periodic table
- http://edition.cnn.com/2016/01/04/world/periodic-table-new-elements/index.html Chemistry textbooks as we know it are officially out of date, as four new elements will soon be added to the periodic table. Elements 113, 115, 117 and 118 have formally been recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the U.S.-based world authority on chemistry. The organization's announcement on December 30 means the seventh row of the periodic table is finally complete. It's the first time the table has been updated since 2011, when elements 114 (Flerovium) and 116 (Livermorium) were added. Devised by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, the table categorizes chemical elements according to their atomic number.
Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard atomic weight of 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table. Its monatomic form (H) is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass.
- hydrogen inhalation as medical treatment
- Tricalcium phosphate (sometimes abbreviated TCP) is a calcium salt of phosphoric acid with the chemical formula Ca3(PO4)2. It is also known as tribasic calcium phosphate and bone phosphate of lime (BPL). It is a white solid of low solubility. Most commercial samples of "tricalcium phosphate" are in fact hydroxyapatite.磷酸钙，化学式Ca3(PO4)2，在人的骨骼中普遍存在。用于制造陶瓷、乳白玻璃、彩色玻璃，用作牙科的粘结剂、塑料稳定剂、制酸剂、磨光粉、糖浆澄清剂、食品添加劑、化学肥料和家禽饲料添加剂等。
- Guano (from Quechua wanu via Spanish) is the accumulated excrement of seabirds and bats. As a manure, guano is a highly effective fertilizerdue to its exceptionally high content of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium: nutrients essential for plant growth. The 19th-century guano trade played a pivotal role in the development of modern input-intensive farming practices and inspired the formal human colonization of remote bird islands in many parts of the world. During the twentieth century, guano-producing birds became an important target of conservation programs and influenced the development of environmental consciousness. Today, guano is increasingly sought after by organic farmers.
Selenium is a chemical element with symbol Se and atomic number 34. It is a nonmetal with properties that are intermediate between the elements above and below in the periodic table, sulfur and tellurium. It rarely occurs in its elemental state or as pure ore compounds in the Earth's crust. Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who noted the similarity of the new element to the previously discovered tellurium (named for the Earth). Selenium is found in metal sulfide ores, where it partially replaces the sulfur. Commercially, selenium is produced as a byproduct in the refining of these ores, most often during production. Minerals that are pure selenide or selenate compounds are known but rare. The chief commercial uses for selenium today are glassmaking and pigments. Selenium is a semiconductor and is used in photocells. Applications in electronics, once important, have been mostly supplanted by silicon semiconductor devices. Selenium is still used in a few types of DC power surge protectors and one type of fluorescent quantum dot. Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts are necessary for cellular function in many organisms, including all animals. Selenium is an ingredient in many multivitamins and other dietary supplements, including infant formula. It is a component of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase (which indirectly reduce certain oxidized molecules in animals and some plants). It is also found in three deiodinase enzymes, which convert one thyroid hormone to another. Selenium requirements in plants differ by species, with some plants requiring relatively large amounts and others apparently requiring none. 硒是化学元素，化学符号是Se，原子序数是34，是非金属。硒對生物來說是必需，但同時也有毒性。硒的性质与硫及碲相似；在有光时，导电性能较黑暗时好，故可用来做光电池。
- http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-08/07/content_30350870.htm Xiantao, Hubei province, is leveraging its region's richness in selenium to promote agricultural tourism, or agritourism. Selenium - Se, as it's known in the periodic table of chemical elements - is one of 14 essential trace elements needed for human health. Yang Peizhong, a fruit farmer in Xiantao's Chenchang county, has benefited from the central government's policy that encourages new types of operators in the agricultural sector and the development of the Se-enriched industry.
- http://edition.cnn.com/2016/01/04/world/periodic-table-new-elements/index.html Chemistry textbooks as we know it are officially out of date, as four new elements will soon be added to the periodic table. Elements 113, 115, 117 and 118 have formally been recognized by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the U.S.-based world authority on chemistry. The organization's announcement on December 30 means the seventh row of the periodic table is finally complete. It's the first time the table has been updated since 2011, when elements 114 (Flerovium) and 116 (Livermorium) were added. Devised by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869, the table categorizes chemical elements according to their atomic number.
Hydrogen is a chemical element with symbol H and atomic number 1. With a standard atomic weight of 1.008, hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table. Its monatomic form (H) is the most abundant chemical substance in the Universe, constituting roughly 75% of all baryonic mass.
- hydrogen inhalation as medical treatment
- https://asthmarp.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40733-018-0040-y
- The largest scale application of hydrogenation is for the processing of vegetable oils.[2]Typical vegetable oils are derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids (containing more than one carbon-carbon double bond). Their partial hydrogenation reduces most, but not all, of these carbon-carbon double bonds. The degree of hydrogenation is controlled by restricting the amount of hydrogen, reaction temperature and time, and the catalyst. Hydrogenation converts liquid vegetable oils into solid or semi-solid fats, such as those present in margarine. Changing the degree of saturation of the fat changes some important physical properties, such as the melting range, which is why liquid oils become semi-solid. Solid or semi-solid fats are preferred for baking because the way the fat mixes with flour produces a more desirable texture in the baked product. Because partially hydrogenated vegetable oils are cheaper than animal fats, are available in a wide range of consistencies, and have other desirable characteristics (such as increased oxidative stability and longer shelf life), they are the predominant fats used as shortening in most commercial baked goods.
- https://www.channelnewsasia.com/news/singapore/singapore-ban-pho-partially-hydrogenated-oils-transfat-margarine-11316986
Phosphorus is a chemical element with symbol P and atomic number 15. As an element, phosphorus exists in two major forms—white phosphorus and red phosphorus—but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Earth. At 0.099%, phosphorus is the most abundant pnictogenin the Earth's crust. With few exceptions, minerals containing phosphorus are in the maximally oxidized state as inorganic phosphate rocks. The first form of elemental phosphorus to be produced (white phosphorus, in 1669) emits a faint glow when exposed to oxygen – hence the name, taken from Greek mythology, Φωσφόρος meaning "light-bearer" (Latin Lucifer), referring to the "Morning Star", the planet Venus (or Mercury). The term "phosphorescence", meaning glow after illumination, originally derives from this property of phosphorus, although this word has since been used for a different physical process that produces a glow. The glow of phosphorus itself originates from oxidation of the white (but not red) phosphorus — a process now termedchemiluminescence. Together with nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth, phosphorus is classified as a pnictogen. Phosphorus is essential for life. Phosphates (compounds containing the phosphate ion, PO43−) are a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and the phospholipids, which form all cell membranes. Demonstrating the link between phosphorus and life, elemental phosphorus was first isolated from human urine, and bone ashwas an important early phosphate source. Phosphate mines contain fossils, especially marine fossils, because phosphate is present in the fossilized deposits of animal remains and excreta. Low phosphate levels are an important limit to growth in some aquatic systems. The vast majority of phosphorus compounds produced are consumed as fertilisers. Phosphate is needed to replace the phosphorus that plants remove from the soil, and its annual demand is rising nearly twice as fast as the growth of the human population. Other applications include the role of organophosphorus compounds in detergents, pesticides, and nerve agents.
- Most production of phosphorus-bearing material is for agriculture fertilisers. For this purpose, phosphate minerals are converted to phosphoric acid. It follows two distinct chemical routes, the main one being treatment of phosphate minerals with sulfuric acid. The other process utilises white phosphorus, which may be produced by reaction and distillation from very low grade phosphate sources. The white phosphorus is then oxidised to phosphoric acid and subsequently neutralised with base to give phosphate salts. Phosphoric acid produced from white phosphorus is relatively pure and is the main route for the production of phosphates for all purposes, including detergent production. In the early 1990s Albright and Wilson's purified wet phosphoric acid business was being adversely affected by phosphate rock sales by China and the entry of their long-standing Moroccan phosphate suppliers into the purified wet phosphoric acid business.
- 疑在玩魔術起火的磷粉屬黃磷，又稱白磷，是一種化工原料，常用於火柴或助燃劑，擁有低燃點特性，於廿至卅度室溫足以自燃，釋出帶臭有毒的黃白色煙。魔術表演者常用磷粉透過摩擦加熱，於手掌產生剎那火光，以掩眼法變出不同物件。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20170813/00174_001.html- Tricalcium phosphate (sometimes abbreviated TCP) is a calcium salt of phosphoric acid with the chemical formula Ca3(PO4)2. It is also known as tribasic calcium phosphate and bone phosphate of lime (BPL). It is a white solid of low solubility. Most commercial samples of "tricalcium phosphate" are in fact hydroxyapatite.磷酸钙，化学式Ca3(PO4)2，在人的骨骼中普遍存在。用于制造陶瓷、乳白玻璃、彩色玻璃，用作牙科的粘结剂、塑料稳定剂、制酸剂、磨光粉、糖浆澄清剂、食品添加劑、化学肥料和家禽饲料添加剂等。
- Guano (from Quechua wanu via Spanish) is the accumulated excrement of seabirds and bats. As a manure, guano is a highly effective fertilizerdue to its exceptionally high content of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium: nutrients essential for plant growth. The 19th-century guano trade played a pivotal role in the development of modern input-intensive farming practices and inspired the formal human colonization of remote bird islands in many parts of the world. During the twentieth century, guano-producing birds became an important target of conservation programs and influenced the development of environmental consciousness. Today, guano is increasingly sought after by organic farmers.
