life, as if lacking in blindness, and a heaven for people to gaze upon. Cecilia is frequently depicted playing a viola, a small organ, or other musical instrument.
- Honestiores and humiliores are two categories of the population of Ancient Rome, roughly high and low casts. The division first appeared in the end of the 2-nd century A.D. The first category consisted of senators, equites, decuriones and some other social classes, the second of all other people. Honestiores had many privileges like they can not be tortured and can be killed by beheading and not damnatio ad bestias or crucifixion.上層民（honesty）とは、ローマ人やゴート人においては、元老院議員階層や貴族、騎士階層、属州における経済的上層階層、土地所有者、富裕な商人、経営者、退役兵士たちを意味していた。元老院議員階層（セナトール貴族）は、もっとも古くかつ最上位のパトリキからもっとも地味な都市参事会員まで、多くの階層で見出すことができる。僧侶も hontiores を構成していた。 212年にカラカラ帝が発布したアントニヌス勅令は、非ローマ市民権保持者に、ローマ市民権のもつ特権を与えることになったが、既に共和政時代から、特権は次第にホネスティオレスに制限されるようになっていった。この場合の特権とは、同じ罰を犯しても、死刑、体罰、強制労働から除外される、などの特権である。同じローマ市民権保持者でも、市民権の特権を行使されない事例が増えてくるのである。パトリキとプレブスの間の現実的相違が解消されるのに代わって、ホネスティオレス（上層民）とフミリオレス （下層民）の区別が取って代わったのである。用語上では、ホネスティオレスは法律的特権だけではなく、名誉や世評、尊厳、影響力など、ローマ社会内での地位を特定するものだった。その裏づけとなったのは、富や社会的責任、名誉などである。この社会的地位には、倫理や美徳が義務として課された。ホネスティオレスとフミリオレスの両者は、（現実には存在していたものの）三世紀以前には用語としては史料に登場しておらず、用語の定義もなされていなかった。しかし市民権保持者内の刑法上の区別は、現実に1世紀から発生しており、ハドリアヌス帝時代に法令に登場し、更にマルクス帝は刑法上の特権の世襲を元老院議員だけではなく、騎士身分にも拡大した[3]。ホネスティオレス（上層民） とフミリオレス （下層民） の間の階層は、ひとつの中間層を構成していて、いくばくかの富を所有し、商人を含み、中級の土地所有者であり、都市の参事会層であり、それ自身がひとつの階級であるように見える。彼らは、上層民のうちのもっとも低い階層においては、もっとも富裕な者であり、下層民のもっとも高い階層においては、もっとも貧しい者である。中間層は僧侶と執事たちを構成しているようにも見える。語源的には"もっとも卑しい者、もっとも貧しい者"を意味し[4]、 下層民（humilior） は、 人類の中でもっとも低い者、世界の中でもっとも低い者を意味した。[5] 自由人、農民、日雇い労働者、技師、貧乏人、土地を持たない者、下級聖職者たちは、下層民に分類された。彼らより上位の者は上層民（hontiors）とされ、彼らより低い者は奴隷だけとなった。解放奴隷は、いかに政治的・社会的地位は高くてもフミリオレスであった。
- social mobility
- https://www.quora.com/How-could-a-poor-Roman-citizen-get-ahead-in-the-world
The Servile Wars were a series of three slave revolts ("servile" is derived from "servus", Latin for "slave") in the late Roman Republic.
- First Servile War (135−132 BC) — in Sicily, led by Eunus, a former slave claiming to be a prophet, and Cleon from Cilicia.
- Second Servile War (104−100 BC) — in Sicily, led by Athenion and Tryphon.
- Third Servile War (73−71 BC) — on mainland Italy, led by Spartacus.
The Third Servile War, also called by Plutarch the Gladiator War and The War of Spartacus, was the last in a series of slave rebellions against the Roman Republic, known collectively as the Servile Wars. The Third was the only one directly to threaten the Roman heartland of Italia. It was particularly alarming to Rome because its military seemed powerless to suppress it. The revolt began in 73 BC, with the escape of around 70 slave-gladiators from a gladiator school in Capua; they easily defeated the small Roman force sent to recapture them. Within two years, they had been joined by some 120,000 men, women and children; the able-bodied adults of this band were a surprisingly effective armed force that repeatedly showed they could withstand or defeat the Roman military, from the local Campanian patrols, to the Roman militia, and to trained Roman legions under consular command. The slaves wandered throughout Italia, raiding estates and towns with relative impunity, sometimes dividing their forces into separate but allied bands under the guidance of several leaders, including the famous gladiator-general Spartacus.
- Spartacus (Greek: Σπάρτακος Spártakos; Latin: Spartacus; c. 111–71 BC) was a Thracian gladiator who, along with the Gauls Crixus, Gannicus, Castus, and Oenomaus, was one of the escaped slave leaders in the Third Servile War, a major slave uprising against the Roman Republic. Little is known about Spartacus beyond the events of the war, and surviving historical accounts are sometimes contradictory and may not always be reliable. However, all sources agree that he was a former gladiator and an accomplished military leader. This rebellion, interpreted by some as an example of oppressed people fighting for their freedom against a slave-owning oligarchy, has provided inspiration for many political thinkers, and has been featured in literature, television, and film. Although this interpretation is not specifically contradicted by classical historians, no historical account mentions that the goal was to end slavery in the Republic.
- The Greek essayist Plutarch describes Spartacus as "a Thracian of Nomadic stock",[2] in a possible reference to the Maedi tribe.[3] Appiansays he was "a Thracian by birth, who had once served as a soldier with the Romans, but had since been a prisoner and sold for a gladiator". Florus described him as one "who, from a Thracian mercenary, had become a Roman soldier, that had deserted and became enslaved, and afterward, from consideration of his strength, a gladiator".[5] The authors refer to the Thracian tribe of the Maedi, which occupied the area on the southwestern fringes of Thrace, along its border with the Roman province of Macedonia - present day south-western Bulgaria.[9] Plutarch also writes that Spartacus' wife, a prophetess of the Maedi tribe, was enslaved with him. The name Spartacus is otherwise manifested in the Black Sea region. Kings of the Thracian dynasty of the Cimmerian Bosporus and Pontus are known to have borne it, and a Thracian "Sparta" "Spardacus" or "Sparadokos", father of Seuthes I of the Odrysae, is also known.
- Toussaint Louverture, a leader of the slave revolt that led to the independence of Haiti, has been called the "Black Spartacus". Adam Weishaupt, founder of the Bavarian Illuminati, often referred to himself as Spartacus within written correspondences.In modern times, Spartacus became an icon for communists and socialists. Karl Marx listed Spartacus as one of his heroes and described him as "the most splendid fellow in the whole of ancient history" and a "great general (though no Garibaldi), noble character, real representative of the ancient proletariat".[51] Spartacus has been a great inspiration to left-wing revolutionaries, most notably the German Spartacus League(1915–18), a forerunner of the Communist Party of Germany. A January 1919 uprising by communists in Germany was called the Spartacist uprising. Spartacus Books, one of the longest running collectively-run leftist bookstores in North America, is also named in his honour.Several sports clubs around the world, in particular the former Soviet and the Communist bloc, were named after the Roman gladiator. Spartak's name was chosen in numerous football sides in Slavic Europe. The film Spartacus (1960), which was executive-produced by and starred Kirk Douglas, was based on Howard Fast's novel Spartacus and directed by Stanley Kubrick. The phrase "I'm Spartacus!" from this film has been referenced in a number of other films, television programs, and commercials.
- http://www.festivekorea.com/en/programme/korean-national-ballet-spartacus/2018-11-16/ Established in 1962, Korean National Ballet has been leading ballet in Korea through its wide repertories. It has successfully spread an incredible reputation worldwide, and is proactively reaching out to the public and putting on more regional performances. Korean National Ballet prepared Spartacus, which is based on the true story of the Roman Empire. Yuri Grigorovich’s special version of Spartacus was created in ‘Bolshoi’ in 1968, where Pas de Deux of Phrygia and Spartacus were presented through spectacular movements of the male group dancers. This year, his production of Spartacus reached its 50th birthday.
First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), sometimes called The Great Revolt(Hebrew: המרד הגדול ha-Mered Ha-Gadol), was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews of Judea Province (Iudaea) against the Roman Empire. The second was the Kitos War in 115–117, which took place mainly in the diaspora, and the third was Bar Kokhba's revolt of 132–136 CE.
The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 was the decisive event of the First Jewish–Roman War. The Roman army, led by the future Emperor Titus, with Tiberius Julius Alexander as his second-in-command, besieged and conquered the city of Jerusalem, which had been occupied by its Jewish defenders in 66. The siege ended with the sacking of the city and the destruction of its Second Temple. The destruction of both the first and second temples is still mourned annually as the Jewish fast Tisha B'Av. The Arch of Titus, celebrating the Roman sack of Jerusalem and the Temple, still stands in Rome.
The Bar Kokhba revolt (Hebrew: מרד בר כוכבא; Mered Bar Kokhba) was a rebellion of the Jews of the Roman province of Judea, led by Simon bar Kokhba, against the Roman Empire. Fought circa 132–136 CE, it was the last of three major Jewish–Roman wars, so it is also known as The Third Jewish–Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt. Some historians also refer to it as the Second Revolt of Judea, not counting the Kitos War (115–117 CE), which had only marginally been fought in Judea.
western roman empire near its end
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-final-years-of-the-Western-Roman-Empire-like
Anatolius (fl. 421–451) was a diplomat and general of the Eastern Roman Empire and Consulin 440. He was very influential during the reign of Theodosius II, and held command of the Empire's eastern armies for 13 years and led negotiations with Attila the Hun on several occasions.
boundary
- https://www.quora.com/We-already-know-how-far-the-Roman-border-was-but-how-far-did-they-explore-to They knew the Indian Ocean (Erythraean Sea) and went as far in the south as Zanzibar. They were aware of the winds to catch to get to India. They were aware China existed, and China was aware they existed. Romans called Serica the most eastern country of the world they knew, and Chinese called the Romans Daqin. Relations were established for the first time in 166. They were aware of the African nations of the Upper Nile (Nubia, Ethiopia). They knew the Canary islands existed. They had names for every island of the archipelago. They knew Ireland (Hibernia) existed.
judea
- https://www.quora.com/Who-were-the-Romans-patrolling-Palestine-and-where-were-they-from The Roman military forces that garrisoned the province of Judea, which most people in the Western World know of because of the references to them in the Christian New Testament, were not legionaries, but auxiliaries, largely inherited from the military forces from the Herodian Kingdom that was abolished in 6 CE. Those military forces were either recruited from the non-Jewish population of Judea, or else were foreign mercenaries. Legions were not stationed in Judea until the time of the First Jewish revolt, when they were brought in to suppress that revolt and the two subsequent ones (the Kitos War and the Bar Kochba uprising).
external relations
- https://www.quora.com/Were-the-Romans-of-the-Roman-Empire-ever-curious-as-to-what-lay-on-the-other-side-of-the-Atlantic-Or-did-they-not-care-too-much-for-exploring
economy
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-antique-Roman-economy-a-capitalist-a-mixed-or-a-socialist-economy the Roman economy was a largely agrarian one characterized by a number of small agricultural and industrial producers as well as a wealthy class using a significant amount of servile labor. These operated under an extensive regime of taxation and redistribution run by an oligarchy or an autocrat. Those aren’t socialism, capitalism, or a mix. They’re very different approaches to an economy.
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-antique-Roman-economy-a-capitalist-a-mixed-or-a-socialist-economy the Roman economy was a largely agrarian one characterized by a number of small agricultural and industrial producers as well as a wealthy class using a significant amount of servile labor. These operated under an extensive regime of taxation and redistribution run by an oligarchy or an autocrat. Those aren’t socialism, capitalism, or a mix. They’re very different approaches to an economy.
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-Roman-economy-like
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-Roman-Empire-stagnant-technologically-after-the-crisis-of-the-third-century
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-Roman-Empire-stagnant-technologically-after-the-crisis-of-the-third-century
- https://www.quora.com/Which-Roman-emperors-really-understood-economics
- https://www.quora.com/Were-Romans-more-advanced-than-most-medieval-kingdoms
- https://www.quora.com/Were-Romans-more-advanced-than-most-medieval-kingdoms
- monetary
- https://www.quora.com/Did-Rome-understand-the-risk-of-devaluing-it-s-currency During the 200s AD Rome went through a series of grandiose emperors. They figured by conquering Sassanian Persia. They could gain a monopoly on the Silk Road. Caracalla introduced the Antonianus or Double Denarius in 215. But it only had only 1.5 the silver content. So Gresham's Law took effect. People hoarded old denarii and raised prices for the debased Antonianus. So in the late 100s 0.5 denarius could buy one modius or 8 liters or 2 gallons of wheat. By 301 in Diocletian's reign it was up to 300 denarii per one modius. The gamble failed, Rome failed to conquer Persia and hyperinflation set in like the Weimar Republic.
roman as a nationality
- https://www.quora.com/Which-Roman-emperors-were-not-of-Roman-descent
- https://www.quora.com/Were-ancient-Romans-white-blue-eyed-and-blonde
- https://www.quora.com/Which-Roman-emperors-were-not-of-Roman-descent
- https://www.quora.com/Were-ancient-Romans-white-blue-eyed-and-blonde
- https://www.quora.com/Where-did-Roman-people-come-from-before-they-became-Romans Centurians were provided with a vine cane, partly as a sign of rank, mainly to use on their troops. If a man fell out during one of the twenty mile per week route marches, or when marching to combat, the centurian was legally allowed to kill them. Decimation was an extreme form of punishment for cowardice by an entire unit, and so was not in everyday use.
