Indian (language)

Reference
- a comparative grammar of modern aryan languages of india (1872-79) by John Beames, English magistrate in Calcutta
- Linguistic Survey of India (1894-1927) by Sir George Grierson


Classical language
- sanskrit

• Siddhaṃ, also known in its later evolved form as Siddhamātṛkā, is a script used for writing Sanskrit from c. 550 – c. 1200. It is descended from the Brahmi script via the Gupta script and later evolved into the Assamese alphabet, the Maithili alphabet, the Bengali alphabet, and the Tibetan alphabet. There is some confusion over the spelling: Siddhāṃ and Siddhaṃ are both common, though Siddhaṃ is preferred as "correct". The script is a refinement of the script used during the Gupta Empire. The word Siddhaṃ means "accomplished" or "perfected" in Sanskrit. The script received its name from the practice of writing Siddhaṃ, or Siddhaṃ astu (may there be perfection), at the head of documents. Other names for the script include bonji (Japanese: 梵字) lit. "Brahma's characters" and "Sanskrit script" and Chinese: 悉曇文字; pinyin: Xītán wénzi lit. "Siddhaṃ script". Siddhaṃ is an abugida rather than an alphabet because each character indicates a syllable, but it does not include every possible syllable. If no other mark occurs, the short 'a' is assumed. Diacritic marks indicate the other vowels, anusvara, and visarga. A virama can be used to indicate that the letter stands alone with no vowel, which sometimes happens at the end of Sanskrit words.悉曇はサンスクリット siddhaṃ の漢字音写である。肆曇、悉談、悉檀、悉旦、七旦などの表記も行われる。この語は「成就する」という意味の動詞語幹 sidh の過去分詞 siddha が名詞化したもので、「完成したもの」「成就したもの」を意味する。法隆寺に残る貝葉サンスクリット写本の一葉には、“siddhaṃ” の表題で字母の一覧が記されており、 siddhaṃ の語がこの文字体系の字母表や、この文字体系そのものを指していたことが知られる。インドではシッダマートリカー siddhamātṛkā（siddha 完成された mātṛkā 文字）の呼称が用いられた。言語のすべての音韻を表せる完備した文字体系であることを意味したのであろう。
• migrants who broke off and went east. those who eventually spoke Sanskrit tended to change k sounds to s sounds.https://www.quora.com/Why-is-there-such-a-variety-of-words-in-European-languages-for-dog-including-languages-which-are-relatively-close
• Most words which starts with the prefix “sam” are likely to be a Sanskrit/Prakrit word. Sam + tosha (join + contentment = complete contentment) is a Sanskrit word. Equivalent Tamil word is mahizhchchi மகிழ்ச்சி. https://www.quora.com/Does-the-word-Santhosham-have-its-root-in-the-Tamil-language
• https://www.quora.com/How-many-words-are-there-in-the-Sanskrit-language 
• https://www.quora.com/Has-Sanskrit-influenced-Latin-If-so-how-If-not-arent-there-just-too-many-similarities-for-it-to-be-a-coincidence
• The Shiva Sutras (IAST: Śivasūtrāṇi) or Māheśvara Sūtrāṇi are fourteen verses that organize the phonemes of Sanskrit as referred to in the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini, the foundational text of Sanskrit grammar. Within the tradition they are known as the Akṣarasamāmnāya, "recitation of phonemes," but they are popularly known as the Shiva Sutras because they are said to have been revealed to Pāṇini by Shiva. They were either composed by Pāṇini to accompany his Aṣṭādhyāyī or predate him. The latter is less plausible, but the practice of encoding complex rules in short, mnemonic verses is typical of the sutra style.
• origin/development

• https://www.quora.com/What-alphabet-was-originally-used-to-write-Sanskrit-Is-it-related-to-Egyptian-hieroglyphs-or-the-Phoenician-alphabet-How-is-present-day-Devanagari-alphabet-related-to-the-original-alphabet-used-to-write-Sanskrit

• influence on chinese 

• https://www.quora.com/Is-there-a-relation-between-Chinese-and-Sanskrit-language The Chinese Rime table is influenced by Sanskrit Siddhaṃ table