- very detailed description in hebrew
锗（Germanium，舊譯作鈤[a]）is a chemical element with the symbol Ge and atomic number 32. It is a lustrous, hard-brittle, grayish-white metalloid in the carbon group, chemically similar to its group neighbours silicon and tin. Pure germanium is a semiconductor with an appearance similar to elemental silicon. Like silicon, germanium naturally reacts and forms complexes with oxygen in nature.Because it seldom appears in high concentration, germanium was discovered comparatively late in the history of chemistry.The major end uses for germanium in 2007, worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for fiber-optics, 30% infrared optics, 15% polymerization catalysts, and 15% electronics and solar electric applications.[26] The remaining 5% went into such uses as phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy. 鍺是一種重要的半导体材料，用於製造晶体管及各種電子裝置。主要的終端應用為光纖系統與紅外線光學，也用於聚合反應的催化剂，制造電子器件與太陽能電力等。現在，開採鍺用的主要礦石是閃鋅礦（锌的主要礦石），也可以在銀、铅和铜中，用商業方式提取鍺。
Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As and atomic number 33. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in combination with sulfur and metals, but also as a pure elemental crystal. Arsenic is a metalloid. It has various allotropes, but only the gray form, which has a metallic appearance, is important to industry. The primary use of arsenic is in alloys of lead (for example, in car batteries and ammunition). Arsenic is a common n-type dopant in semiconductor electronic devices, and the optoelectronic compound gallium arsenide is the second most commonly used semiconductor after doped silicon. Arsenic and its compounds, especially the trioxide, are used in the production of pesticides, treated wood products, herbicides, and insecticides. These applications are declining due to the toxicity of arsenic and its compounds.A few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites. Trace quantities of arsenic are an essential dietary element in rats, hamsters, goats, chickens, and presumably other species. A role in human metabolism is not known.[9][10][11] However, arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed. Arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects millions of people across the world. The United States' Environmental Protection Agency states that all forms of arsenic are a serious risk to human health.[12] The United States' Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ranked arsenic as number 1 in its 2001 Priority List of Hazardous Substances at Superfund sites.[13] Arsenic is classified as a Group-A carcinogen.中国人很早就广泛使用砷的化合物：雌黄（三硫化二砷），雄黄（四硫化四砷），和砒霜（三氧化二砷）。三者都曾被用于中药。雌黄更是古代东西方均广泛使用的金黄色颜料。雌黄也可用于修改错字，故有信口雌黄之说。砒霜是古代最常见的毒药，常被用于谋杀。拿破仑即可能死于砒霜。英语中的arsenic（砷）一词最初源自叙利亚语中的雌黄一词ܠܐ ܙܐܦܢܝܐ（音zarniqa）[21]。这个词来自波斯语زرنيخ（音zarnikh，意为金黄色）。传入希腊语后，被讹作ἀρσενικόν（arsenikon）（单词“雄性”，ἀρσενικός，的中性形式）。后来这个希腊词又传入拉丁语成为arsenicum，再由古法语（arsenic）传入英语（arsenic）。砷的硫化物（雌黄和雄黄）和砷的氧化物从上古时期就为人所知和使用[22]。Panopolis的Zosimos（大约公元前300年）描述了焙烧雄黄以得到砒霜，接着又将其还原成砷单质的过程。
- http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2019-07/10/content_37489831.htm For a few decades from the 1950s to the 1990s, Wenshan city in Southwest China's Yunnan province ranked first in terms of arsenic production in China. Tao Guangfa, a 67-year-old villager, still remembers how people in his hometown used to be afraid of eating corn, rice and other crops from the fields and along a waterway around a local arsenic mine. People even avoided herding around the arsenic mines for some time as grass for the cattle was poisoned due to soil pollution.
Selenium is a chemical element with symbol Se and atomic number 34. It is a nonmetal with properties that are intermediate between the elements above and below in the periodic table, sulfur and tellurium. It rarely occurs in its elemental state or as pure ore compounds in the Earth's crust. Selenium (Greek σελήνη selene meaning "Moon") was discovered in 1817 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who noted the similarity of the new element to the previously discovered tellurium (named for the Earth). Selenium is found in metal sulfide ores, where it partially replaces the sulfur. Commercially, selenium is produced as a byproduct in the refining of these ores, most often during production. Minerals that are pure selenide or selenate compounds are known but rare. The chief commercial uses for selenium today are glassmaking and pigments. Selenium is a semiconductor and is used in photocells. Applications in electronics, once important, have been mostly supplanted by silicon semiconductor devices. Selenium is still used in a few types of DC power surge protectors and one type of fluorescent quantum dot. Selenium salts are toxic in large amounts, but trace amounts are necessary for cellular function in many organisms, including all animals. Selenium is an ingredient in many multivitamins and other dietary supplements, including infant formula. It is a component of the antioxidant enzymes glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin reductase (which indirectly reduce certain oxidized molecules in animals and some plants). It is also found in three deiodinase enzymes, which convert one thyroid hormone to another. Selenium requirements in plants differ by species, with some plants requiring relatively large amounts and others apparently requiring none. 硒是化学元素，化学符号是Se，原子序数是34，是非金属。硒對生物來說是必需，但同時也有毒性。硒的性质与硫及碲相似；在有光时，导电性能较黑暗时好，故可用来做光电池。
- http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-08/07/content_30350870.htm Xiantao, Hubei province, is leveraging its region's richness in selenium to promote agricultural tourism, or agritourism. Selenium - Se, as it's known in the periodic table of chemical elements - is one of 14 essential trace elements needed for human health. Yang Peizhong, a fruit farmer in Xiantao's Chenchang county, has benefited from the central government's policy that encourages new types of operators in the agricultural sector and the development of the Se-enriched industry.
-新田縣，位於湖南省南部、永州市東部，東鄰郴州，北交衡陽。新田縣是國家扶貧開發重點縣。新田全縣1022平方公里的土地上，有998平方公里土壤含有人體必需的微量營養元素硒；富鍶礦泉水田面積177平方公里，地下水鍶元素平均含量達1.42mg/L，是國家飲用天然礦泉水鍶元素限值的7.1倍。近五年，新田縣大力挖掘硒鍶特色資源，共投入產業發展資金7.6億餘元，建設14個現代產業園區，引導幫扶103個貧困村建立主導產業，形成了「一縣一特、一鄉一業、一村一品」的產業格局。http://hk.hkcd.com/pdf/202012/1225/HA08C25CZB1_HKCD.pdf
Niobium, formerly columbium, is a chemical element with symbol Nb (formerly Cb) and atomic number 41. It is a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, often found in the minerals pyrochlore and columbite. Its name comes from Greek mythology, specifically Niobe, who was the daughter of Tantalus, the namesake of tantalum. The name reflects the great similarity between the two elements in their physical and chemical properties, making them difficult to distinguish.Niobium was identified by English chemist Charles Hatchett in 1801. He found a new element in a mineral sample that had been sent to England from Connecticut, United States in 1734 by John Winthrop F.R.S. (grandson of John Winthrop the Younger) and named the mineral columbite and the new element columbium after Columbia, the poetical name for the United States.[6][7][8] The columbium discovered by Hatchett was probably a mixture of the new element with tantalum. Subsequently, there was considerable confusion over the difference between columbium (niobium) and the closely related tantalum. In 1809, English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite, with a density 5.918 g/cm3, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density over 8 g/cm3, and concluded that the two oxides, despite the significant difference in density, were identical; thus he kept the name tantalum. This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two different elements in the tantalite sample, and named them after children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe) and pelopium (from Pelops). This confusion arose from the minimal observed differences between tantalum and niobium. The claimed new elements pelopium, ilmenium, and dianium were in fact identical to niobium or mixtures of niobium and tantalum.
- Niobium has no known biological role. While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a potential fire hazard, elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic) and harmless. It is frequently used in jewelry and has been tested for use in some medical implants.Niobium-containing compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but some are toxic and should be treated with care.
Cadmium is a chemical element with symbol Cd and atomic number 48. Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος, Cadmus, the founder of Thebes) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer[12] and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate. Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, because it was found in this zinc ore. Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries, pigments, coatings, and electroplating.
锑Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb (from Latin: stibium) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name, kohl. Metallic antimony was also known, but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery. The earliest known description of the metal in the West was written in 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio. For some time, China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony are roasting and reduction with carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron. The largest applications for metallic antimony is an alloy with lead and tin and the lead antimony plates in lead–acid batteries. Alloys of lead and tin with antimony have improved properties for solders, bullets, and plain bearings. Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine-containing fire retardantsfound in many commercial and domestic products. An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics. The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History. Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between "male" and "female" forms of antimony; the male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, has been suspected to be native metallic antimony.