- The vine staff, vine-staff, or centurion's staff (Latin: vitis)[2] was a vinewood rod of about 3 feet (1 m) in length used in the ancient Roman Army and Navy. It was the mark and tool of the centurion:[6] both as an implement in the direction of drill and maneuvers[citation needed]; and to beat wayward or laggard soldiers or sailors under his command. It was also borne by evocati who held an equivalent rank.The vine staff may have derived from the Etruscan lituus and was certainly in use by the Punic Wars. Following the enactment of the Porcian Laws in the early 2nd century bc, it was the only manner by which Roman citizens could be beaten and is mentioned by various classical authors. A line in Ovid notes that "the good general commits the vitis to one to command one hundred."藤杖（vine staff或vine-staff）或称百夫长手杖（centurion's staff），古罗马陆军[2][3]和海军[4]中使用的一种长约3英尺（1米）的葡萄藤木手杖。它是百夫长的象征：不仅可以用来指挥训练和演习，还能用来惩处麾下的士兵。同级别的留任老兵也携带这种手杖。
- citizenship
- https://www.quora.com/I-know-that-being-a-Roman-citizen-got-you-all-sorts-of-rights-and-privileges-way-back-in-the-day-but-how-did-they-make-sure-that-a-persons-claim-to-citizenship-was-legitimate
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-something-ancient-Romans-were-surprisingly-liberal-about
- mid to late Republic armies were often times, majority composed of allied Italians units, trained up to legionary standard and looked like legions, but were classified as Socii Latini and Cives Latini (semi citizens or nation with special status). These units regularly rebelled (often to obtain better status within the Roman Confederation, not independence). This only ended when the second status Italians revolted and demanded to be included as full citizens: Social War - Wikipedia While this was a regular occurrence, it did not please the Roman or Allied population. It was viewed as a family squabble. https://www.quora.com/What-were-Roman-troops-thoughts-when-they-faced-against-other-Roman-troops-such-as-in-a-civil-war-or-rivalry-among-Roman-generals-For-example-were-they-more-merciful
- https://www.quora.com/Roman-citizens-were-free-to-travel-throughout-the-Empire-unimpeded-but-how-did-they-prove-they-were-Roman-Did-they-have-the-equivalent-of-a-passport
- physical attributes
- https://www.quora.com/Were-the-Romans-really-as-big-as-they-are-portrayed-in-movies-How-tall-and-heavy-were-they-And-does-that-match-the-diet-that-they-consumed
military
- centurion
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-it-like-to-be-an-ancient-Roman-centurion
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Roman-military-really-light-pigs-on-fire-to-send-in-the-direction-of-their-enemies-What-was-the-purpose
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Roman-army-maintain-discipline
- https://www.quora.com/Which-emperor-had-the-biggest-impact-on-the-Roman-military Gaius Marius was the guy who transformed the Roman Army into the egalitarian military machine it is legendary for. A mission known as the Marian Reforms in 106 BC.Before Marius the quality of the legions were divided into three classes - the hastati, principes and the triarii. These divisions however were rather class-based because although the state provided for your equipment, it was all about class. Class in Rome was measured by the wealth of your property. You had to have property and some measure of wealth to serve back then. The lowest classes - the proletarii - weren’t allowed to serve. In fact their name basically means “to have children.”
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-Roman-Legions-after-the-fall-of-the-Western-Roman-Empire
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Roman-empire-at-its-height-manage-to-defend-such-long-borders-on-both-land-and-sea The Roman borders in the West were protected by the Atlantic Ocean. As we all know, there was never going to be shit coming from that direction.
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Roman-empire-at-its-height-manage-to-defend-such-long-borders-on-both-land-and-sea The Roman borders in the West were protected by the Atlantic Ocean. As we all know, there was never going to be shit coming from that direction.
On the Southern frontier, there were the Moors and other tribes from the Sahara Desert. These groups were dealt with similarly to the Germanic tribes that dominated up north: through a mix of playing politics, making agreements, and creating formidable defenses, Rome was able to avoid large confrontations in Africa. And also, the Sahara is not a great staging point for an invasion in any scenario.On the Eastern frontier, the Parthian Empire loomed large. Here was a power that could actually stand with Rome on semi-equal footing as a civilized nation. Parthia had previously defeated Rome in humiliating fashion when Marcus Crassus marched his army into Mesopotamia in 55 BCE and was dealt a crushing loss. Roman authorities knew that Parthia was not to be dealt with lightly. Luckily for Rome, Parthia was usually amenable to peace rather than war. They rarely went on the offensive against Rome, preferring to stay within their own sphere of influence, which the Romans were more than happy to go along with. The two empires traded, made agreements, and worked together on various occasions.On the rare occasion that Parthia and Rome did come to blows, the Romans were the stronger power, as showcased by Trajan’s wars in the 110s. He pushed all the way to the mouth of the Persian Gulf before experiencing troubles and dying before he could finish the job. In the aftermath, Parthia readily accepted a peace from Trajan’s successor Hadrian, restoring a stable border on the Euphrates River. In the few wars that followed this, Rome always came out on top.
- legion nine
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-Ninth-Legion-of-Rome Legion nine, also known as Legio IX “Hispana”, is believed to have suffered a mysterious loss from an ambush between England and Scottish border. Nobody knows for sure what really happened, but it is certain that the 5,000 soldiers of the Legio IX Hispana mysteriously disappeared in 108 AD, probably defeated by local britons. That disaster is considered as one reason why the Romans didn’t go ahead and try to conquer Scotland, considering the unknown territory and local fierce fighters.
- https://www.quora.com/What-actually-happened-to-the-Roman-Ninth-Legion-that-vanished-from-present-day-Scotland-in-the-second-century
- ranks
- first spear
- https://www.quora.com/Are-any-ancient-Roman-soldiers-famous According to the memories of the great leader, Pullo and Vorenus fiercely competed for promotion to the rank of primus pilus (“the first spear”), the highest centurion in the Roman legion and commander of the first legion cohort.
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-conquered-people-forced-to-do-when-Romans-defeated-them
- https://www.quora.com/Who-were-the-Roman-soldiers-who-wore-the-lion-headdress
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Roman-legions-and-other-ancient-armies-wear-sandals-into-battle
- https://www.quora.com/If-youre-a-married-Roman-citizen-serving-the-legion-hundreds-of-miles-from-home-how-is-your-family-supported
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-brutal-realities-of-life-in-the-Roman-Legions
- https://www.quora.com/Did-Romans-really-fight-the-way-they-are-portrayed-in-the-opening-scene-in-the-Rome-HBO-series-with-rotating-soldiers-fighting-10-15-seconds-at-a-time-before-heading-to-the-back-of-the-line
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-Roman-legions-handle-the-engineering-side-of-their-duties-on-a-day-to-day-basis
- https://www.quora.com/Who-were-considered-the-elite-group-of-Roman-soldiers
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-brutal-realities-of-life-in-the-Roman-Legions
- https://www.quora.com/Did-Romans-really-fight-the-way-they-are-portrayed-in-the-opening-scene-in-the-Rome-HBO-series-with-rotating-soldiers-fighting-10-15-seconds-at-a-time-before-heading-to-the-back-of-the-line
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-Roman-legions-handle-the-engineering-side-of-their-duties-on-a-day-to-day-basis
- https://www.quora.com/Who-were-considered-the-elite-group-of-Roman-soldiers
- uniform
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Roman-Legions-enforce-any-form-of-uniform-or-grooming-standard-like-modern-militaries-do-today note their hats
- https://www.quora.com/Did-Roman-soldiers-really-not-wear-any-pants-Shouldnt-the-legs-be-an-area-that-should-have-been-protected
- training and discipline
- https://www.quora.com/What-discipline-did-the-Roman-army-have
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Romans-use-whistles-on-the-battlefield It should be noted, however, that we do not have any information in ancient sources saying that Roman centurions or other military officers were issuing orders with whistles. Such version of events is still discussed among scientists, but with no clear conclusions. What’s more, none of the found whistles was located strictly in the Roman fortifications, which would suggest its use for war or training activities. When searching for materials, I did not find any reliable information supporting the use of whistles in legions. For this reason, I believe that durng battle Romans used banners / flags or instruments. From the instruments most known and associated with military life were trumpets (tuba) and signal horns (1. cornu</ em> used by a soldier cornicen; or 2. buccina used by bucinatora). On long distances, for example between forts, messages were transferred through light signs – using campfire on the hills.
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-soldiers-eat-in-the-Ancient-Roman-Army
- people
- Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (/ˈskɪpioʊ/; 236–183 BC), also known as Scipio Africanus-Major, Scipio Africanus the Elder and Scipio the Great,[3] was a Roman general and later consul who is often regarded as one of the greatest military commanders and strategists of all time. His main achievements were during the Second Punic War where he is best known for defeating Hannibal at the final battle of the Battle of Zama in 202 BC, one of the feats that earned him the agnomen Africanus. Prior to this battle (near modern Zama, Tunisia) Scipio also conquered Carthaginian Iberia, culminating in the Battle of Ilipa (near Alcalá del Río, Spain) in 206 BC against Hannibal's brother Mago Barca. Although considered a hero by the general Roman populace, primarily for his contributions in the struggle against the Carthaginians, Scipio was reviled by other patricians of his day. In his later years, he was tried for bribery and treason, unfounded charges that were only meant to discredit him before the public. Disillusioned by the ingratitude of his peers, Scipio left Rome and withdrew from public life.
roman navy
- Baiae (Italian: Baia; Neapolitan: Baia) was an ancient Roman town situated on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Naples, and now in the comune of Bacoli. It was a fashionable resort for centuries in antiquity, particularly towards the end of the Roman Republic, when it was reckoned as superior to Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Capri by the super-rich who built luxurious villas here from 100 BC to 500 a.d. It was notorious for its hedonistic offerings and the attendant rumours of corruption and scandal. It later formed part of Port Julius, the base of the western fleet of the Imperial Roman Navy which however was abandoned because of the silting up of Lake Lucrinus (from which a short channel led to Lake Avernus) for the two harbors at Cape Misenum 4 miles south. A good portion of the ruins of the town were largely submerged by local volcanic, bradyseismic activity behind which raised or lowered the land. Baiae was said to have been named after Baius (Greek: Βαῖος, Baîos), the helmsman of Odysseus's ship in Homer's Odyssey, who was supposedly buried nearby.[2] The adjacent "Baian Gulf" (Latin: Sinus Baianus) was named after the town. It now forms the western part of the Gulf of Pozzuoli. The settlement was also mentioned in 178 bc under the name Aquae Cumanae ("Cumaean Waters").Baiae was built on the Cumaean Peninsula in the Phlegraean Fields, an active volcanic area. It was perhaps originally developed as the port for Cumae.联盟 (古罗马) Foederati (/ˌfɛdəˈreɪtaɪ/ in English; sing. foederatus /ˌfɛdəˈreɪtəs/) were foreign states, client kingdoms, or barbarian tribes to which ancient Rome provided benefits in exchange for military assistance. The term was also used, especially under the Roman Empire, for groups of "barbarian" mercenaries of various sizes, who were typically allowed to settle within the Roman Empire.Early in the history of the Roman Republic, a foederatus identified one of the tribes bound by treaty (foedus /ˈfiːdəs/), who were neither Roman colonies nor beneficiaries of Roman citizenship (civitas), but were expected to provide a contingent of fighting men when trouble arose, thus being allies. The Latini tribe were considered blood allies, but the rest were federates or socii. The friction between these treaty obligations without the corresponding benefits of Romanity led to the Social War between the Romans, with a few close allies, and the disaffected Socii. A law of 90 BCE (Lex Julia) offered Roman citizenship to the federate states that accepted the terms. Not all cities were prepared to be absorbed into the Roman res publica (e.g., Heraclea and Naples). Other foederati lay beyond Italy: Gades in Spain; and Massilia (Marseilles).Later[when?], the sense of the term foederati and its usage and meaning was extended by the Roman practice of subsidizing entire barbarian tribes — which included the Franks, Vandals, Alans, Huns and, best known, the Visigoths — in exchange for providing warriors to fight in the Roman armies. Alaric began his career leading a band of Gothic foederati.[citation needed] At first, the Roman subsidy took the form of money or food, but as tax revenues dwindled in the 4th and 5th centuries, the foederatiwere billeted on local landowners, which came to be identical to being allowed to settle on Roman territory. Large local landowners living in distant border provinces (see "marches") on extensive, largely self-sufficient villas, found their loyalties to the central authority, already conflicted by other developments, further compromised in such situations. Then, as these loyalties wavered and became more local, the Empire began to devolve into smaller territories and closer personal fealties.
- Rome collapsed in 476 from a lack of money. Since the Franks, Visigoths, Vandals, Burgundians, Suebi & Alans who settled with the empire demanded & got foederati status. That means they were free allied states. That means they didn't pay any taxes just military service. If you look at the map. That's a lot of real estate sitting idle. But in 451 these foederati fought in the Battle of Chalons against the Attila the Hun & his Gepid, Rugii, Heruli, Alans & Ostrogothic vassals.https://www.quora.com/What-actually-happened-to-the-Roman-Ninth-Legion-that-vanished-from-present-day-Scotland-in-the-second-century
A consul held the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic (509 to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the highest level of the cursus honorum (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired). Each year, the citizens of Rome elected two consuls to serve jointly for a one-year term. The consuls alternated in holding imperium each month,[citation needed] and a consul's imperium extended over Rome, Italy, and the provinces. However, after the establishment of the Empire(27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome's republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with theEmperor acting as the supreme authority.
senate
- https://www.quora.com/When-Odoacer-ended-the-Western-Empire-what-happened-to-the-Senate-Did-they-still-congregate-If-so-what-would-they-discuss-and-how-long-did-this-last-Eventually-what-happened-to-them-Were-they-welcomed-as-Senators-in
eunuch
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-technique-and-operation-of-making-somebody-a-eunuch-in-ancient-Rome
The Athenaeum was a school (ludus) founded by the Emperor Hadrian in Rome, for the promotion of literary and scientific studies (ingenuarum artium) and called Athenaeum from the town of Athens, which was still regarded as the seat of intellectual refinement.
rich people
- markus crassus
- Marcus married a noblewoman named Caecilia Metella. When she died, either Marcus or his identically-named son (whom we’ll call Marcus Jr.) commissioned a colossal tomb near the third milestone of the Appian Way. This structure, so large that it was converted into a castle in the middle ages, still stands today.https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-immense-wealth-Crassus-had-built-up-in-the-Roman-Republic-after-he-unexpectedly-died-at-the-Battle-of-Carrhae
gladiator
- Ephesus was the place where gladiator fights took place – we have many artifacts from this place, including graffiti, indicating that they have taken place since 69 BCE. Ephesus was once a powerful eastern city with over 200,000 inhabitants. https://www.quora.com/What-were-gladiators-diets-and-physique-likePatronage (clientela) was the distinctive relationship in ancient Roman society between the patronus (plural patroni, "patron") and their cliens (plural clientes, "client"). The relationship was hierarchical, but obligations were mutual. The patronus was the protector, sponsor, and benefactor of the client; the technical term for this protection was patrocinium. Although typically the client was of inferior social class,[2] a patron and client might even hold the same social rank, but the former would possess greater wealth, power, or prestige that enabled them to help or do favors for the client. From the emperor at the top to the local municipal person at the bottom, the bonds between these groups found formal expression in legal definition of patrons' responsibilities to clients. Benefits a patron might confer include legal representation in court, loans of money, influencing business deals or marriages, and supporting a client's candidacy for political office or a priesthood. In return, the clients were expected to offer their services to their patron as needed. A freedman became the client of his former master. A patronage relationship might also exist between a general and his soldiers, a founder and colonists, and a conqueror and a dependent foreign community.