• *********Sandhi (/ˈsʌndi, ˈsæn-, ˈsɑːn-/; Sanskrit: संधि saṃdhí [səndʱi], "joining") is a cover term for a wide variety of sound changes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. Examples include fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of one sound depending on nearby sounds or the grammatical function of the adjacent words. Sandhi belongs to morphophonology. Sandhi occurs in many languages, including particularly prominently in the phonology of Indian languages (especially Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Marathi, Hindi, Pali, Kannada, Bengali, Assamese, Malayalam), as well as in some North Germanic languages.
• terms

• sthapatya shastra - sculpture and architectural services
•  https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-etymology-and-meaning-of-the-Sanskrit-word-Shruti

• dictionary

• http://spokensanskrit.org/index.php
•  http://sanskritdictionary.com/muktāhāra/179350/1

Hindi
- regional varieties

• rajasthani
• barj Bhasha
• awadhi
• bhojpuri
• maithili

- china

• http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201804/25/WS5adfc88da3105cdcf651a4a3.html India's External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj emphasized the importance of learning Hindi to Chinese college students in Beijing. Hindi, India's official language alongside English at the national level, is being promoted at home and abroad by the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party.Swaraj, who was in China mainly to attend the foreign ministers meeting of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization on Tuesday, said on Monday that India would soon invite a batch of 25 Chinese students learning Hindi to visit the country. Students from Peking University and Yunnan Minzu University, among others, were present at the embassy event. Some of the Chinese students recited Indian poetry and prose in fluent Hindi. Many female students wore the traditional Indian sari. The earliest Hindi studies department on a Chinese campus was set up by Peking University in 1917, while the latest is Shenzhen University. At least 11 universities on the Chinese mainland are known to offer Hindi as a major course today.

indo-aryan
- https://www.quora.com/Which-Indo-Aryan-language-still-preserves-neuter-gender

Pali (Pāli) is a Prakrit language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of much of the earliest extant literature of Buddhism as collected in the Pāli Canon or Tipiṭaka and is the sacred language of some religious texts of Hinduism and all texts of Theravāda Buddhism.Pali and Sanskrit are very closely related and the common characteristics of Pali and Sanskrit were always easily recognized by those in Nepal who were familiar with both. Indeed, a very large proportion of Pali and Sanskrit word-stems are identical in form, differing only in details of inflection.

Punjabi /pʌnˈdʒɑːbi/ (Shahmukhi: پنجابی paṉjābī; Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬੀ pañjābī) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by over 100 million native speakers worldwide, making it the 10th most widely spoken language (2015).  in the world. It is the native language of the Punjabi people who inhabit the historical Punjab region of Pakistan and India. Among the Indo-European languages it is unusual in being a tonal language. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan, the 11th most widely spoken in India and the third-most spoken native language in the Indian Subcontinent. Punjabi is the fourth-most spoken language in the United Kingdom and third-most spoken native language (after English and French) in Canada. The language also has a significant presence in the United Arab Emirates, United States, Saudi Arabia, and Australia. The Punjabi language is written in the Shahmukhi (for writing punjabi in pakistan) and Gurumukhi scripts, making it one of the relatively few languages written in more than one script. Some regard Vedic as the earliest recorded form of Panjabi.
- taksali panjabi means standard panjabi

- dialects

• Eastern : majhi, doabi, malwai and puwadhi; collectively known as kendri panjabi or central panjabi
• Western (or Lahandi)

- script

• panjabi - gurmukhi script  (myth - you speak as you write and write as you speak)

• Guru Angad popularized the present form of the Gurmukhi script. It became the medium of writing the Punjabi language in which the hymns of the Gurus are expressed. This step had a far-reaching purpose and impact. First, it gave the people who spoke this language an identity of their own, enabling them to express their thought directly and without any difficulty or transliteration. Earlier, the Punjabi language was written in the Landa or Mahajani script. This had no vowel sounds, which had to be imagined or construed by the reader in order to decipher the writing. Therefore, there was the need of a script which could faithfully reproduce the hymns of the Gurus so that the true meaning and message of the Gurus could not be misconstrued and misinterpreted by each reader to suit his own purpose and prejudices. The devising of the Gurmukhi script was an essential step in order to maintain the purity of the doctrine and exclude all possibility of misunderstanding and misconstruction by interested persons.