- note its alchemical symbol
- 南韓當局日前宣布，該國一間化妝品代工生產商製造的十三款產品，被發現重金屬超標，部分更涉致癌重金屬銻超標。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20180322/00176_022.html
Nickel(II) hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the formula Ni(OH)2. It is an apple-green solid that dissolves with decomposition in ammonia and amines and is attacked by acids. It is electroactive, being converted to the Ni(III) oxy-hydroxide, leading to widespread applications in rechargeable battery.水酸化ニッケル(II)（すいさんかニッケル(II)、Nickel(II) hydroxide）は、化学式 Ni(OH)2 で表される2価のニッケルの水酸化物である。
- 港大工程系團隊發現以往用作鋰電池材料的「氫氧化鎳」在光照射下會變形，產生的力量能提起等於自身重量約三千倍的物件，因此能無線地提供驅動力，讓機械人可以輕裝上陣。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20180601/00176_073.html
铈 Cerium is a chemical element with symbol Ce and atomic number 58. Cerium is a soft, ductile and silvery-white metal that tarnishes when exposed to air, and it is soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is also traditionally considered one of the rare-earth elements. Cerium has no biological role and is not very toxic. Despite always being found in combination with the other rare-earth elements in minerals such as those of the monazite and bastnäsite groups, cerium is easy to extract from its ores, as it can be distinguished among the lanthanides by its unique ability to be oxidized to the +4 state.Cerium was the first of the lanthanides to be discovered, in Bastnäs, Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger in 1803, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany. It was first isolated by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1839. Today, cerium and its compounds have a variety of uses: for example, cerium(IV) oxide is used to polish glass and is an important part of catalytic converters. Cerium metal is used in ferrocerium lighters for its pyrophoric properties. 酸化物が研磨剤として用いられるほか、ガラス添加剤、製鋼原料、触媒としても使用される。化学反応における酸化剤としての用途は、使用量こそ少ないが非常に重要である。
Americium is a synthetic chemical element with symbol Am and atomic number 95. It is a transuranic member of the actinide series, in the periodic table located under the lanthanideelement europium, and thus by analogy was named after the Americas.Americium was first produced in 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg from Berkeley, California, at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, a part of the Manhattan Project. Although it is the third element in the transuranic series, it was discovered fourth, after the heavier curium. The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945. Most americium is produced by uranium or plutonium being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuelcontains about 100 grams of americium. It is widely used in commercial ionization chamber smoke detectors, as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges. Several unusual applications, such as nuclear batteries or fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion, have been proposed for the isotope 242mAm, but they are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer.
- chinese name - 鋂（大陸譯作镅（鎇））, old translation 鏋
An oxide /ˈɒksaɪd/ is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. "Oxide" itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– atom. Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the Earth's crustconsists of solid oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides: carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, aluminium foil develops a thin skin of Al2O3 (called a passivation layer) that protects the foil from further corrosion. Individual elements can often form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element and oxygen. In some cases these are distinguished by specifying the number of atoms as in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and in other cases by specifying the element's oxidation number, as in iron(II) oxideand iron(III) oxide. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such as those of nitrogen.氧化物，是负价氧和另外一个化學元素組成的二元化合物，例如氧化鐵（Fe2O3）或氧化鋁（Al2O3），通常經由氧化反應產生。氧化物在地球的地殻極度普遍，而在宇宙的固體中也是如此。
Niobium, formerly columbium, is a chemical element with symbol Nb (formerly Cb) and atomic number 41. It is a soft, grey, ductile transition metal, often found in the minerals pyrochlore and columbite. Its name comes from Greek mythology, specifically Niobe, who was the daughter of Tantalus, the namesake of tantalum. The name reflects the great similarity between the two elements in their physical and chemical properties, making them difficult to distinguish.Niobium was identified by English chemist Charles Hatchett in 1801. He found a new element in a mineral sample that had been sent to England from Connecticut, United States in 1734 by John Winthrop F.R.S. (grandson of John Winthrop the Younger) and named the mineral columbite and the new element columbium after Columbia, the poetical name for the United States.[6][7][8] The columbium discovered by Hatchett was probably a mixture of the new element with tantalum. Subsequently, there was considerable confusion over the difference between columbium (niobium) and the closely related tantalum. In 1809, English chemist William Hyde Wollaston compared the oxides derived from both columbium—columbite, with a density 5.918 g/cm3, and tantalum—tantalite, with a density over 8 g/cm3, and concluded that the two oxides, despite the significant difference in density, were identical; thus he kept the name tantalum. This conclusion was disputed in 1846 by German chemist Heinrich Rose, who argued that there were two different elements in the tantalite sample, and named them after children of Tantalus: niobium (from Niobe) and pelopium (from Pelops). This confusion arose from the minimal observed differences between tantalum and niobium. The claimed new elements pelopium, ilmenium, and dianium were in fact identical to niobium or mixtures of niobium and tantalum.
- Niobium has no known biological role. While niobium dust is an eye and skin irritant and a potential fire hazard, elemental niobium on a larger scale is physiologically inert (and thus hypoallergenic) and harmless. It is frequently used in jewelry and has been tested for use in some medical implants.Niobium-containing compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but some are toxic and should be treated with care.
Cadmium is a chemical element with symbol Cd and atomic number 48. Cadmium (Latin cadmia, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals that was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος, Cadmus, the founder of Thebes) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer[12] and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate. Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100 years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine, because it was found in this zinc ore. Cadmium is a common component of electric batteries, pigments, coatings, and electroplating.
锑Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb (from Latin: stibium) and atomic number 51. A lustrous gray metalloid, it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite (Sb2S3). Antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics, often known by the Arabic name, kohl. Metallic antimony was also known, but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery. The earliest known description of the metal in the West was written in 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio. For some time, China has been the largest producer of antimony and its compounds, with most production coming from the Xikuangshan Mine in Hunan. The industrial methods for refining antimony are roasting and reduction with carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron. The largest applications for metallic antimony is an alloy with lead and tin and the lead antimony plates in lead–acid batteries. Alloys of lead and tin with antimony have improved properties for solders, bullets, and plain bearings. Antimony compounds are prominent additives for chlorine and bromine-containing fire retardantsfound in many commercial and domestic products. An emerging application is the use of antimony in microelectronics. The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History. Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between "male" and "female" forms of antimony; the male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, has been suspected to be native metallic antimony.
- note its alchemical symbol
- 南韓當局日前宣布，該國一間化妝品代工生產商製造的十三款產品，被發現重金屬超標，部分更涉致癌重金屬銻超標。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20180322/00176_022.html
Nickel(II) hydroxide is the inorganic compound with the formula Ni(OH)2. It is an apple-green solid that dissolves with decomposition in ammonia and amines and is attacked by acids. It is electroactive, being converted to the Ni(III) oxy-hydroxide, leading to widespread applications in rechargeable battery.水酸化ニッケル(II)（すいさんかニッケル(II)、Nickel(II) hydroxide）は、化学式 Ni(OH)2 で表される2価のニッケルの水酸化物である。
- 港大工程系團隊發現以往用作鋰電池材料的「氫氧化鎳」在光照射下會變形，產生的力量能提起等於自身重量約三千倍的物件，因此能無線地提供驅動力，讓機械人可以輕裝上陣。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20180601/00176_073.html
铈 Cerium is a chemical element with symbol Ce and atomic number 58. Cerium is a soft, ductile and silvery-white metal that tarnishes when exposed to air, and it is soft enough to be cut with a knife. It is also traditionally considered one of the rare-earth elements. Cerium has no biological role and is not very toxic. Despite always being found in combination with the other rare-earth elements in minerals such as those of the monazite and bastnäsite groups, cerium is easy to extract from its ores, as it can be distinguished among the lanthanides by its unique ability to be oxidized to the +4 state.Cerium was the first of the lanthanides to be discovered, in Bastnäs, Sweden by Jöns Jakob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger in 1803, and independently by Martin Heinrich Klaproth in Germany. It was first isolated by Carl Gustaf Mosander in 1839. Today, cerium and its compounds have a variety of uses: for example, cerium(IV) oxide is used to polish glass and is an important part of catalytic converters. Cerium metal is used in ferrocerium lighters for its pyrophoric properties. 酸化物が研磨剤として用いられるほか、ガラス添加剤、製鋼原料、触媒としても使用される。化学反応における酸化剤としての用途は、使用量こそ少ないが非常に重要である。
Americium is a synthetic chemical element with symbol Am and atomic number 95. It is a transuranic member of the actinide series, in the periodic table located under the lanthanideelement europium, and thus by analogy was named after the Americas.Americium was first produced in 1944 by the group of Glenn T. Seaborg from Berkeley, California, at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, a part of the Manhattan Project. Although it is the third element in the transuranic series, it was discovered fourth, after the heavier curium. The discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in November 1945. Most americium is produced by uranium or plutonium being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors – one tonne of spent nuclear fuelcontains about 100 grams of americium. It is widely used in commercial ionization chamber smoke detectors, as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges. Several unusual applications, such as nuclear batteries or fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion, have been proposed for the isotope 242mAm, but they are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer.