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Roman-unemployed-survive-without-jobs
trade
- https://www.quora.com/Is-it-true-that-after-the-Roman-empire-fell-people-on-what-previously-were-Roman-territories-had-more-food-to-eat Collapse of the international trade network meant there was no more cheap Egyptian grain available nor shipping. Most Roman inhabitants ate really badly. See Most Ancient Romans Ate Like Animals. No feasts and orgia among the vulgus. The 98 percent of Romans who were non-elite and whose feasts weren't preserved in art may have been stuck eating birdseed. Common people in ancient Rome ate millet, a grain looked down upon by the wealthy as fit only for livestock, according to a new study published in the March issue of the Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. And consumption of millet may have been linked to overall social status, with relatively poorer suburbanites eating more of the grain than did wealthier city dwellers. The results come from an analysis of anonymous skeletons in the ancient city's cemeteries. The last centuries in the unified Empire and Western Empire were those of poverty and over-taxation. The taxation could exceed 40% easily and monetary economy had all but collapsed. For most ordinary citizens, the Barbarians came as liberators. The taxation burden easened remarkably. The West began to recover on the Merovingian era, after the Justinian plague. The collapse of the international trade meant recovery of local production. Less dividers meant more shares for the same divisible. New agricultural methods - heavy wheeled plough, horse collar and crop rotation - meant more efficient agriculture and much better crops. Harnessing wind and water power instead of slaves grinding quern-stones meant more effective milling and better flours. It also meant better chances of keeping domestic animals and fowl, which meant more meat, bird and fish on the table. The Western European population had reached the Imperial Roman population by the end of the Merovingian era (451 to 751) and exceeded the Imperial Roman Five Good Emperors’ era living standards by 10th century.
Note that this applies only to the Western Europe. In the East, the Roman Empire continued its existence as ever; and the population of Constantinople exceeded that of Rome at its height, and there never were any Dark Ages in the East. The Eastern Roman Empire was the most powerful, influential and rich empire well into the 12th century, rivalled only by Tang China.
- maritime
- https://www.quora.com/If-the-Roman-Empire-had-not-fallen-then-would-they-have-colonized-the-Americas
roads
- The Appian Way (Latin and Italian: Via Appia) was one of the earliest and strategically most important Roman roads of the ancient republic. It connected Rome to Brindisi, in southeast Italy.The road is named after Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman censor who began and completed the first section as a military road to the south in 312 BC[4] during the Samnite Wars.
- detailed russian, belarusian and ukrainian wikipedia versions
- according to mcgrath, it is one of the busiest commercial transport routes in italy
- technique
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Roman-roads-survive-for-so-long-After-2-millenniums-they-are-still-being-used
Aqueduct
- The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to supply water. The city of Rome itself was supplied by eleven aqueducts made of limestone that provided the city with over 1 million cubic metres of water each day, sufficient for 3.5 million people even in modern-day times, and with a combined length of 350 kilometres (220 mi). Water inside the aqueducts depended entirely on gravity. The raised stone channels in which the water travelled were slightly slanted. The water was carried directly from mountain springs. After it had gone through the aqueduct, the water was collected in tanks and fed through pipes to fountains, toilets, etc.The main aqueducts in Ancient Rome were the Aqua Claudia and the Aqua Marcia. Most aqueducts were constructed below the surface with only small portions above ground supported by arches. The longest Roman aqueduct, 178 kilometres (111 mi) in length, was traditionally assumed to be that which supplied the city of Carthage. The complex system built to supply Constantinople had its most distant supply drawn from over 120 km away along a sinuous route of more than 336 km.An aqueduct also supplied water for the overshot wheels at Barbegal in Roman Gaul, a complex of water mills hailed as "the greatest known concentration of mechanical power in the ancient world".construction
- https://www.quora.com/Why-didn-t-concrete-become-a-popular-building-material-throughout-the-Roman-Empire-or-used-after-its-demise
salt industry
- https://www.quora.com/How-useful-was-it-to-pay-Roman-Legions-with-salt-Did-they-use-it-personally-or-barter-it-out in Italy there was a road Via Salaria that stretched from Rome, from the gate Porta Salaria, to Castrum Truentinum and then to the Adriatic coast. The route is named because of salt – Sabini brought salt here. The Adriatic Sea is a reservoir with a higher degree of salinity compared to the Tyrrhenian Sea, which is closer to Rome.
technology
- https://www.quora.com/Were-the-Romans-able-to-chill-wine-and-if-so-how-far-back-were-they-able-to-do-so
- https://www.quora.com/How-accurate-is-the-belief-that-the-Middle-Ages-in-Europe-was-much-less-technologically-advanced-than-the-Roman-Empire-that-preceded-it-What-beliefs-did-the-people-of-the-Middle-Ages-hold-about-the-Roman-Empire
salt industry
- https://www.quora.com/How-useful-was-it-to-pay-Roman-Legions-with-salt-Did-they-use-it-personally-or-barter-it-out in Italy there was a road Via Salaria that stretched from Rome, from the gate Porta Salaria, to Castrum Truentinum and then to the Adriatic coast. The route is named because of salt – Sabini brought salt here. The Adriatic Sea is a reservoir with a higher degree of salinity compared to the Tyrrhenian Sea, which is closer to Rome.
technology
- https://www.quora.com/Were-the-Romans-able-to-chill-wine-and-if-so-how-far-back-were-they-able-to-do-so
- https://www.quora.com/How-accurate-is-the-belief-that-the-Middle-Ages-in-Europe-was-much-less-technologically-advanced-than-the-Roman-Empire-that-preceded-it-What-beliefs-did-the-people-of-the-Middle-Ages-hold-about-the-Roman-Empire
calendar
- https://blog.britishmuseum.org/whats-in-a-name-months-of-the-year/
viticulture
- [ochsle] grapevine arrived in germania with roman conquest, first on mosel and later on rhine. The mosel was ground zero both politically and viticulturally, with trier - then called augsta trevororum - destined to become capital of western roman empire (in 4th century). Remains of ancient wine presses were found in towns such as piesport, brauneberg and erden. Roman consul and poet decimius magnus ausonius composes "mosella", 483-hexameter ode to the river and its steep vineyards. Wine was transported by barge "neumagen wine ship" a stone sculpture from tomb of 3rd century wine merchant.
wine and dine
- Marcus Gavius Apicius is believed to have been a Roman gourmet and lover of luxury, who lived sometime in the 1st century AD, during the reign of Tiberius. The Roman cookbook Apicius is often attributed to him, though it is impossible to prove the connection. He was the subject of On the Luxury of Apicius, a famous work, now lost, by the Greek grammarian Apion. M. Gavius Apicius apparently owed his cognomen (his third name) to an earlier Apicius, who lived around 90 BC, whose family name it may have been: if this is true, Apicius had come to mean "gourmand" as a result of the fame of this earlier lover of luxury.
- Marcus Gavius Apicius is believed to have been a Roman gourmet and lover of luxury, who lived sometime in the 1st century AD, during the reign of Tiberius. The Roman cookbook Apicius is often attributed to him, though it is impossible to prove the connection. He was the subject of On the Luxury of Apicius, a famous work, now lost, by the Greek grammarian Apion. M. Gavius Apicius apparently owed his cognomen (his third name) to an earlier Apicius, who lived around 90 BC, whose family name it may have been: if this is true, Apicius had come to mean "gourmand" as a result of the fame of this earlier lover of luxury.
- A triclinium (plural: triclinia) is a formal dining room in a Roman building. The word is adopted from the Greek τρικλίνιον, triklinion, from τρι-, tri-, "three", and κλίνη, klinē, a sort of "couch" or rather chaise longue. Each couch was wide enough to accommodate three diners who reclined on their left side on cushions while some household slaves served multiple courses rushed out of the culina, or kitchen, and others entertained guests with music, song, or dance.
- https://www.quora.com/The-triclinium-seems-to-me-a-very-uncomfortable-way-to-eat-Why-did-wealthy-ancient-Greeks-and-Romans-choose-this-discomfort
- https://www.quora.com/Would-ancient-Roman-food-be-considered-tasty-by-modern-people
- https://www.quora.com/What-kind-of-bread-did-the-Romans-eat
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-citizenry-of-Ancient-Rome-mostly-eat-out
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-Greek-and-Romans-eat-in-the-Roman-times
costume
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-ancient-Romans-wear-in-the-winter The first of the clothes that allowed Romans to survive the cold climate in northern Europe was the mantle. Two types of Roman cloaks were distinguished: paenula and sagum. Especially the second type was unusually large and heavy (and therefore warm); the paenula, in turn, was distinguished by a hood. As evidenced by the Roman stella found on the Rhine, the Romans sometimes also used subpaenulae, a protective layer put under the coat. Interestingly, these coats were very resistant to water because they retained lanolin – animal wax. Romans also naturally had to protect their usually exposed feet and legs from freezing temperatures. Socks (udones) were used for this purpose. We know this, among others, from the letters found in the Roman camp in Britain – Vindolanda; soldiers received such gifts from families. The socks were made in two ways: (1) by cutting fabric pieces and stitching them from the fabric or (2) by crocheting. Artifacts of each type were found in Gaul and even in Egypt. In order to protect the calves, rectangular pieces were used, which were wrapped around the legs and tied to hanging chains of material. This dress is probably of German origin and was used in Britain. The logic of the operation of this dress is similar to the wrappers used in the nineteenth and twentieth century. Antique wrappers were termed fascia. Another way to protect the legs from the cold were pants, which in the mind of the Romans were a determinant of barbarity. They were worn by the Celts and Germans, and therefore enjoyed little recognition. It is certain, however, that the Romans appreciated their usefulness and certainly they were worn. The earliest evidence for this comes from the period of the Dacian wars (the beginning of the 2nd century CE).
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-underwear-use-by-ancient-Romans
living condition
- https://www.quora.com/What-kind-of-bread-did-the-Romans-eat
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-citizenry-of-Ancient-Rome-mostly-eat-out
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-Greek-and-Romans-eat-in-the-Roman-times
costume
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-ancient-Romans-wear-in-the-winter The first of the clothes that allowed Romans to survive the cold climate in northern Europe was the mantle. Two types of Roman cloaks were distinguished: paenula and sagum. Especially the second type was unusually large and heavy (and therefore warm); the paenula, in turn, was distinguished by a hood. As evidenced by the Roman stella found on the Rhine, the Romans sometimes also used subpaenulae, a protective layer put under the coat. Interestingly, these coats were very resistant to water because they retained lanolin – animal wax. Romans also naturally had to protect their usually exposed feet and legs from freezing temperatures. Socks (udones) were used for this purpose. We know this, among others, from the letters found in the Roman camp in Britain – Vindolanda; soldiers received such gifts from families. The socks were made in two ways: (1) by cutting fabric pieces and stitching them from the fabric or (2) by crocheting. Artifacts of each type were found in Gaul and even in Egypt. In order to protect the calves, rectangular pieces were used, which were wrapped around the legs and tied to hanging chains of material. This dress is probably of German origin and was used in Britain. The logic of the operation of this dress is similar to the wrappers used in the nineteenth and twentieth century. Antique wrappers were termed fascia. Another way to protect the legs from the cold were pants, which in the mind of the Romans were a determinant of barbarity. They were worn by the Celts and Germans, and therefore enjoyed little recognition. It is certain, however, that the Romans appreciated their usefulness and certainly they were worn. The earliest evidence for this comes from the period of the Dacian wars (the beginning of the 2nd century CE).
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-underwear-use-by-ancient-Romans
living condition
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-biggest-misconception-we-have-about-common-life-in-Rome-during-the-Roman-Empire
- https://www.quora.com/What-time-did-people-go-to-bed-in-Ancient-Rome
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-things-that-were-disgusting-in-Roman-times-but-we-would-find-it-acceptable
- https://www.quora.com/How-effective-were-Ancient-Roman-hygiene-products-and-practices-Would-we-find-the-Romans-smelly- https://www.quora.com/Its-ancient-Rome-and-Ive-just-finished-a-long-day-Whats-likely-to-be-for-dinner-and-how-do-I-spend-the-evening
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-average-ancient-Roman-apartment-look-like
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-interesting-facts-about-Roman-culture
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-average-ancient-Roman-apartment-look-like
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-interesting-facts-about-Roman-culture
Most ordinary Romans who lived in Rome itself, lived in apartment blocks called insulae. These had very limited cooking facilities. So most people bought their food from street vendors as take away or eat at the stalls themselves. The death rate was higher than the birth rate.There is a hill in Rome called Monte Testaccio. It is made up in its entirety of discarded amphorea.
- https://www.quora.com/How-gross-was-it-to-live-during-the-ancient-Roman-times
- https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-strangest-thing-that-happened-in-ancient-Rome-that-most-people-do-not-know-about
- https://www.quora.com/What-aspect-of-life-did-the-Ancient-Romans-have-which-is-better-than-we-have-today Two things: “Otium” and “Euergetism.”
- https://www.quora.com/How-many-floors-did-the-building-of-Ancient-Rome-have-and-how-was-water-distributed-without-any-pumps
- https://www.quora.com/How-gross-was-it-to-live-during-the-ancient-Roman-times
- https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-strangest-thing-that-happened-in-ancient-Rome-that-most-people-do-not-know-about
- https://www.quora.com/What-aspect-of-life-did-the-Ancient-Romans-have-which-is-better-than-we-have-today Two things: “Otium” and “Euergetism.”