• muslims - urdu in perso-arabic script (recent name Shahmukhi)

• for writing panjabi in Pakistan
• 100%urdu script, no panjabi-specific changes
• indian variety of perso-arabic (nastaleeq) script with a few symbols for indian consonants added.  Original arabic script called naskh. 
• nasdtaleeq script itself was created by adding four letters for persian consonants not found in arabic and by changing the style of writing, it is sometimes called arabic+4 script

• speakers of persian couild not pronounce some arabic sound in word borrwed from arabic. So they changed their pronunication but retained the arabic spelling.
• early muslim rules of india used persian script for writing language spoken in and around delhi, which they called hindvi and kari boli (name urdu came into use much later) 

• hindus - hindi in devanagari script
• sindhi (based on arabic script) by Sir Richard Francis Burton

- resources

• https://www.routledge.com/Panjabi-A-Comprehensive-Grammar/Bhardwaj/p/book/9781138793866

- feature:

• serial verb construction

- folk song/poetry

• http://apnaorg.com/research-papers-pdf/gargi.pdf
• merchants of musical n ottes by iqbal mahal

Sindhi /ˈsɪndi/ (سنڌي, सिन्धी, ) is anIndo-Aryan language of the historical Sindhregion, spoken by the Sindhi people. It is the official language of the Pakistaniprovince of Sindh.^[7][8][9] In India, Sindhi is one of the scheduled languages officially recognized by the federal government. It has influences from Balochi spoken in the adjacent province of Balochistan. Most Sindhi speakers are concentrated inPakistan in the Sindh province, and in Indiain the Kutch region of the state of Gujaratand in Ulhasnagar region of the state ofMaharashtra. The remaining speakers in India are composed of the Hindu Sindhis who migrated from Sindh, which became a part of Pakistan and settled in India after the independence of Pakistan in 1947 and the Sindhi diaspora worldwide. Sindhi language is spoken in Sindh, Pakistan andKutch, India as well as immigrant communities in India, Hong Kong, Oman,Philippines, Indonesia, Singapore, UAE, UK,USA, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka.

Ami tuma Ke bhalo bashi    I LOVE YOU

******Chand -
- means moon

• eg Chand Baori月亮井
• The Chandni Chowk (Moonlight Square) is one of the oldest and busiest markets in Old Delhi, India. 

Cholbe na    It is not going to Work

deepak - 光明

Haveli is generic term used for a traditional townhouse andmansions in India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh usually one with historical and architectural significance. The word haveli is derived from Arabic haveli, meaning "partition" or "private space" popularised under Mughal Empire and was devoid of any architectural affiliations.^[1][2] Later, the word haveli came to be used as generic term for various styles of regional mansions, townhouseand temples found in India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh.^[3]

Jai Hind (Hindi: जय हिन्द) is a salutation, slogan and battle cry most commonly used in India in speeches and communications pertaining to or referring to patriotism towards India (also known as Hind). It translates roughly to "Hail India" or "Victory to India"^[1] or "Long live India".^[2] The term was coined by Major Abid Hasan Safrani of the Indian National Army as a shortened version of Jai Hindustan Ki (translation: Victory to India).^[3][4] It has since captured the imagination of Indians and has been immortalized by Subhas Chandra Bose as the battle cry of the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj).

Malayalam /mæləˈjɑːləm/^[3] (മലയാളം, Malayāḷam ^? [mɐləjaːɭəm]) is a language spoken in India, predominantly in the state of Kerala. It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India and was designated a Classical Language in India in 2013.^[4] Malayalam has official language status in the state of Kerala and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry. It belongs to the Dravidian family of languages.

Marathi(English pronunciation: ⁱ/məˈrɑːti/;^[11]मराठी Marāṭhī [məˈɾaʈʰi]) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken predominantly byMarathi people of Maharashtra. It is theofficial language and co-official language in Maharashtra and Goa states of Western India respectively, and is one of the 23 official languages of India. There were 73 million speakers in 2001; Marathi ranks 19th in the list of most spoken languages in the world. Marathi has the fourth largest number of native speakers in India.^[12]Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages, dating from about 900 AD.^[13] The major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi and theVarhadi dialect.^[14] There are other related languages such as Khandeshi, Dangi, Vadvali and Samavedi. Malvani Konkanihas been heavily influenced by Marathi varieties.