- chinese name - 鋂（大陸譯作镅（鎇））, old translation 鏋
An oxide /ˈɒksaɪd/ is a chemical compound that contains at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. "Oxide" itself is the dianion of oxygen, an O2– atom. Metal oxides thus typically contain an anion of oxygen in the oxidation state of −2. Most of the Earth's crustconsists of solid oxides, the result of elements being oxidized by the oxygen in air or in water. Hydrocarbon combustion affords the two principal carbon oxides: carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Even materials considered pure elements often develop an oxide coating. For example, aluminium foil develops a thin skin of Al2O3 (called a passivation layer) that protects the foil from further corrosion. Individual elements can often form multiple oxides, each containing different amounts of the element and oxygen. In some cases these are distinguished by specifying the number of atoms as in carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and in other cases by specifying the element's oxidation number, as in iron(II) oxideand iron(III) oxide. Certain elements can form many different oxides, such as those of nitrogen.氧化物，是负价氧和另外一个化學元素組成的二元化合物，例如氧化鐵（Fe2O3）或氧化鋁（Al2O3），通常經由氧化反應產生。氧化物在地球的地殻極度普遍，而在宇宙的固體中也是如此。
- 氧化鋁（Aluminium oxide）是白色固体，是鋁和氧的化合物，分子式為Al2O3。在礦業、製陶業和材料科學上又稱為礬土。常见纯度为99.5%和96%。1961年，通用电气（GE）生产出了「Lucalox」，一种用于钠灯中的透明矾土。
- 五氧化二铌Niobium pentoxide is the inorganic compound with the formula Nb2O5. It is a colourless insoluble solid that is fairly unreactive. It is the main precursor to all materials made of niobium, the dominant application being alloys, but other specialized applications include capacitors, lithium niobate, and optical glasses.白色粉末。不溶于水，难溶于酸，可溶于熔融硫酸氢钾或碱金属碳酸盐和氢氧化物中。用作拉铌酸镍单晶、催化剂、耐火材料。也用于生产制取铌及其他铌化合物、铌铁和铌合金。
Ozone (/ˈoʊzoʊn/), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula O
3. It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope O
2, breaking down in the lower atmosphere to O
2 (dioxygen). Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light (UV) and electrical discharges within the Earth's atmosphere. It is present in very low concentrations throughout the latter, with its highest concentration high in the ozone layer of the stratosphere, which absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
- companies
Perovskite (pronunciation: /pəˈrɒvskaɪt/) is a calcium titanium oxide mineral composed of calcium titanate (CaTiO3). It lends its name to the class of compounds which have the same type of crystal structure as CaTiO3 (XIIA2+VIB4+X2−3), known as the perovskite structure.[10] Many different cations can be embedded in this structure, allowing for the development of diverse engineered materials.The mineral was discovered in the Ural Mountains of Russia by Gustav Rose in 1839 and is named after Russian mineralogist Lev Perovski (1792–1856).[2] Perovskite's notable crystal structure was first described by Victor Goldschmidtin 1926, in his work on tolerance factors.[12] The crystal structure was later published in 1945 from X-ray diffraction data on barium titanate by Helen Dick Megaw.
- A perovskite solar cell is a type of solar cell which includes a perovskite structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the light-harvesting active layer.[1][2] Perovskite materials such as methylammonium lead halides are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture. Solar cell efficiencies of devices using these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009[3] to 22.7% in late 2017,[4] making this the fastest-advancing solar technology to date.[1] With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies and the very low production costs, perovskite solar cells have become commercially attractive, with start-up companies already promising modules on the market by 2017.[5][6][7] In February 2016, a TED talk was dedicated to this technology.
Linalool (/lɪˈnæloʊˌɒl, liː-, -loʊˌɔːl, -ləˌwɒl, -ləˌwoʊl/ or /ˌlɪnəˈluːl/[1][2]) refers to two enantiomers of a naturally occurring terpene alcohol found in many flowers and spice plants.Over 200 species of plants produce linalool, mainly from the families Lamiaceae (mint and other herbs), Lauraceae (laurels, cinnamon, rosewood), and Rutaceae (citrus fruits), but also birch trees and other plants, from tropical to boreal climate zones, including fungi.Linalool is used as a scent in 60–80% of perfumed hygiene products and cleaning agents including soaps, detergents, shampoos, and lotions. It is also used as a chemical intermediate. One common downstream product of linalool is vitamin E. In addition, linalool is used by pest professionals as a flea, fruit fly and cockroach insecticide. Linalool is used in some mosquito-repellent products; however, the EPA notes that "a preliminary screen of labels for products containing [l]inalool (as the sole active ingredient) indicates that efficacy data on file with the Agency may not support certain claims to repel mosquitos."
X-gal (also abbreviated BCIG for 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-galactopyranoside) is an organic compound consisting of galactose linked to a substituted indole. The compound was synthesized by Jerome Horwitz and collaborators in Detroit, MI, in 1964. The formal chemical name is often shortened to less accurate but also less cumbersome phrases such as bromochloroindoxyl galactoside. The X from indoxylmay be the source of the X in the X-gal contraction. X-gal is often used in molecular biology to test for the presence of an enzyme, β-galactosidase. It is also used to detect activity of this enzyme in histochemistry and bacteriology. X-gal is one of many indoxyl glycosides and esters that yield insoluble blue compounds similar to indigo as a result of enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis.
In organic chemistry, an alkene烯 烴 is an unsaturated hydrocarbon that contains at least one carbon–carbon double bond.[1] The words alkene and olefin are often used interchangeably (see nomenclature section below). Acyclic alkenes, with only one double bond and no other functional groups, known as mono-enes, form a homologous series of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n.[2] Alkenes have two hydrogen atoms fewer than the corresponding alkane (with the same number of carbon atoms). The simplest alkene, ethylene (C2H4), with the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) name ethene, is the organic compound produced on the largest scale industrially.[3] Aromatic compounds are often drawn as cyclic alkenes, but their structure and properties are different and they are not considered to be alkenes. 烯烃的物理性质可以与烷烃对比。物理状态决定于分子质量。简单的烯烃中，乙烯、丙烯和丁烯是气体，含有五至十六个碳原子的直链烯烃是液体，更高级的烯烃则是蜡状固体。烯烃為非極性化合物，其唯一的分子間作用力為分散力，因此烯烃不溶於水，但可溶於四氯化碳等有機溶劑。液體烯類之密度小於水，會浮在水面上。 反式烯烃比顺式烯烃的沸点低，熔点高。
碳酸钾 Potassium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula K2CO3. It is a white salt, which is soluble in water. It is deliquescent, often appearing a damp or wet solid. Potassium carbonate is mainly used in the production of soap and glass.Potassium carbonate is the primary component of potash and the more refined pearl ash or salts of tartar. Historically, pearl ash was created by baking potash in a kiln to remove impurities. The fine, white powder remaining was the pearl ash. The first patent issued by the US Patent Office was awarded to Samuel Hopkins in 1790 for an improved method of making potash and pearl ash. In late 18th century North America, before the development of baking powder, pearl ash was used as a leavening agent for quick breads.
- applications
3). Cement sets more rapidly when prepared with lithium carbonate, and is useful for tile adhesives. When added to aluminium trifluoride, it forms LiF which gives a superior electrolyte for the processing of aluminium.[7] It is also used in the manufacture of most lithium-ion battery cathodes, which are made of lithium cobalt oxide.In 1843, lithium carbonate was used as a new solvent for stones in the bladder. In 1859, some doctors recommended a therapy with lithium salts for a number of ailments, including gout, urinary calculi, rheumatism, mania, depression, and headache.