- https://www.quora.com/How-many-floors-did-the-building-of-Ancient-Rome-have-and-how-was-water-distributed-without-any-pumps
home ownership
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-people-become-homeowners-in-Ancient-Rome-Were-there-mortgages-and-real-estate-sales-or-did-everyone-have-to-build-their-own-house
- In Roman architecture, an insula (Latin for "island", plural insulae) was one of two things: either a kind of apartment building, or a city block. This article deals with the former definition, that of a type of building.An insula housed most of the urban citizen population of ancient Rome, including ordinary people of lower- or middle-class status (the plebs) and all but the wealthiest from the upper-middle class (the equites). The term was also used to mean a city block. The traditional elite and the very wealthy lived in a domus, a large single-family residence, but the two kinds of housing were intermingled in the city and not segregated into separate neighborhoods.[4] The ground-level floor of the insula was used for tabernae, shops and businesses, with the living space upstairs. Like modern apartment buildings, an insula might have a name, usually referring to the owner of the building.古代ローマは賃貸の集合住宅を生み出した最初の文明である。
prison
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-ancient-Romans-have-prisons
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-a-prison-like-in-Roman-times
crucifixion
- [scott carroll and todd hillard] a widespread method of execution practiced in the ancient world, perhaps originating with the persians. There were many methods of crucifixion. The method we know today was developed by the romans
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-ancient-Romans-practice-crucifixion-Did-it-enable-them-to-control-and-conquer-people
- https://www.quora.com/How-frequent-was-the-punishment-of-crucifiction-in-ancient-Rome
- https://www.quora.com/How-frequent-was-the-punishment-of-crucifiction-in-ancient-Rome
historical reference
- Commentāriī dē Bellō Gallicō (English: Commentaries on the Gallic War), also Bellum Gallicum (English: Gallic War), is Julius Caesar's firsthand account of the Gallic Wars, written as a third-person narrative. In it Caesar describes the battles and intrigues that took place in the nine years he spent fighting the Germanic peoples and Celtic peoples in Gaul that opposed Roman conquest.
- Cassius Dio or Dio Cassius (Greek: Δίων Κάσσιος)[note 2] (/ˈkæʃəs
- The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a six-volume work by the English historian Edward Gibbon. It traces Western civilization (as well as the Islamic and Mongolianconquests) from the height of the Roman Empire to the fall of Byzantium. Volume I was published in 1776 and went through six printings.[1] Volumes II and III were published in 1781; volumes IV, V, and VI in 1788–1789.
- ovid's fasti - roman festivals
- varro's antiquitates rerum divinarum
- livy's history of rome
- map
- https://www.quora.com/If-you-dropped-an-English-language-book-into-Roman-times-would-they-be-able-to-translate-itThe following languages were in use during this time in different parts of the empire, some having specific areas of use in official capacities.
international relations
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-foreign-empires-think-of-the-Roman-empire
germanic
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Germanic-warriors-specialize-in-using-big-and-heavy-axes-and-maces-against-Roman-legions-How-did-such-weapons-fare-against-the-lighter-and-faster-Gladius Generally speaking, their strength lies in infantry rather than cavalry. So foot-soldiers accompany the cavalry into action, their speed of foot being such that they can easily keep up with the charging horsemen. The best men are chosen from the whole body of young warriors and placed with the cavalry in front of the main battle line. The number of these. is precisely fixed: a hundred are drawn from each district, and 'The Hundred' is the name they bear among their fellow-countrymen. Thus what was originally a mere number has come to be a title of distinction. The battle-line is made up of wedge-shaped formations. To give ground, provided that you return to the attack, is considered good tactics rather than cowardice. They bring back the bodies of the fallen even when a battle hangs in the balance. To throw away one's shield is the supreme disgrace, and the man who has thus dishonoured himself is debarred from attendance at sacrifice or assembly. Many such survivors from the battlefield have ended their shame by hanging themselves.
nordic
- in 77, in his naturalis historia, pliny the elder wrote about the amalehian sea, a name that in the language of natives means frozen; in the vicinity of this seawere islands inhabited by people with hooves instead of feet, or ears so large they could cover their entire body with them
iceland
- https://www.quora.com/Were-Roman-geographers-aware-of-the-Arctic-and-Pacific-Oceans The Greek adventurer Pytheas circumnavigated Great Britain and Ireland and possibly visited Iceland. He was aware of things like floating sea-ice and the midnight sun at midsummer — both of which his Greek and Roman readers found very hard to believe. However there was little economic reason for Roman-era travellers to head so far north; even Ireland was only vaguely known and the locations of areas farther north were not recorded. The most comprehensive surviving ancient geographers don’t record any observations farther than about 60º north.
ireland
- https://www.quora.com/Did-Rome-have-any-chance-of-conquering-all-of-Ireland Agricola, governor of Britannia, felt that Ireland could have been conquered by one legion and an equal number of auxiliaries. However, much like Alba (Scotland), there was no economic gain to conquer Hibernia due to the lack of cities, towns, or major fortresses. Militarily, the Picts and Irish were not militarily advanced enough to stand against the Romans in open battle or ambush.
britannia
- https://www.quora.com/If-Britannia-and-Gaul-were-so-unproductive-why-didnt-the-Romans-just-leave-like-they-did-in-Mesopotamia Only in the 5th century did the Roman army and government pull out of Britannia essentially telling them to fend for themselves but they didn’t leave behind people who broke out the woad and started running about naked or riding chariots like their ancestors four centuries earlier, they left behind a Roman population who liked to bathe and dabble in Latin poetry.
frisii tribe
- https://www.quora.com/Did-any-nation-ever-successfully-resist-Roman-expansion-and-invasion
denmark
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Ancient-Romans-go-to-war-with-the-Ancient-Greeks-or-were-they-in-different-time-periods
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Roman-Empire-really-begin-in-Greece The early Romans had cultural contacts with Greeks but did fight them. However, they adopted Greek fighting techniques. For the next hundred years, Rome barely grew. In 396 BC, Rome finally conquered its immediate neighbor, Veii. A few years later, a Gaul named Brennus sacked Rome and terrorized the population for six months. The Romans were so traumatized, they considered abandoning the city and moving to Veii. Instead, they built a massive wall around Rome and went on an imperialist binge. Within fifty years, they were conquering states that were ethnically Greek. Some conquests was not “conquest.” Naples, a Greek City, joined Rome, by treaty, to get protection from Samnites, an Italian confederation competing with Rome.The Romans expanded in all directions in Italy. However, the Romans considered this expansion as matters in their backyard, not matters of empire. Even when culturally Greek cities called for help from Greece, and a Greek king responded (Pyrrhus of Epirus), the Romans expressed no desire to head east. The Romans were trying to consolidate Italy. After that, Carthage was the challenge, not Greece.The first non-Italian conflict involving Greeks was the First Illyrian War. The Roman DID NOT consider it conquest. They considered it the neutralization of piracy and establishment of buffer states between Roman and Illyrian interests:At that time, Roman attention was focused South and West. This Illyrian/Greek thing was a distraction. The Second Illyrian War was part of the Second Punic War. The First Macedonian War was similarly entangled with the Second Punic War. The Romans wanted to focus on life and death matters like war with Hannibal and Carthage; the Illyrian and Macedonian issues would not go away.After the Carthaginians were defeated, Rome turned its attention to Macedonia, Greece and Illyria.So, yes and no. Roman expansion ran into Greek colonies relatively early. However, the invasion of the Greek homeland was hundreds of years in the future.
sparta
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-nature-of-the-Roman-occupation-of-Sparta-Did-Spartans-provide-heavy-resistance-or-did-their-military-get-used-as-auxiliaries-successfully that’s what happened at Leuctra in 371 BC. A league of cities led by Thebes defeated an army led by Sparta when the Theban general made an innovative concentrated attack on the best Spartan formation, killing hundreds of Spartan veterans in the process. Not only did this sorely weaken the Spartans, it also highlighted their vulnerabilities. In future battles, their opponents continued to use tactics Sparta wasn’t ready to counter. Sparta was a second-rate power and a pawn in greater struggles by the time Alexander came through, forced into alliances and leagues it didn’t want to join but had no other options. When the Romans took over in the second century BC, far from being a meaningful center of power, Sparta became a tourist attraction, bringing in Roman aristocrats fascinated by legends of Sparta’s past.
- https://www.quora.com/Was-Rome-right-to-obliterate-Carthage-after-the-3rd-Punic-War
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-most-Roman-thing-ever
africa
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Romans-ever-explore-or-know-anything-about-Subsaharan-Africa They had made it as deep as Lake Chad and the Niger on the opposite end of the Sahara. They referred to Sub-Saharan Africa as Aethiopia (Ethiopia) which referred the people's "burned" skin. Journeys since Greek times had gone down the Nile, diverting down the blue Nile into the Ethiopian lake Tana.You'd be suprised how far you can get just by traveling trade routes. Chinese Coins have been found as far as South Africa.
pacific, australesia
- [tr berg] in around year 400, roman philosopher macrobius drew a map featuring a large cold continent far to the south: frigida australis
- Cassius Dio or Dio Cassius (Greek: Δίων Κάσσιος)[note 2] (/ˈkæʃəs
- The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is a six-volume work by the English historian Edward Gibbon. It traces Western civilization (as well as the Islamic and Mongolianconquests) from the height of the Roman Empire to the fall of Byzantium. Volume I was published in 1776 and went through six printings.[1] Volumes II and III were published in 1781; volumes IV, V, and VI in 1788–1789.
- ovid's fasti - roman festivals
- varro's antiquitates rerum divinarum
- livy's history of rome
- map
- https://www.quora.com/How-are-the-days-of-the-week-named-in-your-language-country (has a roman map)
- ***********https://www.quora.com/What-if-Rome-conquered-Parthia note the country names!!!!!
- https://www.quora.com/What-could-the-Roman-Empire-have-achieved-if-the-3rd-century-crisis-had-not-occurred
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Western-Roman-Empire-collapse-completely-instead-of-shrinking-to-ever-smaller-defensible-areas-gradually-over-centuries-like-the-Eastern-Roman-Byzantine-Empire-in-the-late-Middle-Ages
- https://www.quora.com/What-if-the-Roman-Empire-would-have-conquered-all-the-Germanic-tribes-Would-anyone-from-Eastern-Europe-ever-oppose-them
- https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-4f5f0dd6f918efea28bf7952777e5147 kiv what is kdm
- https://qph.fs.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-6d8f19905fb8bff6431cc12dc73526fb note hiberni, chauci, anglii, suiones, fenni
- https://www.quora.com/At-what-size-could-the-Roman-Republic-Empire-have-remained-stable
- https://www.quora.com/Rome-being-such-a-superpower-in-the-ancient-times-why-has-it-not-ever-been-able-to-return-to-former-glory
- https://www.quora.com/Which-peoples-gave-the-Romans-the-most-trouble-militarily paintings relating to different peoples
- https://www.quora.com/How-much-would-a-coin-in-ancient-Rome-cost-today
language
- roman names
- https://www.quora.com/In-a-list-of-ancient-Roman-names-what-does-the-abbreviation-%CF%BD-l-mean
- https://www.quora.com/If-you-dropped-an-English-language-book-into-Roman-times-would-they-be-able-to-translate-itThe following languages were in use during this time in different parts of the empire, some having specific areas of use in official capacities.
- Greek
- Latin
- Coptic
- Punic
- Gaulish
- Aramaic
- Libyco-Berber
- Thracian
- Bessian
- Dacian
- Many more
Although Proto-Germanic languages were not necessarily in use in or around Rome, the interaction between Germanic tribes and the Roman Empire started before the empire even formed. Contrary to popular belief, the interactions were not always hostile. This meant that at the very least some in the empire were acquainted with proto-German.
- https://www.quora.com/Would-a-Roman-from-500BC-have-been-able-to-understand-the-language-of-a-Roman-from-400AD-Did-the-language-change-enough-from-the-founding-of-the-Roman-Republic-to-the-fall-of-the-Empire-to-still-be-understandable
- Romansh (also spelled Romansch, Rumantsch, or Romanche; Romansh: rumantsch , rumàntsch, romauntsch or romontsch ) is a Romance language spoken predominantly in the southeastern Swiss canton of Grisons (Graubünden), where it has official status alongside German and Italian and is used as the medium of instruction in schools in Romansh-speaking areas. Romansh has also been recognized as a national language of Switzerland since 1938 and as an official language along with German, French and Italian since 1996. It is sometimes grouped with Ladin and Friulian as a Rhaeto-Romance language, though this is disputed. Romansh is a descendant of the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire, which by the 5th century AD replaced the Celtic and Raeticlanguages previously spoken in the area, although Romansh retains a small number of words from these languages. Romansh has also been heavily influenced by German in vocabulary and morphosyntax. The language gradually retreated to its current area over the centuries, being replaced by Alemannic and Bavarian dialects. The earliest writing identified as Romansh dates from the 10th or 11th century, although major works do not appear until the 16th century when several regional written varieties began to develop.
- Romansh (also spelled Romansch, Rumantsch, or Romanche; Romansh: rumantsch , rumàntsch, romauntsch or romontsch ) is a Romance language spoken predominantly in the southeastern Swiss canton of Grisons (Graubünden), where it has official status alongside German and Italian and is used as the medium of instruction in schools in Romansh-speaking areas. Romansh has also been recognized as a national language of Switzerland since 1938 and as an official language along with German, French and Italian since 1996. It is sometimes grouped with Ladin and Friulian as a Rhaeto-Romance language, though this is disputed. Romansh is a descendant of the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire, which by the 5th century AD replaced the Celtic and Raeticlanguages previously spoken in the area, although Romansh retains a small number of words from these languages. Romansh has also been heavily influenced by German in vocabulary and morphosyntax. The language gradually retreated to its current area over the centuries, being replaced by Alemannic and Bavarian dialects. The earliest writing identified as Romansh dates from the 10th or 11th century, although major works do not appear until the 16th century when several regional written varieties began to develop.