Mahārāja (Sanskrit: महाराज, also spelled maharajah) is aSanskrit title for a "great ruler", "great king" or "high king".^[1]The female equivalent, Maharani (or Maharanee,Mahārājñī), denotes either the wife of a Maharaja or Maharana, and also in states where that was customary, a woman ruling in her own right the equivalent title wasMaharani. The widow of a Maharaja is known as aRajmata "queen mother".^[2] The form Maharaj indicates a separation of noble and religious offices, although the fact that in Hindi the suffix -a is silent makes the two titles near homophones.

Sri (Devanagari: श्री, IAST: Śrī, IPA: /ʃɹiː/ or /ɕɹiː/, pronounced 'shree'), also transliterated as Sree, Shri, Shree, Si or Seri is a word of Sanskrit origin, used in the Indian subcontinent as a polite form of address equivalent to the English "Mr." or "Ms." in written and spoken language, but also as a title of veneration for deities. It is also widely used in other South and Southeast Asian languages.
- Sri has a core meaning of "diffusing light or radiance", related to the root śrā "to cook, boil", but as a feminine abstract noun, it has received a general meaning of "grace, splendour, lustre, beauty; wealth, affluence, prosperity". Derived forms of address are Shrimati (abbreviated Smt) for married women and Sushri for women (regardless of marital status).
- In Devanagari script for Sanskrit, Hindi and other languages, the word ⟨श्री⟩ is spelled with three conjoined letters: श (śa / sha) – र (ra) – ी (ī, long i). These are distinct from स (sa) and ि (short i). The strict transliteration is śrī or shrii. (Other forms include Hunterian zrI.) Some other Indian languages do not distinguish /ʃ/ (sh in English) from /s/ in speech or for native words, but do retain distinct spelling for loanwords. For example, Sinhalese and Tamilrespectively have: (ශ, ஶ், śa) versus (ස, ஸ், sa). In these cases, the spelling generally reflects Sanskrit śrī ("shri"), though the pronunciation may be "sri", "seri", or "si".
- Sri is a polite form of address equivalent to the English "Mr." or "Ms."^[3] The title is derived from Sanskrit श्रीमान् (śrīmān). This use may stem from the Puranic conception of prosperity. Shri is also frequently used as an epithet of some Hindu gods, in which case it is often translated into English as Holy. Also in language and general usage, Shri if used by itself and not followed by any name then it refers to the supreme consciousness i.e. God. Shri Devi (or in short Shri, another name of Lakshmi, consort of Vishnu) is the devi(goddess) of wealth according to Hindu beliefs. Among today's orthodox Vaishnavas, the English word "Shree" is a revered syllable and is used to refer to Lakshmi as the supreme goddess, while "Sri" or "Shri" is used to address humans. Shri is one of the names of Ganesha, the Hindu god of prosperity. Shri is also used as a title of the Hindu deities Rama, Krishna, Saraswati, Radha (used as Shrimati Radharani), and sometimes Durga.

[precarious belongings] swaraj is autonomy

Yoga is a Sanskrit term that can be translated as "effort" or "union" .



Web resources
- www.hindiurduflapship.org
- www.ncsu.edu/project/hindi_lessons
- for learning devanagari

• www.avashy.com/hindiscripttutor.htm

roomal is handkerchief
- kiv pakhar re obitruary of a mr buxani scmp 4aug17

Food
- https://recipes.timesofindia.com/articles/features/15-common-indian-foods-and-their-lesser-known-english-names/turai/photostory/59772769.cms
- https://recipes.timesofindia.com/articles/features/25-common-indian-vegetables-and-their-english-names/chaulai/photostory/62932697.cms

different indian languages
- https://www.quora.com/How-come-the-language-of-Tamil-and-Sanskrit-are-classified-as-two-different-languages-despite-sharing-the-same-pattern-of-vowels-and-consonants