明矾石是一种广泛分布的属三方晶系的硫酸盐矿物，我们熟悉的明矾就是由它制取的。除此以外，明矾石还可用来制造钾肥、硫酸，也可用来炼铝。明矾石一般为块状或土状，它的晶体不明显，是隐晶矿物。如果纯净应为白色，但含有杂质后则呈浅灰、浅红、浅黄或红褐色，玻璃光泽，底面解理中等。Na常代替K，其含量超过K时称钠矾石（Natroalunite）或钠明矾石，有时也有少量Fe3+代替Al3+。不溶于水，微溶于硫酸，在强碱性溶液中完全分解。
- Potassium alum, potash alum, or potassium aluminium sulfate is a chemical compound: the double sulfate of potassium and aluminium, with chemical formula KAl(SO4)2. It is commonly encountered as the dodecahydrate, KAl(SO4)2·12H2O. It crystallizes in cubic structure with space group P a -3 and lattice parameter of 12.18 Å[4]. The compound is the most important member of the generic class of compounds called alums, and is often called simply alum. Potassium alum is commonly used in water purification, leather tanning, dyeing,[6] fireproof textiles, and baking powder as E number E522. It also has cosmetic uses as a deodorant, as an aftershave treatment and as a stypticfor minor bleeding from shaving.Potassium alum was known to the Ancient Egyptians, who obtained it from evaporites in the Western desert and reportedly used it as early as 1500 BCE to reduce the visible cloudiness (turbidity) in the water. Potassium alum was described under the name alumen or salsugoterrae by Pliny, and it is clearly the same as the stupteria described by Dioscorides.[9] However, the name alum and other names applied to this substance — like misy, sory, chalcanthum, and atramentum sutorium — were often applied to other products with vaguely similar properties or uses, such as iron sulfate or "green vitriol". The production of potassium alum from alunite is archaeologically attested on the island Lesbos.[11] This site was abandoned in the 7th century but dates back at least to the 2nd century CE. Potassium alum is mentioned in the Ayurveda with the name phitkari or saurashtri.[citation needed] It is used in traditional Chinese medicine with the name mingfan (明矾).明礬（KAl(SO4)2·12H2O），又稱鉀鋁礬、鋁明礬、鉀礬、白礬、生礬、羽涅[3]或雲母礬，可以用作淨化水質、鞣製皮革、當作發粉或者代替硫酸鋁作凡拉明藍防染劑。明礬也可以添加在化妝品中當作除臭劑，或為刮鬍子時造成的小傷口當作止血劑。在中國古代，明礬的使用可追溯至宋朝，宋朝對鹽、茶、礬等都行使專賣，並建立有榷礬制度[11]。溫州礬山鎮在當時有「世界礬都」之稱。中醫認為明礬可以解毒殺蟲，燥濕止癢，《得配本草》記載：「礬石即白明礬，甘草為之使。畏麻黃，惡牡蠣。酸、鹹，澀，入肝肺二經。」而印度的傳統醫學阿育吠陀中稱為「phitkari」或「saurashtri」的東西亦是指明礬。
dna
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ GenBank ® is the NIH genetic sequence database, an annotated collection of all publicly available DNA sequences (Nucleic Acids Research, 2013 Jan;41(D1):D36-42). GenBank is part of the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration , which comprises the DNA DataBank of Japan (DDBJ), the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA), and GenBank at NCBI. These three organizations exchange data on a daily basis.
- A plasmid is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. The term was coined by Lederberg and Hays and shortly discovered by Tatum. They are most commonly found in bacteria as small circular, double-stranded DNA molecules; however, plasmids are sometimes present in archaea and eukaryotic organisms. In nature, plasmids often carry genes that may benefit the survival of the organism, for example antibiotic resistance. While the chromosomes are big and contain all the essential genetic information for living under normal conditions, plasmids usually are very small and contain only additional genes that may be useful to the organism under certain situations or particular conditions. Artificial plasmids are widely used as vectors in molecular cloning, serving to drive the replication of recombinant DNAsequences within host organisms.
- A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that cleaves DNA into fragments at or near specific recognition sites within the molecule known as restriction sites.[1][2][3] Restriction enzymes are commonly classified into four types, which differ in their structure and whether they cut their DNA substrate at their recognition site, or if the recognition and cleavage sites are separate from one another. To cut DNA, all restriction enzymes make two incisions, once through each sugar-phosphate backbone (i.e. each strand) of the DNA double helix. These enzymes are found in bacteria and archaea and provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses.[4][5] Inside a prokaryote, the restriction enzymes selectively cut up foreign DNA in a process called restriction; meanwhile, host DNA is protected by a modification enzyme (a methyltransferase) that modifies the prokaryotic DNA and blocks cleavage. Together, these two processes form the restriction modification system. Over 3000 restriction enzymes have been studied in detail, and more than 600 of these are available commercially. These enzymes are routinely used for DNA modification in laboratories, and they are a vital tool in molecular cloning.
- Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. It is an easy, cheap, and reliable way to repeatedly replicate a focused segment of DNA, a concept which is applicable to numerous fields in modern biology and related sciences.
- Electrophoresis is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially uniform electric field.This electrokinetic phenomenon was observed for the first time in 1807 by Russian professors Peter Ivanovich Strakhov and Ferdinand Frederic Reuss (Moscow State University),[7] who noticed that the application of a constant electric fieldcaused clay particles dispersed in water to migrate. It is ultimately caused by the presence of a charged interface between the particle surface and the surrounding fluid. It is the basis for a number of analytical techniques used in chemistry for separating molecules by size, charge, or binding affinity. Electrophoresis of positively charged particles (cations) is called cataphoresis, while electrophoresis of negatively charged particles (anions) is called anaphoresis. Electrophoresis is a technique used in laboratories in order to separate macromolecules based on size. The technique applies a negative charge so proteins move towards a positive charge. This is used for both DNA and RNA analysis. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) has a clearer resolution than agarose and is more suitable for quantitative analysis. In this technique DNA foot-printing can identify how proteins bind to DNA. It can be used to separate proteins by size, density and purity. It can also be used for plasmid analysis, which develops our understanding of bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics.
- RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation, by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules. Historically, it was known by other names, including co-suppression, post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), and quelling. Only after these apparently unrelated processes were fully understood did it become clear that they all described the RNAi phenomenon.
protein
- The Bradford protein assay is a spectroscopic analytical procedure used to measure the concentration of protein in a solution. It is subjective, i.e., dependent on the amino acid composition of the measured protein. The Bradford protein assay was developed by Marion M. Bradford.
- An expression vector, otherwise known as an expression construct, is usually a plasmid or virus designed for gene expression in cells. The vector is used to introduce a specific geneinto a target cell, and can commandeer the cell's mechanism for protein synthesis to produce the protein encoded by the gene. Expression vectors are the basic tools in biotechnology for the production of proteins. The vector is engineered to contain regulatory sequences that act as enhancer and promoter regions and lead to efficient transcription of the gene carried on the expression vector.[1] The goal of a well-designed expression vector is the efficient production of protein, and this may be achieved by the production of significant amount of stable messenger RNA, which can then be translated into protein. The expression of a protein may be tightly controlled, and the protein is only produced in significant quantity when necessary through the use of an inducer, in some systems however the protein may be expressed constitutively. Escherichia coli is commonly used as the host for protein production, but other cell types may also be used. An example of the use of expression vector is the production of insulin, which is used for medical treatments of diabetes.
- Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), describes a technique widely used in biochemistry, forensics, genetics, molecular biology and biotechnology to separate biological macromolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, according to their electrophoretic mobility. Mobility is a function of the length, conformation and charge of the molecule. As with all forms of gel electrophoresis, molecules may be run in their native state, preserving the molecules' higher-order structure. This method is called Native-PAGE. Alternatively, a chemical denaturant may be added to remove this structure and turn the molecule into an unstructured molecule whose mobility depends only on its length and mass-to-charge ratio. This procedure is called SDS-PAGE.
- The western blot (sometimes called the protein immunoblot) is a widely used analytical technique used in molecular biology, immunogeneticsand other molecular biology disciplines to detect specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract. Synthetic or animal-derived antibodies are created that react with a specific target protein. The sample to be tested is prepared and put together with these antibodies on a membrane – if the specific protein sought for is present, after a gel electrophoresis step this will result in an accordingly stained band on the western blot. Other related techniques include dot blot analysis, quantitative dot blot, immunohistochemistry, and immunocytochemistry where antibodies are used to detect proteins in tissues and cells by immunostaining, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
- Two-hybrid screening (originally known as yeast two-hybrid system or Y2H) is a molecular biology technique used to discover protein–protein interactions (PPIs)[1] and protein–DNA interactions[2][3] by testing for physical interactions (such as binding) between two proteins or a single protein and a DNA molecule, respectively.
extraction of plant substances
- using water or methanol
- tests
- Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) is a type of size exclusion chromatography (SEC), that separates analytes on the basis of size. The technique is often used for the analysis of polymers. As a technique, SEC was first developed in 1955 by Lathe and Ruthven. The term gel permeation chromatography can be traced back to J.C. Moore of the Dow Chemical Company who investigated the technique in 1964 and the proprietary column technology was licensed to Waters Corporation, who subsequently commercialized this technology in 1964. GPC systems and consumables are now also available from a number of manufacturers. It is often necessary to separate polymers, both to analyze them as well as to purify the desired product.
- Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), also known as molecular sieve chromatography, is a chromatographic method in which molecules in solution are separated by their size, and in some cases molecular weight. It is usually applied to large molecules or macromolecular complexes such as proteins and industrial polymers. Typically, when an aqueous solution is used to transport the sample through the column, the technique is known as gel-filtration chromatography, versus the name gel permeation chromatography, which is used when an organic solvent is used as a mobile phase. SEC is a widely used polymer characterization method because of its ability to provide good molar mass distribution (Mw) results for polymers.
Styrene, also known as ethenylbenzene, vinylbenzene, and phenylethene, is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. This derivative of benzene is a colorless oily liquid that evaporates easily and has a sweet smell, although high concentrations have a less pleasant odor. Styrene is the precursor to polystyrene and several copolymers. 苯乙烯也被称为乙烯基苯，是用苯取代乙烯的一个氢原子形成的有机化合物。室温下，苯乙烯是一种具有甜味的粘稠易挥发液体，但苯乙烯浓度过高时，气味就会变得令人不愉快。苯乙烯中，乙烯基的电子与苯环共轭。苯乙烯不溶于水，溶于乙醇、乙醚中，暴露于空气中逐渐发生聚合及氧化。工业上是合成树脂、离子交换树脂及合成橡胶等的重要单体。Styrene is named after storax balsam, the resin of Liquidambar trees of the Altingiaceae plant family. Styrene occurs naturally in small quantities in some plants and foods (cinnamon, coffee beans, and peanuts)[6] and is also found in coal tar.