- https://www.quora.com/Did-ancient-Roman-people-call-animals-by-their-Latin-names-like-wolves-Canis-lupus
The Palmyrene Empire was a splinter state centered at Palmyra which broke away from the Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century. It encompassed the Roman provinces of Syria Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor.
Zenobia ruled the Palmyrene Empire as regent for her son Vaballathus, who had become King of Palmyra in 267. In 270 Zenobia managed to conquer most of the Roman east in a relatively short period, and tried to maintain relations with Rome. In 271 she claimed the imperial title for herself and for her son and fought a short war with the Roman emperor Aurelian, who conquered Palmyra and captured the self-proclaimed Empress. A year later the Palmyrenes rebelled, which led Aurelian to destroy Palmyra. The Palmyrene Empire is hailed in Syria and plays an important role as an icon in Syrian nationalism.
- Septimia Zenobia (Palmyrene: 
(Btzby), pronounced Bat-Zabbai; c. 240 – c. 274 AD) was a third-century queen of the Syria-based Palmyrene Empire. Many legends surround her ancestry; she was probably not a commoner and she married the ruler of the city, Odaenathus. Her husband became king in 260, elevating Palmyra to supreme power in the Near East by defeating the Sassanians and stabilizing the Roman East. After Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia became the regent of her son Vaballathus and held de facto power throughout his reign. Zenobia was born c. 240–241.[2] She bore the gentilicium (surname) Septimia,[note 1][5] and her native Palmyrene name was Bat-Zabbai (written "Btzby" in the Palmyrene alphabet,[6] an Aramaic name meaning "daughter of Zabbai"). In Greek—Palmyra's diplomatic and second language, used in many Palmyrene inscriptions—she used the name Zenobia ("one whose life derives from Zeus").[8] The ninth-century historian al-Tabari, in his highly fictionalized account, wrote that the queen's name was Na'ila al-Zabba'.[10] Manichaean sources called her "Tadi".Palmyrene society was an amalgam of Semitic tribes (mostly Aramean and Arab), and Zenobia cannot be identified with any one group; as a Palmyrene, she would have had Aramean and Arab blood. Information about Zenobia's ancestry and immediate family connections is scarce and contradictory. Nothing is known about her mother, and her father's identity is debated.
(Btzby), pronounced Bat-Zabbai; c. 240 – c. 274 AD) was a third-century queen of the Syria-based Palmyrene Empire. Many legends surround her ancestry; she was probably not a commoner and she married the ruler of the city, Odaenathus. Her husband became king in 260, elevating Palmyra to supreme power in the Near East by defeating the Sassanians and stabilizing the Roman East. After Odaenathus' assassination, Zenobia became the regent of her son Vaballathus and held de facto power throughout his reign. Zenobia was born c. 240–241.[2] She bore the gentilicium (surname) Septimia,[note 1][5] and her native Palmyrene name was Bat-Zabbai (written "Btzby" in the Palmyrene alphabet,[6] an Aramaic name meaning "daughter of Zabbai"). In Greek—Palmyra's diplomatic and second language, used in many Palmyrene inscriptions—she used the name Zenobia ("one whose life derives from Zeus").[8] The ninth-century historian al-Tabari, in his highly fictionalized account, wrote that the queen's name was Na'ila al-Zabba'.[10] Manichaean sources called her "Tadi".Palmyrene society was an amalgam of Semitic tribes (mostly Aramean and Arab), and Zenobia cannot be identified with any one group; as a Palmyrene, she would have had Aramean and Arab blood. Information about Zenobia's ancestry and immediate family connections is scarce and contradictory. Nothing is known about her mother, and her father's identity is debated.international relations
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-foreign-empires-think-of-the-Roman-empire
goths
- https://www.quora.com/Why-were-the-Goths-able-to-spend-decades-raiding-through-the-center-of-the-Roman-Empire-Why-were-the-much-larger-and-more-powerful-Romans-unable-to-neutralize-them-either-politically-or-militarily
- In 376 AD, the Goths were forced due to Hunnic aggression to move to the Roman Balkans. The bad treatment they received on part of greedy Roman officials led them to revolt however. In 378, Emperor Valens decided to take charge of the army by himself and lead it to putting down the Gothic revolt. https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-most-important-battle-of-the-Roman-Empire- see also https://www.quora.com/Was-the-Battle-of-Adrianople-s-catastrophic-loss-truly-blamed-upon-Emperor-Valens-Was-it-truly-such-a-catastrophic-loss
germanic
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Germanic-warriors-specialize-in-using-big-and-heavy-axes-and-maces-against-Roman-legions-How-did-such-weapons-fare-against-the-lighter-and-faster-Gladius Generally speaking, their strength lies in infantry rather than cavalry. So foot-soldiers accompany the cavalry into action, their speed of foot being such that they can easily keep up with the charging horsemen. The best men are chosen from the whole body of young warriors and placed with the cavalry in front of the main battle line. The number of these. is precisely fixed: a hundred are drawn from each district, and 'The Hundred' is the name they bear among their fellow-countrymen. Thus what was originally a mere number has come to be a title of distinction. The battle-line is made up of wedge-shaped formations. To give ground, provided that you return to the attack, is considered good tactics rather than cowardice. They bring back the bodies of the fallen even when a battle hangs in the balance. To throw away one's shield is the supreme disgrace, and the man who has thus dishonoured himself is debarred from attendance at sacrifice or assembly. Many such survivors from the battlefield have ended their shame by hanging themselves.
케루스키족 The Cherusci were a Germanic tribe that inhabited parts of the plains and forests of northwestern Germany, in the area possibly near present-day Hanover, during the first centuries BC and AD. Ethnically, Pliny the Elder groups them with their neighbours, the Suebi and Chatti, as well as the Hermunduri, as Hermiones, one of the Germanic groupings said to descend from an ancestor named Mannus.[1] They led an important war against the Roman Empire. Subsequently, they were probably absorbed into the late classical Germanic tribal groups such as the Saxons, Thuringians, Franks, Bavarians and Allemanni.The etymological origin of the name Cherusci is not known with certainty. According to the dominant opinion in scholarship, the name may derive from the ancient Germanic word *herut (Modern English hart, i. e. "deer"). The tribe may have been named after the deer because it had a totemistic significance in Germanic symbolism.[2] A different hypothesis, proposed in the 19th century by Jacob Grimm and others, derives the name from *heru-, a word for "sword" (cf. Gothic hairus, Old English heoru).[3] Hans Kuhn has argued that the derivational suffix -sk-, involved in both explanations, is otherwise not common in Germanic. He suggested that the name may therefore be a compound of ultimately non-Germanic origin, connected to the hypothesized Nordwestblock.
- no chinese wiki version
- Arminius (German: Hermann; 18/17 BC – AD 21) was a chieftain of the Germanic Cherusci tribe who commanded an alliance of Germanic tribes at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, in which three Roman legions were destroyed. His victory at Teutoburg Forest would precipitate the Roman Empire's permanent strategic withdrawal from Magna Germania, and made a major contribution to the eventual fall of the Western Roman Empire.[1] Modern historians have regarded Arminius' victory as Rome's greatest defeat.[2] As it prevented the Romanization of the Germanic peoples, Arminius' victory has also been considered one of the most decisive battles in history, and a turning point in world history. Born a prince of the Cherusci tribe, Arminius was made a hostage of the Roman Empire as a child. Raised in Rome, he was drafted into the Roman military at an early age, during which he was granted Roman citizenship and became a Roman knight. After serving with distinction in the Great Illyrian Revolt, he was sent to Germania to aid the local governor Publius Quinctilius Varus in completing the Roman conquest of the Germanic tribes. While in this capacity, Arminius secretly prepared a Germanic revolt against Roman rule, which culminated in the ambush and destruction of three Roman legions in the Teutoburg Forest. In the aftermath of the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, Arminius fought retaliatory invasions by the Roman general Germanicus in the battles of Pontes Longi, Idistaviso and the Angrivarian Wall, and deposed a rival, the Marcomanni king Maroboduus. Germanic nobles, afraid of Arminius' growing power, assassinated him in 21 AD. During the unification of Germany in the 19th century, Arminius was hailed by German nationalists as a symbol of German unity and freedom.[9] Following World War II, however, Arminius was omitted from German textbooks due to his association with militaristic nationalism, and many modern Germans are unaware of his story. The 2000th anniversary of his victory was lightly commemorated in Germany, which has replaced traditional nationalism with "an easy-going patriotism that mainly manifests itself at sporting events."- The etymology of the Latin name Arminius is unknown. Marcus Velleius Paterculus, in his Historiae, mentions him as "Arminius, the son of Sigimer, a prince of [the German] nation" and states he "attained the dignity of equestrian rank".
- hermann monument in lippe, germany and new ulm, minnesota, usa
The Nabataeans, also Nabateans (/ˌnæbəˈtiːənz/; Arabic: الأنباط al-ʾAnbāṭ , compare to Ancient Greek: Ναβαταίος, Latin: Nabatæus), were an Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the Southern Levant. Their settlements, most prominently the assumed capital city of Raqmu, now called Petra, in CE 37 – c. 100, gave the name of Nabatene to the borderland between Arabia and Syria, from the Euphrates to the Red Sea. Their loosely controlled trading network, which centered on strings of oases that they controlled, where agriculture was intensively practiced in limited areas, and on the routes that linked them, had no securely defined boundaries in the surrounding desert. Trajan conquered the Nabataean kingdom, annexing it to the Roman Empire, where their individual culture, easily identified by their characteristic finely potted painted ceramics, was adopted into the larger Greco-Roman culture. They were later converted to Christianity.
nordic
- in 77, in his naturalis historia, pliny the elder wrote about the amalehian sea, a name that in the language of natives means frozen; in the vicinity of this seawere islands inhabited by people with hooves instead of feet, or ears so large they could cover their entire body with them
iceland
- https://www.quora.com/Were-Roman-geographers-aware-of-the-Arctic-and-Pacific-Oceans The Greek adventurer Pytheas circumnavigated Great Britain and Ireland and possibly visited Iceland. He was aware of things like floating sea-ice and the midnight sun at midsummer — both of which his Greek and Roman readers found very hard to believe. However there was little economic reason for Roman-era travellers to head so far north; even Ireland was only vaguely known and the locations of areas farther north were not recorded. The most comprehensive surviving ancient geographers don’t record any observations farther than about 60º north.
celts
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-Gaelic-Culture-when-Rome-took-over
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-ancient-Romans-and-Celts-look-like
ireland
- https://www.quora.com/Did-Rome-have-any-chance-of-conquering-all-of-Ireland Agricola, governor of Britannia, felt that Ireland could have been conquered by one legion and an equal number of auxiliaries. However, much like Alba (Scotland), there was no economic gain to conquer Hibernia due to the lack of cities, towns, or major fortresses. Militarily, the Picts and Irish were not militarily advanced enough to stand against the Romans in open battle or ambush.
scotland
- In 208 AD the Emperor Septimius Severus assembled a huge army and marched it into what is now Scotland, it was a vicious campaign that devolved into bloody mass murder that seems to have pacified the extreme north of Britain for about 200 years. This was Severus’ last campaign and his awful son, the future Emperor Caracalla took over the reins as Severus began to succumb to a collection of illnesses and maladies. Once Severus died, Caracalla and his younger brother Geta were more interested in getting back to Rome to either live the good life or figure out how to destroy one another. The border between Roman territory and the northern regions seems to have receded back to Hadrian’s Wall, which bears the work of a remodel around the time of the death of Severus (211 AD).https://www.quora.com/Why-didn%E2%80%99t-the-Roman-armies-invade-Scotland-and-Ireland-after-theyd-conquered-Britain-in-43-AD-and-the-whole-British-Isles-became-part-of-the-Roman-Empire
britannia
- https://www.quora.com/If-Britannia-and-Gaul-were-so-unproductive-why-didnt-the-Romans-just-leave-like-they-did-in-Mesopotamia Only in the 5th century did the Roman army and government pull out of Britannia essentially telling them to fend for themselves but they didn’t leave behind people who broke out the woad and started running about naked or riding chariots like their ancestors four centuries earlier, they left behind a Roman population who liked to bathe and dabble in Latin poetry.
gaul
- https://www.quora.com/Did-Vercingetorix-have-meetings-with-Julius-Caesar-during-the-6-years-of-imprisonment-Did-they-respect-each-other
frisii tribe
- https://www.quora.com/Did-any-nation-ever-successfully-resist-Roman-expansion-and-invasion
denmark
- https://www.quora.com/Why-didnt-the-Romans-invade-and-occupy-Denmark
germans/german tribes
- https://www.quora.com/Why-wasnt-Germany-totally-conquered-by-the-Romans
samnites
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Roman-Republic-have-the-stomach-to-fight-much-larger-and-costlier-battles-than-the-Roman-Empire-on-average-even-though-it-was-younger-weaker-smaller-and-reasonably-democratic The Samnites, a Central Italian collection of hill tribes, were hostile to Rome for over three hundred years; they revolted at every opportunity. Etruscan areas were just as hostile.
cyprus
germans/german tribes
- https://www.quora.com/Why-wasnt-Germany-totally-conquered-by-the-Romans
samnites
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Roman-Republic-have-the-stomach-to-fight-much-larger-and-costlier-battles-than-the-Roman-Empire-on-average-even-though-it-was-younger-weaker-smaller-and-reasonably-democratic The Samnites, a Central Italian collection of hill tribes, were hostile to Rome for over three hundred years; they revolted at every opportunity. Etruscan areas were just as hostile.
cyprus
- https://www.quora.com/The-Romans-abruptly-annexed-the-island-of-Cyprus-in-58-BC-What-happened-there-who-was-involved-and-what-were-their-motivations
greece
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-Greece-like-when-it-was-ruled-by-the-Roman-Empire-Was-it-as-prosperous-and-developed-as-before-the-Romans-took-over-or-less-so
- https://www.quora.com/Wasnt-the-Byzantine-Empire-really-the-occupation-of-Greeks-and-Greek-lands-by-the-Romans By Byzantine times, Greeks already had Roman citizenship for some time (Edict of Caracalla - 212 AD) and considered themselves Ρωμαίοι - Romans. In the eastern part of the Roman Empire, Greek had always been the lingua franca as the Latin was never able to displace it (despite its use in state administration) and in the seventh century, Greek officially replaced Latin as the language of the Roman/Byzantine state. It was at the seventh that, due to the invasions of Arabs, Slavs and Lombards, the Byzantine state lost most of its Middle Eastern, North Africa and Balkan territories, shrinking to the traditionally Hellenic geographic space of southern Italy, mainland Greece and Minor Asia. The shrinkage also meant that Byzantium had plurality of Greeks/Hellenized populations.