- Styrene is regarded as a "known carcinogen", especially in case of eye contact, but also in case of skin contact, of ingestion and of inhalation, according to several sources
- 苯乙烯期貨（EB）26日在大 連商品交易所上市交易。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/09/27/b07-0927.pdf
Aseptic processing is the process by which a sterile (aseptic) product (typically food or pharmaceutical) is packaged in a sterile container in a way that maintains sterility.Sterility is achieved with a flash-heating process (temperature between 195 and 295 °F (91 to 146 °C)),[1] which retains more nutrients and uses less energy than conventional sterilization techniques such as retort or hot-fill canning. Pharmaceutical Sterile processing includes use of clean rooms, bacteria retaining filters, dry or steam heat. Aseptic food preservation methods allow processed food to keep for long periods of time without preservatives, as long as they are not opened. The aseptic packages are typically a mix of paper (70%), polyethylene (LDPE) (24%), and aluminum (6%), with a tight polyethylene inside layer. Sterile pharmaceuticals are usually packaged in plastic or glass. Together these materials form a tight seal against microbiological organisms, contaminants, and degradation, eliminating the need for refrigeration. The first aseptic filling plant for milk was presented in Switzerland in 1961. The Tetra Pak company later became one of the leading suppliers of processing and packaging equipment for dairies. Aseptic techniques were common in Europe and Asia before they were introduced in the United States in the 1980s. Aseptic containers may range in size from a few fluid ounces to a nearly 8-million-US-gallon (30,000 m3) aseptic tank on an ocean-going ship.[2]Aseptic processing makes worldwide export and import of new, economical and safe food products possible. Bag-In-Box technology is commonly used because it provides strong containers that are lightweight and easy to handle prior to being filled. Other common package types are drink boxes and pouches.
Ion chromatography (or ion-exchange chromatography) is a chromatography process that separates ions and polar molecules based on their affinity to the ion exchanger. It works on almost any kind of charged molecule—including large proteins, small nucleotides, and amino acids. The two types of ion chromatography are anion-exchange and cation-exchange. It is often used in protein purification, water analysis, and quality control.
Mutagenesis /mjuːtəˈdʒɛnɪsɪs/ is a process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed, resulting in a mutation. It may occur spontaneously in nature, or as a result of exposure to mutagens. It can also be achieved experimentally using laboratory procedures. In nature mutagenesis can lead to cancer and various heritable diseases, but it is also a driving force of evolution. Mutagenesis as a science was developed based on work done by Hermann Muller, Charlotte Auerbach and J. M. Robson in the first half of the 20th century.
emulsion
- a biphasic liquid preparation having two immiscible liquids, formed together in the dispersing process. The term is derived from the world emulgeo meaning to milk, milk is an example of a national emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. An emulsion is forming when shear is applied to the process, causing the oil to break up into droplets that are coated with surfactant and are inhibited from coalescing due to the interfacial repulsion. As the emulsion is sheared, larger oil droplets are stretched, undergo a capillary instability, and rupture into smaller droplets. The emulsion process is performed by applying a high pressure over the system having oil phase, aqueous phase and surfactant or co-surfactant. The pressure is applied with the help of a special equipment known as high shear mixer or homogenizer.
- types
- multiple emulsion
- nano emulsion
enzyme
- β-galactosidase, also called lactase, beta-gal or β-gal, is a glycoside hydrolase enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-galactosidesinto monosaccharides through the breaking of a glycosidic bond. β-galactosides include carbohydrates containing galactose where the glycosidic bond lies above the galactose molecule. Substrates of different β-galactosidases include ganglioside GM1, lactosylceramides, lactose, and various glycoproteins.
4, R being an alkyl group or an aryl group.[1] Unlike the ammonium ion (NH+
4) and the primary, secondary, or tertiary ammonium cations, the quaternary ammonium cations are permanently charged, independent of the pH of their solution. Quaternary ammonium salts or quaternary ammonium compounds (called quaternary amines in oilfieldparlance) are salts of quaternary ammonium cations.Quaternary ammonium salts are used as disinfectants, surfactants, fabric softeners, and as antistatic agents (e.g. in shampoos). In liquid fabric softeners, the chloride salts are often used. In dryer anticling strips, the sulfate salts are often used. Spermicidal jellies also contain quaternary ammonium salts.Quaternary ammonium compounds are present in osmolytes, specifically glycine betaine, which stabilize osmotic pressure in cells.Choline is also a precursor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Choline is also a constituent of lecithin, which is present in many plants and animal organs. It is found in phospholipids. For example, phosphatidylcholines, a major component of biological membranes, are a member of the lecithin group of fatty substances in animal and plant tissues. Carnitine participates in the beta-oxidation of fatty acids.季銨鹽，又稱四級銨鹽[1]是銨離子的四個氫離子都被烴基取代後形成的季銨陽離子的鹽，具有通式 R4N+X−。其中四個烴基可以相同，也可以不相同，X−多為鹵素陰離子，HSO4−，RCOO−及OH−（季銨鹼）。季銨鹽的性質類似於銨鹽，大多數易溶於水，水溶液導電。季銨鹽可以通過胺與鹵代烴反應製取。有些季銨鹽是良好的表面活性劑和相轉移催化劑。第四級アンモニウム塩は抗菌性も持つ[4]。ある第四級アンモニウム化合物、特に長鎖アルキル基が含んでいるものは、抗菌剤や消毒薬に使われる。たとえば塩化ベンザルコニウム、塩化ベンゼトニウム、塩化メチルベンゼトニウム、塩化セチルピリジニウム、セトリモニウム、塩化ドファニウム、臭化テトラエチルアンモニウム、塩化ジデシルジメチルアンモニウム、臭化ドミフェンなどがある。真菌、アメーバ、エンベロープを持つウイルスに対しても[5]、細胞膜を破壊することにより作用する。他にも様々な生物を破壊するが、芽胞、結核菌、非エンベロープのウイルス、シュードモナス属などは例外である。
Gum arabic, also known as acacia gum, is a natural gum consisting of the hardened sap of various species of the acacia tree. Originally, gum arabic was collected from Acacia nilotica which was called the "gum arabic tree";[1] in the present day, gum arabic is predominantly collected from two related species, namely Acacia senegal[2] and Vachellia (Acacia) seyal. Producers harvest the gum commercially from wild trees, mostly in Sudan (80%) and throughout the Sahel, from Senegal to Somalia—though it is historically cultivated in Arabia and West Asia.Gum arabic is used primarily in the food industry as a stabilizer. It is edible and has E number E414. Gum arabic is a key ingredient in traditional lithography and is used in printing, paint production, glue, cosmetics and various industrial applications, including viscosity control in inks and in textile industries, though less expensive materials compete with it for many of these roles. While gum arabic is now produced throughout the African Sahel, it is still harvested and used in the Middle East. For example, Arab populations use the natural gum to make a chilled, sweetened, and flavored gelato-like dessert.
Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The principal use of oleic acid is as a component in many foods, in the form of its triglycerides. It is a component of the normal human diet as a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Oleic acid as its sodium salt is a major component of soap as an emulsifying agent. It is also used as an emollient.[19] Small amounts of oleic acid are used as an excipient in pharmaceuticals, and it is used as an emulsifying or solubilizing agent in aerosol products.
次亜塩素酸/次氯酸Hypochlorous acid (HClO) is a weak acid that forms when chlorine dissolves in water, and itself partially dissociates, forming hypochlorite, ClO−. HClO and ClO− are oxidizers, and the primary disinfection agents of chlorine solutions.Hypochlorous acid was discovered in 1834 by the French chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard (1802–1876) by adding, to a flask of chlorine gas, a dilute suspension of mercury(II) oxide in water.[3] He also named the acid and its compounds.In biology, hypochlorous acid is generated in activated neutrophils by myeloperoxidase-mediated peroxidation of chloride ions, and contributes to the destruction of bacteria. In the cosmetics industry it is used as a skin cleansing agent, which benefits the body's skin rather than causing drying.[citation needed] It is also used in baby products, because baby skin is particularly sensitive and can be easily irritated.[citation needed] In water treatment, hypochlorous acid is the active sanitizer in hypochlorite-based products (e.g. used in swimming pools). In food service and water distribution, specialized equipment to generate weak solutions of HClO from water and salt is sometimes used to generate adequate quantities of safe (unstable) disinfectant to treat food preparation surfaces and water supplies.
Sodium gluconate is a compound with formula NaC6H11O7. It is the sodium salt of gluconic acid. Its E number is E576. Sodium gluconate is widely used in textile dyeing, printing and metal surface water treatment. It is also used as a chelating agent, a steel surface cleaning agent, a cleaning agent for glass bottles, and as a chelating agent for cement, plating and alumina dyeing industries. It is a white powder that is very soluble in water.グルコン酸ナトリウム（グルコンさんナトリウム、sodium gluconate）はグルコン酸のナトリウム塩で、化学式C6H11O7Naで表される有機化合物。日本では、1998年9月に新しく食品添加物（E576）に指定された。タンパク質の冷凍変性防止作用や水分活性低下効果、キレート作用などを持つ。 食品添加物としては味噌・醤油、魚肉練り製品、パン、プロセスチーズなどに調味料、pH調整剤、イーストフード、乳化剤、発酵調整剤などとして使用される[1]。工業用としては金属処理、繊維工業における漂白・糊抜き、製紙工業における漂白・脱墨、コンクリートの凝結遅延剤などとして使用される[2]。
- 五氧化二铌Niobium pentoxide is the inorganic compound with the formula Nb2O5. It is a colourless insoluble solid that is fairly unreactive. It is the main precursor to all materials made of niobium, the dominant application being alloys, but other specialized applications include capacitors, lithium niobate, and optical glasses.白色粉末。不溶于水，难溶于酸，可溶于熔融硫酸氢钾或碱金属碳酸盐和氢氧化物中。用作拉铌酸镍单晶、催化剂、耐火材料。也用于生产制取铌及其他铌化合物、铌铁和铌合金。
Ozone (/ˈoʊzoʊn/), or trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula O
3. It is a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope O
2, breaking down in the lower atmosphere to O
2 (dioxygen). Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet light (UV) and electrical discharges within the Earth's atmosphere. It is present in very low concentrations throughout the latter, with its highest concentration high in the ozone layer of the stratosphere, which absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
- companies
- GRN consultant www,grnconsultanthk.com
- ozone for air disinfection, surface disinfection, food processing (prolong shelf life, making of ozonated ice, recycling of processing water, removal of natural food dye and improve overall wastewater quality), odor removal
- exhibited at 2019 construction and innovation expo
Perovskite (pronunciation: /pəˈrɒvskaɪt/) is a calcium titanium oxide mineral composed of calcium titanate (CaTiO3). It lends its name to the class of compounds which have the same type of crystal structure as CaTiO3 (XIIA2+VIB4+X2−3), known as the perovskite structure.[10] Many different cations can be embedded in this structure, allowing for the development of diverse engineered materials.The mineral was discovered in the Ural Mountains of Russia by Gustav Rose in 1839 and is named after Russian mineralogist Lev Perovski (1792–1856).[2] Perovskite's notable crystal structure was first described by Victor Goldschmidtin 1926, in his work on tolerance factors.[12] The crystal structure was later published in 1945 from X-ray diffraction data on barium titanate by Helen Dick Megaw.
- A perovskite solar cell is a type of solar cell which includes a perovskite structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the light-harvesting active layer.[1][2] Perovskite materials such as methylammonium lead halides are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture. Solar cell efficiencies of devices using these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009[3] to 22.7% in late 2017,[4] making this the fastest-advancing solar technology to date.[1] With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies and the very low production costs, perovskite solar cells have become commercially attractive, with start-up companies already promising modules on the market by 2017.[5][6][7] In February 2016, a TED talk was dedicated to this technology.
- economist 3feb18 article "helio's crystal"
Linalool (/lɪˈnæloʊˌɒl, liː-, -loʊˌɔːl, -ləˌwɒl, -ləˌwoʊl/ or /ˌlɪnəˈluːl/[1][2]) refers to two enantiomers of a naturally occurring terpene alcohol found in many flowers and spice plants.Over 200 species of plants produce linalool, mainly from the families Lamiaceae (mint and other herbs), Lauraceae (laurels, cinnamon, rosewood), and Rutaceae (citrus fruits), but also birch trees and other plants, from tropical to boreal climate zones, including fungi.Linalool is used as a scent in 60–80% of perfumed hygiene products and cleaning agents including soaps, detergents, shampoos, and lotions. It is also used as a chemical intermediate. One common downstream product of linalool is vitamin E. In addition, linalool is used by pest professionals as a flea, fruit fly and cockroach insecticide. Linalool is used in some mosquito-repellent products; however, the EPA notes that "a preliminary screen of labels for products containing [l]inalool (as the sole active ingredient) indicates that efficacy data on file with the Agency may not support certain claims to repel mosquitos."
X-gal (also abbreviated BCIG for 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-galactopyranoside) is an organic compound consisting of galactose linked to a substituted indole. The compound was synthesized by Jerome Horwitz and collaborators in Detroit, MI, in 1964. The formal chemical name is often shortened to less accurate but also less cumbersome phrases such as bromochloroindoxyl galactoside. The X from indoxylmay be the source of the X in the X-gal contraction. X-gal is often used in molecular biology to test for the presence of an enzyme, β-galactosidase. It is also used to detect activity of this enzyme in histochemistry and bacteriology. X-gal is one of many indoxyl glycosides and esters that yield insoluble blue compounds similar to indigo as a result of enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis.
In organic chemistry, an alkene
碳酸钾 Potassium carbonate is the inorganic compound with the formula K2CO3. It is a white salt, which is soluble in water. It is deliquescent, often appearing a damp or wet solid. Potassium carbonate is mainly used in the production of soap and glass.Potassium carbonate is the primary component of potash and the more refined pearl ash or salts of tartar. Historically, pearl ash was created by baking potash in a kiln to remove impurities. The fine, white powder remaining was the pearl ash. The first patent issued by the US Patent Office was awarded to Samuel Hopkins in 1790 for an improved method of making potash and pearl ash. In late 18th century North America, before the development of baking powder, pearl ash was used as a leavening agent for quick breads.
- applications
- (historically) for soap, glass, and china production
- as a mild drying agent where other drying agents, such as calcium chloride and magnesium sulfate, may be incompatible. It is not suitable for acidic compounds, but can be useful for drying an organic phase if one has a small amount of acidic impurity. It may also be used to dry some ketones, alcohols, and amines prior to distillation.[5]
- in cuisine, where it has many traditional uses. It is an ingredient in the production of grass jelly, a food consumed in Chinese and Southeast Asian cuisines, as well as Chinese noodles and moon cake. It is used to tenderize tripe. German gingerbread recipes often use potassium carbonate as a baking agent, although in combination with hartshorn. It is however important that the right quantities are used to prevent harm, and cooks should not use it without guidance.
- in the alkalization of cocoa powder to produce Dutch process chocolate by balancing the pH (i.e., reduce the acidity) of natural cocoa beans; it also enhances aroma. The process of adding potassium carbonate to cocoa powder is usually called "Dutching" (and the products referred to as Dutch-processed cocoa powder), as the process was first developed in 1828 by Coenrad Johannes van Houten, a Dutchman.
- as a buffering agent in the production of mead or wine.
- in antique documents, it is reported to have been used to soften hard water.[6]
- as a fire suppressant in extinguishing deep-fat fryers and various other B class-related fires.
- in condensed aerosol fire suppression, although as the byproduct of potassium nitrate.
- as an ingredient in welding fluxes, and in the flux coating on arc-welding rods.
- as an animal feed ingredient to satisfy the potassium requirements of farmed animals such as broiler breeders.
- as an acidity regulator in Swedish snus
碳酸锂（Li2CO3）Lithium carbonate is an inorganic compound, the lithium salt of carbonate .Lithium carbonate is an important industrial chemical. It forms low-melting fluxes with silica and other materials. Glasses derived from lithium carbonate are useful in ovenware. Lithium carbonate is a common ingredient in both low-fire and high-fire ceramic glaze. Its alkaline properties are conducive to changing the state of metal oxide colorants in glaze particularly red iron oxide (Fe
2O3). Cement sets more rapidly when prepared with lithium carbonate, and is useful for tile adhesives. When added to aluminium trifluoride, it forms LiF which gives a superior electrolyte for the processing of aluminium.[7] It is also used in the manufacture of most lithium-ion battery cathodes, which are made of lithium cobalt oxide.In 1843, lithium carbonate was used as a new solvent for stones in the bladder. In 1859, some doctors recommended a therapy with lithium salts for a number of ailments, including gout, urinary calculi, rheumatism, mania, depression, and headache.