- Greece wasn’t a single unified country. Some Greek city-states collaborated with the Romans and these were treated kindly. Those who fought Romans were forcefully occupied and as much as they resisted Romans, that much they were suppressed. Corinth was even razed to the ground. Greece eventually became a “senatorial province” and no army was stationed there to enforce law which means that Greek lands soon became important and integral part of the empire.https://www.quora.com/Was-ancient-Romes-conquest-of-Greece-especially-merciful-and-gentle-since-the-Romans-idolized-ancient-Greek-culture- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Ancient-Romans-go-to-war-with-the-Ancient-Greeks-or-were-they-in-different-time-periods
- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Roman-Empire-really-begin-in-Greece The early Romans had cultural contacts with Greeks but did fight them. However, they adopted Greek fighting techniques. For the next hundred years, Rome barely grew. In 396 BC, Rome finally conquered its immediate neighbor, Veii. A few years later, a Gaul named Brennus sacked Rome and terrorized the population for six months. The Romans were so traumatized, they considered abandoning the city and moving to Veii. Instead, they built a massive wall around Rome and went on an imperialist binge. Within fifty years, they were conquering states that were ethnically Greek. Some conquests was not “conquest.” Naples, a Greek City, joined Rome, by treaty, to get protection from Samnites, an Italian confederation competing with Rome.The Romans expanded in all directions in Italy. However, the Romans considered this expansion as matters in their backyard, not matters of empire. Even when culturally Greek cities called for help from Greece, and a Greek king responded (Pyrrhus of Epirus), the Romans expressed no desire to head east. The Romans were trying to consolidate Italy. After that, Carthage was the challenge, not Greece.The first non-Italian conflict involving Greeks was the First Illyrian War. The Roman DID NOT consider it conquest. They considered it the neutralization of piracy and establishment of buffer states between Roman and Illyrian interests:At that time, Roman attention was focused South and West. This Illyrian/Greek thing was a distraction. The Second Illyrian War was part of the Second Punic War. The First Macedonian War was similarly entangled with the Second Punic War. The Romans wanted to focus on life and death matters like war with Hannibal and Carthage; the Illyrian and Macedonian issues would not go away.After the Carthaginians were defeated, Rome turned its attention to Macedonia, Greece and Illyria.So, yes and no. Roman expansion ran into Greek colonies relatively early. However, the invasion of the Greek homeland was hundreds of years in the future.
sparta
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-nature-of-the-Roman-occupation-of-Sparta-Did-Spartans-provide-heavy-resistance-or-did-their-military-get-used-as-auxiliaries-successfully that’s what happened at Leuctra in 371 BC. A league of cities led by Thebes defeated an army led by Sparta when the Theban general made an innovative concentrated attack on the best Spartan formation, killing hundreds of Spartan veterans in the process. Not only did this sorely weaken the Spartans, it also highlighted their vulnerabilities. In future battles, their opponents continued to use tactics Sparta wasn’t ready to counter. Sparta was a second-rate power and a pawn in greater struggles by the time Alexander came through, forced into alliances and leagues it didn’t want to join but had no other options. When the Romans took over in the second century BC, far from being a meaningful center of power, Sparta became a tourist attraction, bringing in Roman aristocrats fascinated by legends of Sparta’s past.
The Vandals were a large East Germanic tribe or group of tribes that first appear in history inhabiting present-day southern Poland. Some later moved in large numbers, including most notably the group which successively established Vandal kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula, on western Mediterranean islands and in North Africa in the 5th century. The traditional view has been that the Vandals migrated from southern Scandinavia to the area between the lower Oder and Vistula rivers during the 2nd century BC and settled in Silesia from around 120 BC.[2][3][4] They are associated with the Przeworsk culture and were possibly the same people as the Lugii. Expanding into Dacia during the Marcomannic Wars and to Pannoniaduring the Crisis of the Third Century, the Vandals were confined to Pannonia by the Goths around 330 AD, where they received permission to settle from Constantine the Great. Around 400, raids by the Huns forced many Germanic tribes to migrate into the territory of the Roman Empire, and fearing that they might be targeted next the Vandals were pushed westwards, crossing the Rhine into Gaul along with other tribes in 406.[5] In 409 the Vandals crossed the Pyrenees into the Iberian Peninsula, where their main groups, the Hasdingi and the Silingi, settled in Gallaecia (northwest Iberia) and Baetica (south-central Iberia) respectively.After the Visigoths invaded Iberia in 418, the Iranian Alans and Silingi Vandals voluntarily subjected themselves to the rule of Hasdingian leader Gunderic, who was pushed from Gallaecia to Baetica by a Roman-Suebi coalition in 419. In 429, under king Genseric (reigned 428–477), the Vandals entered North Africa. By 439 they established a kingdom which included the Roman province of Africa as well as Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, Malta and the Balearic Islands. They fended off several Roman attempts to recapture the African province, and sacked the city of Rome in 455. Their kingdom collapsed in the Vandalic War of 533–4, in which Emperor Justinian I's forces reconquered the province for the Eastern Roman Empire. Renaissance and early-modern writers characterized the Vandals as barbarians, "sacking and looting" Rome. This led to the use of the term "vandalism" to describe any pointless destruction, particularly the "barbarian" defacing of artwork. 汪達爾人（Vandals）的名字會被聯想到瑞典州份「Vendel」[2]，可能源自原始日耳曼语動詞*wand-（改變/流浪）或日耳曼神話人物「Aurvandil」（耀亮的流浪者；黎明流浪者，長庚），或名為「光明的汪達爾」的日耳曼神明。
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Emperor-Marcian-not-retaliate-against-the-Vandals-after-they-sacked-Rome
- https://www.quora.com/Who-were-the-Vandals-and-how-did-they-influence-history
- https://www.quora.com/The-Vandals-Germanic-tribe-established-rule-over-a-former-Roman-province-in-North-Africa-What-do-we-know-about-the-native-African-Roman-populations-reaction-to-their-presumably-bizarre-looking-new-foreign-overlords The native African/Roman population was appalled by the Vandals because not only did they adhere to the heretical “Arian” (well, some kind of subordinationism anyway) form of Christianity, whereas they (the Romans) were Trinitarian, but unlike the Goths in Italy and Spain they actively worked to impose their beliefs on their new subjects. This caused a lot of ill feeling and the Vandals’ habit of taking over Orthodox churches and converting them to “Arian” use made their name a by-word for cultural destructiveness. They weren’t bizarre looking; by the time the Vandals took over the African provinces they had been living in Roman/former Roman territory for a generation and they looked like European Roman provincials, which the Africans would have found perfectly familiar. Their army also looked basically Roman.
- ***** the forces of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires joined together in 468 for a massive naval expedition to North Africa. The Vandals established there had made a seaborne pirate empire under their wise king Gaiseric, harassing trade throughout the Mediterranean. A bit over a decade earlier, they had stormed into Italy and sacked the city of Rome itself. They were proving to be an unacceptable threat to the interests of both halves of the Roman Empire.
A massive East-West Roman fleet of over 1,000 ships and 50,000 men set sail for North Africa. The campaign cost an estimated 64,000 pounds of gold, more than the combined empire’s entire annual GDP. It was under the command of the general Basiliscus.Yes, general Basiliscus, not admiral. You can probably see why that was a problem.Anyway, the Roman fleet landed at Cap Bon, about forty miles from the Vandal capital of Carthage. Armies from other parts of the empire were invading Sardinia and Libya, but they depended on the success of this main thrust at the heart of Vandal power.Gaiseric requested a delay of five days to draw up conditions for a peace, which Basiliscus accepted, leaving his fleet anchored and his men on a loose watch. Imagine how badly he shit his pants when after only three days had passed, burning ships appeared on the horizon, setting the ocean on fire like the breath of dragons.The Vandals sent an initial wave of fire ships into the lines of docked Roman ships. The Roman vessels, positioned basically next to one another, were in the perfect places for fire to spread rapidly. Soon, much of the Roman fleet was in flames. Then, the main Vandal force swept in. Their ships were less numerous, but their crews were seasoned veterans on the high seas and easily outclassed the panicked and disorganized Romans.Half of the Roman fleet along with 25,000 men went to the bottom of the sea. Basiliscus led a hasty flight with the remainder of the Roman fleet, but the expedition was a failure. Over a year’s worth of revenue had been squandered, along with the last bit of martial power that the combined empire could muster. Within less than a decade, the West would be no more. Odoacer, the king who overthrew the last Roman Emperor, sent the imperial vestments to the eastern emperor Zeno with these words:There is no need of a divided rule. One shared emperor is sufficient for both Eastern and Western imperial territories.https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Byzantine-fail-to-aid-Rome-upon-its-fall
poland
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Romans-not-conquer-Poland
carthage
- **********from 122 BCE, in the place of Carthage, there was a Roman colony Colonia Iunonia. In in 44 BCE Caesare restored the old name of Carthago. During the time of the Empire, the city flourished as a center of the Senate province of Africa Proconsularis, which was the granary of Rome.https://www.quora.com/When-the-Romans-sacked-Carthage-they-were-supposed-to-have-razed-it-to-the-ground-and-salted-the-earth-What-kind-of-salt-did-they-use- https://www.quora.com/Was-Rome-right-to-obliterate-Carthage-after-the-3rd-Punic-War
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-most-Roman-thing-ever
blacks
- According to the fathers of the church Jerome and Sophronius of Jerusalem, at the end of the 4th century CE Colchis was called the “second Ethiopia” due to the overwhelming number of black people. Other sources from the 4th century BCE, in the form of Palaephatus and Hanno the Navigator (Carthaginian sailor) mention the village of Cerne, located behind the Pillars of Heracles’ (Columnae Herculis), which closes the Mediterranean Sea and meant for the ancient end of the known world. The city was inhabited according to the ancients by Ethiopians, who traded in ivory, deer, leopards, wine, perfumes, Egyptian stones, and ceramics from Athens. The proof of the fact that the black inhabitants lived in Rome is evidenced by the event of 61 CE when the Roman emperor Nero organized in amphitheater spectacle of hunting Ethiopian hunters.What is worth mentioning, the black poeple were not slaves and servants in the Roman world. Some of them became writers, chiefs, and philosophies, and according to the Byzantine chronicler John Malalas even emperor Septimius Severus had a dark skin, though it does not seem to be black; he sooner had a Berber origin and was the first emperor from Africa (he was born in Libya). As for the slaves, even the blacks were liberated and became prominent citizens of Rome.It is possible that a slave of Cicero had black skin – Marcus Tullius Tiro, who was liberated for good service. He was a friend and secretary of a well-known speaker, and also the author of his unseen biography. Keeping Cicero’s notes he used the so-called notae Tironianae, which was the first form of shorthand. He died probably at the age of 99.Another famous figure from the Roman world, which was of African origin, was Lusius Quietus. It was a Roman officer and legate of Judea in 117 CE who was of Moroccan origin and was the son of a tribal chief. Lusius’ father and his warriors supported the Roman legions in their efforts to pacify the Roman province Tingitana Mauritania during the Aedemon revolt in the 40s of 1st century CE. Being a useful ally in that area, he was honored with the award of Roman citizenship. Lusius served as an auxiliary officer in a Roman cavalry, recruited from free Moorish tribes. In time, he became a senator and became the legate of Judea.Many Romans of African descent, like Quietus, reached the high levels of their military career and stationed away from their home sides. Many officers and soldiers served, for example, in the 3rd century CE next to Hadrian’s wall. A certain inscription proves that the auxiliary unit Numerus Maurorum Aurelianorum served in Aballava (today’s Burgh-by-Sands in England). The unit was completely recruited from the Mauritanian population.https://www.quora.com/What-historical-fact-does-almost-no-one-know-about-but-should-be-taught-in-school-1- https://www.quora.com/Did-the-Romans-ever-explore-or-know-anything-about-Subsaharan-Africa They had made it as deep as Lake Chad and the Niger on the opposite end of the Sahara. They referred to Sub-Saharan Africa as Aethiopia (Ethiopia) which referred the people's "burned" skin. Journeys since Greek times had gone down the Nile, diverting down the blue Nile into the Ethiopian lake Tana.You'd be suprised how far you can get just by traveling trade routes. Chinese Coins have been found as far as South Africa.
- https://www.quora.com/How-far-did-the-Roman-Empire-reach-in-Africa We all know that the Romans directly controlled the entire North African coastline from Morocco to Egypt. The only authentically inland possession was Egypt due to the fertile and hospitable land surrounding the Nile. But the Romans were hardly oblivious to what lie beyond. In fact, many Romans penetrated places in Africa that modern Europeans would not survey until just a few hundred years ago. I created a map that colors in red present-day countries in Africa that there is good evidence for Roman citizens stepping foot in at some stage, with green for countries where the evidence is perhaps more equivocal.
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-North-Africa-go-from-being-one-of-the-Roman-Empires-wealthiest-regions-to-a-regional-backwater
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-North-Africa-go-from-being-one-of-the-Roman-Empires-wealthiest-regions-to-a-regional-backwater
egypt
- Beginning in 2nd c bce, slaves and freedmen who belonged to the isis cult were coming to rome. On five separate occasions in 1st c bce, roman authorities had unsuccessfully tried to halt the spread of cult of isis in rome by ordering its altars and statues to be destroyed. The Ptolemaic empire had been at odds with rome ever since the end of period of the roman republic. Any cult coming from that area was not to be trusted.
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-Cleopatra-look-like After a campaign against Ptolemy, the two forces met in the Battle Of The Nile, where Ptolemy was drowned. This left Cleo as sole ruler. Cleopatra was eager to gain Rome’s alliance, so she married Caesar, and had a son by him. She had hopes that Caesar would name her son, Ptolemy XIV, as his successor to the Roman throne. The Romans didn’t quite like this idea of a foreigner possibly ruling Rome, and this was one of the grievances which led to Caesar’s assassination. After Caesar’s death, a three co-rulers triumvirate took power in Rome. One of these Triumvirates was general Mark Antony, while another was the adopted son of Caesar, Octavian, who later became Augustus Caesar. After some problems, the three rulers split up the empire, with Mark Antony getting Egypt. He met, and eventually married Cleopatra, and their tragic end is all well documented history.
- St. Thaïs of fourth-century Roman Alexandria and of the Egyptian desert was a repentantcourtesan.St. Thaïs reportedly lived during the fourth century in Roman Egypt. Her story is included in hagiographic literature on the lives of the saints in the Greek church. Two such biographical sketches exist. The first, in Greek, perhaps originated during the fifth century. It was translated into Latin as the Vita Thaisis [Life of Thaïs] by Dionysius Exiguus (Dennis the Little) during the sixth or seventh century. The other sketch comes to us in medieval Latin from Marbod of Rennes (d. 1123). Thaïs also appears in Greek martyrologies by Maurolychus and Greven, however, not in Latin martyrologies. The lives of the desert saints and hermits of Egypt, including St. Thaïs, were collected in the Vitae Patrum (Lives of the Desert Fathers).
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-Cleopatra-look-like After a campaign against Ptolemy, the two forces met in the Battle Of The Nile, where Ptolemy was drowned. This left Cleo as sole ruler. Cleopatra was eager to gain Rome’s alliance, so she married Caesar, and had a son by him. She had hopes that Caesar would name her son, Ptolemy XIV, as his successor to the Roman throne. The Romans didn’t quite like this idea of a foreigner possibly ruling Rome, and this was one of the grievances which led to Caesar’s assassination. After Caesar’s death, a three co-rulers triumvirate took power in Rome. One of these Triumvirates was general Mark Antony, while another was the adopted son of Caesar, Octavian, who later became Augustus Caesar. After some problems, the three rulers split up the empire, with Mark Antony getting Egypt. He met, and eventually married Cleopatra, and their tragic end is all well documented history.
- St. Thaïs of fourth-century Roman Alexandria and of the Egyptian desert was a repentantcourtesan.St. Thaïs reportedly lived during the fourth century in Roman Egypt. Her story is included in hagiographic literature on the lives of the saints in the Greek church. Two such biographical sketches exist. The first, in Greek, perhaps originated during the fifth century. It was translated into Latin as the Vita Thaisis [Life of Thaïs] by Dionysius Exiguus (Dennis the Little) during the sixth or seventh century. The other sketch comes to us in medieval Latin from Marbod of Rennes (d. 1123). Thaïs also appears in Greek martyrologies by Maurolychus and Greven, however, not in Latin martyrologies. The lives of the desert saints and hermits of Egypt, including St. Thaïs, were collected in the Vitae Patrum (Lives of the Desert Fathers).
- France's Thaïs is an historical novel published at Paris in 1891 and written by Anatole France(1844–1924). Thaïs was translated into 18 languages. When France died, "he was almost certainly the most admired author in the Western world," yet since then his approach became dated, and his reputation fell.Massenet's Thaïs is an opera "comédie lyrique" first performed March 16, 1894, at the Opéra Garnier in Paris. The music by Jules Massenet (1842–1912) employs the prose libretto written by Louis Gallet (1835–1898). It draws on the novel by Anatole France.
persia
- sassanid empire
- The Battle of Edessa took place between the armies of the Roman Empire under the command of Emperor Valerian and Sassanidforces under Shahanshah (King of the Kings) Shapur I in 260. The Roman army was defeated and captured in its entirety by the Persian forces; for the first time in Rome's military history their emperor was taken prisoner. As such, the battle is generally viewed as one of the worst disasters in Roman military history.Prior to the battle, Shapur I had penetrated several times deeply into Roman territory, conquering and plundering Antioch in Syria in 253 or 256. After defeating the usurper Aemilianus and assuming the purple for himself, Valerian arrived in the eastern provinces as soon as he could (254 or 255) and gradually restored order.[6] Soon he had to confront a naval Gothic invasion in northern Asia Minor. The Goths ravaged Pontus and moved south into Cappadocia. An attempt from Valerian and his army in Antiocheia to intercept them failed because of the plague. While his army was in that weakened state, Shapur invaded northern Mesopotamia in 260, probably in early Spring. In his sixties, the aged Valerian marched eastward to the Sassanid borders. According to Shapur I's inscription at the Ka'ba-ye Zartosht, Valerian met the main Persian army, under the command of Shapur I, between Carrhae and Edessa (in Middle Persian: Urhāy), with units from almost every part of the Roman Empire, together with Germanic allies,[7] and was thoroughly defeated and captured with his entire army. According to Roman sources, which are not very clear, the Roman army was defeated and besieged by the Persian forces. Valerian subsequently tried to negotiate, but he was captured; it is possible that his army surrendered after that. The prisoners included, according to Shapur's claims, many other high-ranking officials, including a praetorian prefect,[9] possibly Successianus. It has also been claimed that Shapur went back on his word by having the emperor seized after agreeing to truce negotiations.
- Battle of Yarmouk (636)https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-most-important-battle-of-the-Roman-Empire
huns
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-Huns-think-of-Rome
turks
- Battle of Mantzikert (1071) played a crucial role in the loss of much of Anatolia and the establishment of the Turks in the region. In the 1060s the Romans were at conflict with the Seljuk Turks, who were raiding Anatolia. The Roman army had been weakened by the subversion of the traditional military aristocracy on the part of the imperial center and due to its neglect of the military.https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-most-important-battle-of-the-Roman-Empire
asia
- Roman traders occasionally sailed east as far as south-eastern India, and maybe to Sri Lanka. There they met Southeast Asian traders from Thailand and Cambodia, and maybe from as far as China and Indonesia. Some of those people could have been in contact with Polynesian sailors whose relatives got as far as Hawaii.https://www.quora.com/Did-Ancient-Rome-know-anything-about-America
- To the east, Roman traders appear to have visited Indonesia and the eastern shores of Indochina and Guangzhou. However, relatively little evidence of that shows up in our literary sources. The farthest eastern point that’s explicitly recorded is probably the city known as Kattigara, which has been tentatively identified as Óc Eo in the Mekong river delta.https://www.quora.com/Were-Roman-geographers-aware-of-the-Arctic-and-Pacific-Oceans
- To the east, Roman traders appear to have visited Indonesia and the eastern shores of Indochina and Guangzhou. However, relatively little evidence of that shows up in our literary sources. The farthest eastern point that’s explicitly recorded is probably the city known as Kattigara, which has been tentatively identified as Óc Eo in the Mekong river delta.https://www.quora.com/Were-Roman-geographers-aware-of-the-Arctic-and-Pacific-Oceans
pacific, australesia
- [tr berg] in around year 400, roman philosopher macrobius drew a map featuring a large cold continent far to the south: frigida australis
chinese
- scmp 10may19 full page ad by chang P liu "rome was built by ancient chinese settlers"
- ********Rome was vaguely aware that there was another large empire on the opposite end of the continent (and vice versa) but knew very little about it. The far east was known as “Serica,” or the place where silk came from, but that was about the extent of it. The Chinese made an abortive attempt to contact the Romans (their envoy turned back when the Persians lied to him about how much farther it was to Roman territory), and a Roman merchant stopped just a few days journey short of Chinese-controlled Kashgar in what is now the very western end of China’s Xinjiang province but was at the time a dependent kingdom. However, there’s no adequately documented instance of direct contact between the two, and what little we have of the Romans writing about China is both sparse and semi-fabulous.https://www.quora.com/Did-Romans-know-of-oriental-people-such-as-Chinesechina
- 後漢安帝時,大秦王安敦貢獅子 (溫州基督教編年史)
Legacy
- https://www.quora.com/Does-Rome-actually-rank-as-one-of-the-best-human-civilizations-of-all-time-or-is-our-historical-narrative-just-biased-that-way
- https://www.quora.com/Does-Rome-actually-rank-as-one-of-the-best-human-civilizations-of-all-time-or-is-our-historical-narrative-just-biased-that-way
- A castellan was the governor or captain of a castellany and its castle.[1] The word stems from the Latin Castellanus, derived from castellum "castle". Sometimes also known as a constable, governor of the castle district or captain, the Constable of the Tower of London is, in fact, a form of castellan. A castellan was almost always male, but could occasionally be female, as when, in 1194, Beatrice inherited her father's castellany of Bourbourg upon the death of her brother, Roger.
- note different names in different countries
- fire brigade
- https://www.quora.com/What-Roman-innovations-still-influence-todays-world
- library
- 古羅馬圖書館德國出土http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20180802/00180_032.html
- https://www.quora.com/How-do-walls-of-ancient-Roman-Empire-cities-compare-to-walls-of-Medieval-cities-or-castles-fortresses
- https://www.quora.com/How-were-Roman-ruins-treated-and-what-were-the-views-towards-them-in-the-Medieval-period-Were-attempts-made-to-preserve-them
- yongin 龍仁市, s korea
- england
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Britain-not-end-up-adopting-a-Romance-language-like-other-former-regions-of-the-Roman-Empire
- there's the fact that someone from Palmyra was in Roman Britain at all. It really underlines how much people got around during the Roman Empire, and not just around the Mediterranean, but to the other side of (their) world. And not just to the major urban centers of the empire, like Rome or Alexandria, but to the edge of the empire in Britain. And not even to the administrative center of Britain—the epitaph was found in modern day Bath, not London. But the thing that gets me is that he could have left it at the relatively formulaic Latin epitaph. It's not an odd one in terms of language. But Barates didn't stop there—he insisted that there also be included a subinscription in Palmyrene, his native language.https://www.quora.com/Whats-your-favorite-Roman-inscription
- colchester
- https://www.quora.com/How-much-did-Roman-citizens-and-subjects-know-about-the-administration-of-the-Roman-Empire-If-for-example-I-traveled-to-Chester-in-79AD-would-most-people-know-the-name-of-their-emperor
- scotland
- Caledonia is the Latin name given by the Romans to the land in today's Scotland north of their province of Britannia, beyond the frontier of their empire. The etymology of the name is probably from a P-Celtic source. Its modern usage is as a romantic or poetic name for Scotland as a whole, comparable with Hibernia for Ireland and Cambria for Wales. The modern use of "Caledonia" in English and Scots is either as a historical description of northern Britain during the Roman era or as a romantic or poetic name for Scotland as a whole. The name has been widely used by organisations and commercial entities. Notable examples include Glasgow Caledonian University, ferry operator Caledonian MacBrayne, and the now-defunct British Caledonian airline. The Caledonian Sleeper is an overnight train service from London to Scottish destinations. In music, "Caledonia" is a popular folk ballad written by Dougie MacLean in 1977 and published in 1979 on an album of the same name; it has since been covered by various other artists, including Amy Macdonald. The web series Caledonia and associated novel is a supernatural police drama that takes place in Glasgow, Scotland. Ptolemy's account also referred to the Caledonia Silva, an idea still recalled in the modern expression "Caledonian Forest", although the woods are much reduced in size since Roman times. Some scholars point out that the name "Scotland" is ultimately derived from Scotia, a Latin term first used for Ireland (also called Hibernia by the Romans) and later for Scotland, the Scoti peoples having originated in Ireland and resettled in Scotland.[note 4] Another, post-conquest, Roman name for the island of Great Britain was Albion, which is cognate with the Scottish Gaelic name for Scotland: Alba.
- italy
- 意大利羅馬以北一座有二千二百多年歷史的古城Falerii Novi，現今遺址所餘不多。但英國及比利時的考古團隊近日首次以能夠穿透地面的雷達技術，毋須挖掘出土就為整座佔地三十萬平方米的古城，掃描出極為詳細的平面圖，神廟、浴場及下水道系統的痕迹都清晰可見。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200610/00180_027.html
- The Ara Pacis Augustae (Latin, "Altar of Augustan Peace"; commonly shortened to Ara Pacis) is an altar in Rome dedicated to Pax, the Roman goddess of Peace. The monument was commissioned by the Roman Senate on July 4, 13 BC to honor the return of Augustus to Rome after three years in Hispania and Gaul, and consecrated on January 30, 9 BC.[3] Originally located on the northern outskirts of Rome, a Roman mile from the boundary of the pomerium on the west side of the Via Flaminia, it stood in the northeastern corner of the Campus Martius, the former flood plain of the Tiber River and gradually became buried under 4 metres (13 ft) of silt deposits. It was reassembled in its current location in 1938. The altar reflects the Augustan vision of Roman civil religion. The lower register of its frieze depicts vegetal work meant to communicate the abundance and prosperity of the Roman Peace (Latin: Pax Augusta), while the monument as a whole serves a civic ritual function whilst simultaneous operating as propaganda for Augustus and his regime, easing notions of autocracy and dynastic succession that might otherwise be unpalatable to traditional Roman culture.
- ********** 黑色大理石 The Lapis Niger (Latin, "Black Stone") is an ancient shrine in the Roman Forum. Together with the associated Vulcanal (a sanctuary to Vulcan) it constitutes the only surviving remnants of the old Comitium, an early assembly area that preceded the Forum and is thought to derive from an archaic cult site of the 7th or 8th century BC.The black marble paving (1st century BC) and modern concrete enclosure (early 20th century) of the Lapis Niger overlie an ancient altar and a stone block with one of the earliest known Latin inscriptions (c. 570–550 BC). The superstructure monument and shrine may have been built by Julius Caesar during his reorganization of the Forum and Comitium space. Alternatively, this may have been done a generation earlier by Sulla during one of his construction projects around the Curia Hostilia. The site was rediscovered and excavated from 1899 to 1905 by Italian archaeologist Giacomo Boni.Mentioned in many ancient descriptions of the Forum dating back to the Roman Republic and the early days of the Roman Empire, the significance of the Lapis Niger shrine was obscure and mysterious to later Romans, but it was always discussed as a place of great sacredness and significance. It is constructed on top of a sacred spot consisting of much older artifacts found about 5 ft (1.5 m) below the present ground level. The name "black stone" may have originally referred to the black stone block (one of the earliest known Latin inscriptions) or it may refer to the later black marble paving at the surface. Located in the Comitium in front of the Curia Julia, this structure survived for centuries due to a combination of reverential treatment and overbuilding during the era of the early Roman Empire.The site is believed to date back to the Roman regal period. The inscription includes the word rex, probably referring to either a king (rex), or to the rex sacrorum, a high religious official. At some point, the Romans forgot the original significance of the shrine. This led to several conflicting stories of its origin. Romans believed the Lapis Niger marked either the grave of the first king of Rome, Romulus, or the spot where he was murdered by the senate;[1] the grave of Hostus Hostilius, grandfather of King Tullus Hostilius; or the location where Faustulus, foster father of Romulus, fell in battle.
- france
- Nîmes (/niːm/; French: [nim]; ProvençalOccitan: Nimes [ˈnimes]) is a city in theLanguedoc-Roussillon region of southern France. It is the capital of the Garddepartment. Nîmes is located between theMediterranean Sea and the Cévennesmountains. The estimated population of Nîmes is 146 709 (2012). Nîmes has a rich history, dating back to the Roman Empire when the city was home to 50,000 – 60,000 people. Several famous monuments are in Nîmes, such as the Nîmes Arena and the Maison Carrée. Because of this, Nîmes is often referred to as the French Rome.
- spain
- In the south of Spain, lie the remains of an ancient Roman city. Virtus Iulia, as it was likely to have been called, was built between 30 and 27 BC in Ituci, a fortified settlement made by pre-Roman people known as Turdentani. After more than 30 years of research, it is now known that Virtus Iulia had huge city gates, a market, baths and a forum, which was adorned with sculptures of figures such as the Roman emperors Augustus, Livia and Caligula, whose face was replaced by that of Emperor Claudius when he succeeded him – all now on show at the Baena Historical and Archaeological Museum in the southern Spanish province of Córdoba.https://english.elpais.com/arts/2020-04-08/inside-virtus-iulia-the-roman-city-in-the-south-of-spain.html
- netherlands
- maastricht was built on roman aqueducts and ancient ruins; near to belgium and germany, the area was known locally as the meuse-rhine euroregion, containing about a dozen art and design museums that are particularly active in march and april, when international visitors came for european fine art fair
- switzerland
- 西墉城堡/ 石墉城堡 Chillon Castle (French: Château de Chillon) is an island castle located on Lake Geneva (Lac Léman), south of Veytaux in the canton of Vaud. It is situated at the eastern end of the lake, on the narrow shore between Montreux and Villeneuve, which gives access to the Alpinevalley of the Rhône. Chillon began as a Roman outpost, guarding the strategic road through the Alpine passes.[2] The later history of Chillon was influenced by three major periods: the Savoy Period, the Bernese Period, and the Vaudois Period.
- central and eastern europe
- https://www.quora.com/Where-are-Romans-now the name “Suisse romande” has first been used in 1723 by Abraham Ruchat, a historian. It is only after the First World War that the name “Suisse française” has officially been replaced by “Suisse romande”. The other major roman group would be the Romanians (I am including the Daco-Romanians (Romanians and Moldavians), Istro-Romanians, Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians) that call themselves “Român” (singular) and “Români” (plural) or “Armân” and “Armâni” (Romanians - Wikipedia). Romanians speak a romance language: the Romanian language “limba română” (Romanian language - Wikipedia), which includes the aromanian dialects also.Their old exonym used to be”Vlach” (Vlachs - Wikipedia). It comes from an old germanic word “Wallach” that referred to the Volcae, a Celt population that got romanized, and later was used to designate the Celt or Latin foreigners. This explains “Wales” in Great Britain or the exonym: “Wallachia” for one of the old romanian principality (endonym was and still is Țara Româneasca, translated to Romanian Land/Country).Now, as an addition,I would also include a third major group: the Greek Rhomaoi (Byzantine Greeks - Wikipedia), or simply the Greeks that used to call themselves Rhomaoi, but stopped using this designation in the 19th century with their independance. However, some greek populations outside of mainland Greece still used the term Rhomaoi up until the 20th century. I have heard that there are still Greeks in the Phanar district of Istanbul that still use the term Rhomaoi to refer to themselves, but this needs further investigation.So in summary, there are two major roman groups, in this day and age, that kept the roman endonym: the Romansh and the Romanians. One could also include the Greeks, but they officially stopped using the name “Rhomaoi”.
- hungary
- Savaria Festival is held yearly in August in Szombathely to remember its Roman heritage
- balkans
- Commodus fought in the arena with the gladiators and he was skillful fighter, who on the other hand often cheated. The emperor ordered to build a small amphitheater in Villa dei Quintili, where the gladiators could practice. Probably he trained himself there. The remains of the arena were also discovered in Genzano di Roma, located on Lake Nemi in the Albanian Mountains - 29 kilometers south-east of Rome, which belonged to the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-accomplishments-of-Roman-emperor-Commodus
- russia
- This station is relatively new, opened in 1995, and that’s why it probably doesn’t have any Soviet themes. Rimskaya literally means ‘dedicated to Rome’ and has a thematic sculpture composition. Two boys sit on ruined antique columns, and they are the legendary founders of Rome: Romulus and Remus.https://www.rbth.com/travel/331502-sculptures-moscow-metro
- syria
- ancient Roman amphitheatre of Bosra al-Sham, which is listed as a UNESCO World heritage site, in the southern Syrian province of Daraa https://www.facebook.com/haaretzcom/photos/a.102673756340.126247.64588666340/10156217906966341/?type=3
- china
- https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8154490/Chinese-villagers-descended-from-Roman-soldiers.html The genetic tests have leant weight to the theory that Roman legionaries settled in the area in the first century BC after fleeing a disastrous battle. The clash took place in 53BC between an army led by Marcus Crassus, a Roman general, and a larger force of Parthians, from what is now Iran, bringing to an abrupt halt the Roman Empire's eastwards expansion. Thousands of Romans were slaughtered and Crassus himself was beheaded, but some legionaries were said to have escaped the fighting and marched east to elude the enemy. They supposedly fought as mercenaries in a war between the Huns and the Chinese in 36BC – Chinese chroniclers refer to the capture of a "fish-scale formation" of troops, a possible reference to the "tortoise" phalanx formation perfected by legionnaries. The wandering Roman soldiers are thought to have been released and to have settled on the steppes of western China.
- 西元前53年，古羅馬帝國執政官克拉蘇率4萬多大軍東征帕提亞（今伊朗一帶），兵敗敘利亞草原卡爾萊，其長子普布利烏斯率羅馬軍團餘部6000人左右突圍 後，竟神秘失蹤。2000年後，即上世紀70年代，中國有一千多位學者和專家聚集北京編纂《辭海》，在他們的研究中得出了一個共同結論：這支失蹤的古羅馬 軍團無法西返，於西元前48年前後，輾轉遷徙中國，被西漢王朝安置在今永昌縣者來寨，取國名為縣名，設驪靬縣。驪靬文化因此受到國內外廣泛關注，成為研究 中西方文明交流的熱點。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20180713/PDF/b12_screen.pdf
- hkcd 9aug18 a18
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-cool-facts-about-ancient-China Former Roman soldiers and Hun allies were now to defend the Middle Kingdom against Tibetan invasions. The legionaries married local women and gradually assimilated. However, their genes remain. Professor Dubs believes that Liqian is the current village of Zhelaizhai. According to some experts, Liqian comes from the word legion. Others say that the Chinese during the Han dynasty called Liqian the Roman state.In 1993, a group of Chinese archaeologists conducting excavations in the village of Zhelaizhai near Yongchang, found the alleged Liqian settlement, with Roman fortifications. During the excavations, no conclusive evidence was found for the presence of the Romans in these areas. Roman coins were found, but they could be found here in connection with the Silk Road, where trade was extremely lively. In addition, the remains of defensive walls were discovered, which many enthusiasts thought were of Roman origin. The inhabitants of Zhelaizhai village still consider themselves descendants of the Romans. It turns out that the inhabitants of a nearby village “have always” had fair hair, blue eyes and were of high height.
- 東漢與西羅馬——當時雄踞東西的兩大帝國，有了直接接觸。《後漢書》載：「桓帝延熹九年，大秦王安敦遣使自日南徼外獻象牙、犀角、玳瑁，始乃一通焉。」「大秦王安敦」就是安東尼。延熹九年是公元一六六年，此時安東尼已去世，但使者遠離故國，不通消息，故仍用安東尼的名義。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20180916/PDF/a17_screen.pdf
worth a read
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Byzantines-react-when-the-Western-Roman-Empire-fell
- https://www.quora.com/Why-couldnt-the-Arab-armies-conquer-Rome-like-the-Germanic-tribes-did-with-ease-centuries-before The Western Roman Empire was nothing but a trash bank - the impoverished little brother. It was basically bankrupt already in the early 4th century. Centuries of inflation and its treatment by deflation had practically ousted the monetary economy, impoverished the empire and replaced monetary economy with barter trade. After 451, the Western Empire was in foreclosure. It had basically expended itself on warding off the Hunnic invasion (yes, the same Xiongnu, which were a continuous threat to China) and it had no more money to upkeep its army, not to speak about infrastructure or state apparatus. By 476 the Western Empire was simply liquidated, not conquered. The barbarians set there their own kingdoms, converted to Christianity, saved what saveable was - and merged with the original Empire population. They became the forefathers of the modern Italians. The Feudal system replaced the slave-owning society of the Empire and heavy cavalry became the norm in the Italian warfare. The feudal armies of the Barbarians were stronger and better suited on the terrain than the last Patrician Roman armies.
- https://www.quora.com/Which-countries-consider-themselves-the-third-Rome
- https://www.quora.com/After-the-Roman-empire-collapsed-did-Rome-become-some-sort-of-a-ghost-city-What-was-daily-life-like-for-those-left-behind
- https://www.quora.com/Is-it-true-that-Roman-Empire-never-really-collapsed-and-continues-on-in-some-form-today
- https://www.quora.com/When-did-the-last-people-anywhere-in-the-former-Roman-Empire-stop-identifying-as-Roman
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-darker-side-of-Ancient-Rome- https://www.quora.com/We-often-cite-Rome-as-an-example-of-a-great-empire-At-Romes-height-what-did-Romans-cite-as-an-example-of-a-great-empire- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-Eastern-and-Western-halves-of-the-Roman-Empire-refer-to-each-other What actually happened was the coexistence of more than one emperors and various administrative arrangements. Neither was unheard of or divisive by itself. If anything, republican Rome had always had two consuls, and provinciae were a thing since the 3rd c. BC. Under Diocletian’s reforms, the Roman Empire was supposed to be governed by two senior emperors (Augusti) and two junior emperors (Caesares). Each of the four original holders of the office had a city as his seat and controlled three out of the twelve dioceses (groupings of provinces). Imagine having four POTUS, each supervising three “Senior Governors,” each supervising 4 or 5 US states. After Constantine I, even larger groupings of provinces were created: they were the praetorian prefectures under the praetorian prefects, each of which comprised several dioceses. The prefectures were originally three (Gaul, Italy-Illyricum-Africa and East), as many as Constantine’s sons and successors, with Illyricum later becoming the fourth. Each of Constantine’s sons was accompanied by a praetorian prefect, and all three brothers bore the title of the Roman emperor. Not “Roman Emperor of Gaul” or “Roman Emperor of the East,” but simply Roman emperor — period. The office was indivisible, like the empire, and not geographically restrained, even if the authority its holder had had geographical limits. note the names in the map!
- https://www.quora.com/Were-there-any-areas-in-which-barbarian-armies-had-advantages-over-Roman-legions - gear, costume of different armies
- ** https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-Roman-Empire-never-revert-to-a-republic-after-Augustus
- https://www.quora.com/Who-was-the-last-Emperor-in-Rome, https://www.quora.com/Who-was-the-last-Roman-emperor-Why
- roman republic
- https://www.quora.com/What-did-the-citizens-of-the-Roman-Empire-think-of-the-earlier-Roman-Republic
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-most-prosperous-period-of-Roman-history
- auction of empire?
- https://www.quora.com/Was-the-entire-Roman-Empire-sold-at-auction-in-193-AD-and-who-bought-it On March 28th, 193 AD, after murdering the previous emperor, the Praetorian Guard (Guard of the Emperor) held an auction to see who would buy the Empire. It came down to Didius Julianus, who bought the empire for 6250 Drachmas per soldier.The Praetorian Guard was made up of 4,500 men, so that’s 28,125,000 Drachmas.
- fall of empire
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-immediately-after-the-fall-of-the-Western-Roman-Empire-How-long-did-it-take-before-the-land-was-carved-up-into-different-kingdoms
- https://www.quora.com/What-happened-to-the-inhabitants-of-Roman-cities-after-the-fall-of-the-Roman-Empire-who-now-found-themselves-living-in-a-Barbarian-kingdom
- The people of what we call the Byzantine or Eastern Roman empire thought of themselves as Romans to the very end. https://www.quora.com/When-did-the-Roman-empire-end-in-the-public-perception-Did-it-happen-over-such-a-long-period-of-time-that-the-average-citizen-did-not-notice-the-fall-or-the-change-to-the-Byzantine-empire
- https://www.quora.com/Is-The-Decline-and-Fall-of-the-Roman-Empire-by-Edward-Gibbon-worth-the-readGibbon writes that the empire flourished under Roman Paganism, and associates it’s collapse with the rise of Christianity, in addition to the consistent Barbarian incursions. note the map showing barbarians from various directions
- https://www.quora.com/How-was-the-fall-of-Rome-experienced-by-common-civilians\
- https://www.quora.com/When-if-ever-did-Roman-s-themselves-recognize-that-Rome-was-a-society-in-terminal-decline
- https://www.quora.com/When-Romans-split-the-empire-into-halves-were-there-disputes-about-where-to-draw-the-line-Did-anyone-later-change-their-minds-and-draw-it-differently-Did-criminals-try-to-exploit-it-by-committing-crimes-on-one-side
- https://www.quora.com/How-was-life-during-the-Fall-of-the-Roman-Empire
- what's that
- Syagrus' Northern Gaul district, Nepos' Illyria https://www.quora.com/What-could-Rome-have-done-to-prevent-their-demise-such-as-not-using-barbarians-as-mercenaries-just-as-an-example
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