- recycled lithium carbonate from scrap of cathode material in the battery https://www.jetro.go.jp/ttppoas/anken/0001168000/1168373_e.html
明矾石是一种广泛分布的属三方晶系的硫酸盐矿物，我们熟悉的明矾就是由它制取的。除此以外，明矾石还可用来制造钾肥、硫酸，也可用来炼铝。明矾石一般为块状或土状，它的晶体不明显，是隐晶矿物。如果纯净应为白色，但含有杂质后则呈浅灰、浅红、浅黄或红褐色，玻璃光泽，底面解理中等。Na常代替K，其含量超过K时称钠矾石（Natroalunite）或钠明矾石，有时也有少量Fe3+代替Al3+。不溶于水，微溶于硫酸，在强碱性溶液中完全分解。
- Potassium alum, potash alum, or potassium aluminium sulfate is a chemical compound: the double sulfate of potassium and aluminium, with chemical formula KAl(SO4)2. It is commonly encountered as the dodecahydrate, KAl(SO4)2·12H2O. It crystallizes in cubic structure with space group P a -3 and lattice parameter of 12.18 Å[4]. The compound is the most important member of the generic class of compounds called alums, and is often called simply alum. Potassium alum is commonly used in water purification, leather tanning, dyeing,[6] fireproof textiles, and baking powder as E number E522. It also has cosmetic uses as a deodorant, as an aftershave treatment and as a stypticfor minor bleeding from shaving.Potassium alum was known to the Ancient Egyptians, who obtained it from evaporites in the Western desert and reportedly used it as early as 1500 BCE to reduce the visible cloudiness (turbidity) in the water. Potassium alum was described under the name alumen or salsugoterrae by Pliny, and it is clearly the same as the stupteria described by Dioscorides.[9] However, the name alum and other names applied to this substance — like misy, sory, chalcanthum, and atramentum sutorium — were often applied to other products with vaguely similar properties or uses, such as iron sulfate or "green vitriol". The production of potassium alum from alunite is archaeologically attested on the island Lesbos.[11] This site was abandoned in the 7th century but dates back at least to the 2nd century CE. Potassium alum is mentioned in the Ayurveda with the name phitkari or saurashtri.[citation needed] It is used in traditional Chinese medicine with the name mingfan (明矾).明礬（KAl(SO4)2·12H2O），又稱鉀鋁礬、鋁明礬、鉀礬、白礬、生礬、羽涅[3]或雲母礬，可以用作淨化水質、鞣製皮革、當作發粉或者代替硫酸鋁作凡拉明藍防染劑。明礬也可以添加在化妝品中當作除臭劑，或為刮鬍子時造成的小傷口當作止血劑。在中國古代，明礬的使用可追溯至宋朝，宋朝對鹽、茶、礬等都行使專賣，並建立有榷礬制度[11]。溫州礬山鎮在當時有「世界礬都」之稱。中醫認為明礬可以解毒殺蟲，燥濕止癢，《得配本草》記載：「礬石即白明礬，甘草為之使。畏麻黃，惡牡蠣。酸、鹹，澀，入肝肺二經。」而印度的傳統醫學阿育吠陀中稱為「phitkari」或「saurashtri」的東西亦是指明礬。
- 美國麻省理工學院（MIT）的學者近日研究發現，《死海古卷》中的《聖殿卷》一塊殘片中，書寫層上使用的明礬硫酸鹽並非死海地區常見，或揭示一種未知的製作技術，專家正研究它們的來源。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190908/00180_040.html
Calcium chloride is an inorganic compound, a salt with the chemical formula CaCl2. It is a white coloured crystalline solid at room temperature, highly soluble in water. Calcium chloride is commonly encountered as a hydrated solid with generic formula CaCl2(H2O)x, where x = 0, 1, 2, 4, and 6. These compounds are mainly used for de-icing and dust control. Because the anhydrous salt is hygroscopic, it is used as a desiccant.氯化钙，由氯和钙构成，化学式为CaCl2。它是典型的离子型卤化物，室温为白色固体，其水溶液呈中性。应用於制冷设备所用的盐水、道路融冰剂和干燥剂等。因为它在空气中易吸水潮解[5]，故无水氯化钙應在容器中密封储藏。氯化钙及其水合物和溶液在食品制造、建筑材料、医学和生物学等多个方面均有重要的应用价值。
- Calcium chloride is permitted as a food additive in the European Union for use as a sequestrant and firming agent with the E number E509. It is considered as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Its use in organic crop production is generally prohibited under the US National Organic Program. In marine aquariums, calcium chloride is one way to introduce bioavailable calcium for calcium carbonate-shelled animals such as mollusks and some cnidarians. Calcium hydroxide (kalkwasser mix) or a calcium reactor can also be used. As a firming agent, calcium chloride is used in canned vegetables, in firming soybean curds into tofu and in producing a caviar substitute from vegetable or fruit juices.[17] It is commonly used as an electrolyte in sports drinks and other beverages, including bottled water. The extremely salty taste of calcium chloride is used to flavor pickles without increasing the food's sodium content. Calcium chloride's freezing-point depression properties are used to slow the freezing of the caramel in caramel-filled chocolate bars. Also, it is frequently added to sliced apples to maintain texture. In brewing beer, calcium chloride is sometimes used to correct mineral deficiencies in the brewing water. It affects flavor and chemical reactions during the brewing process, and can also affect yeast function during fermentation. In cheesemaking, calcium chloride is sometimes added to processed (pasteurized/homogenized) milk to restore the natural balance between calcium and protein in casein. It is added before the coagulant. Calcium chloride is used to prevent cork spot and bitter pit on apples by spraying on the tree during the late growing season.
碱液, 灰汁（あく） A lye is a metal hydroxide traditionally obtained by leaching ashes (containing largely potassium carbonate or "potash"), or a strong alkaliwhich is highly soluble in water producing caustic basic solutions. "Lye" is commonly an alternative name of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or historically potassium hydroxide (KOH), though the term "lye" refers to any member of a broad range of metal hydroxides. Today, lye is commercially manufactured using a membrane cell chloralkali process. It is supplied in various forms such as flakes, pellets, microbeads, coarse powder or a solution.
- Lyes are used to cure many types of food, including the traditional Nordic lutefisk, olives (making them less bitter), canned mandarin oranges, hominy, lye rolls, century eggs, pretzels, bagels, and the traditional Turkish pumpkin dessert[1] (creating a hard crust while the inside remains soft). They are also used as a tenderizer in the crust of baked Cantonese moon cakes, in "zongzi" (glutinous rice dumplings wrapped in bamboo leaves), in chewy southern Chinese noodles popular in Hong Kong and southern China, and in Japanese ramen noodles. They are also used in kutsinta, a type of rice cake from the Philippines together with pitsi-pitsî.
- Lye in the form of both sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide is used in making soap. Potassium hydroxide soaps are softer and more easily dissolved in water than sodium hydroxide soaps. Sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are not interchangeable in either the proportions required or the properties produced in making soaps.The ancient use of lye for soap-making and as a detergent is the origin of the English word, deriving from Proto-Germanic *laugo and ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European root *leue-, "to wash." Relatives in other Germanic languages, besides their words for lye, include the Scandinavian languages' words for Saturday (laugardagur, lördag, lørdag), meaning "washing day".
dna
- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ GenBank ® is the NIH genetic sequence database, an annotated collection of all publicly available DNA sequences (Nucleic Acids Research, 2013 Jan;41(D1):D36-42). GenBank is part of the International Nucleotide Sequence Database Collaboration , which comprises the DNA DataBank of Japan (DDBJ), the European Nucleotide Archive (ENA), and GenBank at NCBI. These three organizations exchange data on a daily basis.
- A plasmid is a small DNA molecule within a cell that is physically separated from a chromosomal DNA and can replicate independently. The term was coined by Lederberg and Hays and shortly discovered by Tatum. They are most commonly found in bacteria as small circular, double-stranded DNA molecules; however, plasmids are sometimes present in archaea and eukaryotic organisms. In nature, plasmids often carry genes that may benefit the survival of the organism, for example antibiotic resistance. While the chromosomes are big and contain all the essential genetic information for living under normal conditions, plasmids usually are very small and contain only additional genes that may be useful to the organism under certain situations or particular conditions. Artificial plasmids are widely used as vectors in molecular cloning, serving to drive the replication of recombinant DNAsequences within host organisms.
- A restriction enzyme or restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that cleaves DNA into fragments at or near specific recognition sites within the molecule known as restriction sites.[1][2][3] Restriction enzymes are commonly classified into four types, which differ in their structure and whether they cut their DNA substrate at their recognition site, or if the recognition and cleavage sites are separate from one another. To cut DNA, all restriction enzymes make two incisions, once through each sugar-phosphate backbone (i.e. each strand) of the DNA double helix. These enzymes are found in bacteria and archaea and provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses.[4][5] Inside a prokaryote, the restriction enzymes selectively cut up foreign DNA in a process called restriction; meanwhile, host DNA is protected by a modification enzyme (a methyltransferase) that modifies the prokaryotic DNA and blocks cleavage. Together, these two processes form the restriction modification system. Over 3000 restriction enzymes have been studied in detail, and more than 600 of these are available commercially. These enzymes are routinely used for DNA modification in laboratories, and they are a vital tool in molecular cloning.
- Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique used in molecular biology to amplify a single copy or a few copies of a segment of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. It is an easy, cheap, and reliable way to repeatedly replicate a focused segment of DNA, a concept which is applicable to numerous fields in modern biology and related sciences.
- Electrophoresis is the motion of dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially uniform electric field.This electrokinetic phenomenon was observed for the first time in 1807 by Russian professors Peter Ivanovich Strakhov and Ferdinand Frederic Reuss (Moscow State University),[7] who noticed that the application of a constant electric fieldcaused clay particles dispersed in water to migrate. It is ultimately caused by the presence of a charged interface between the particle surface and the surrounding fluid. It is the basis for a number of analytical techniques used in chemistry for separating molecules by size, charge, or binding affinity. Electrophoresis of positively charged particles (cations) is called cataphoresis, while electrophoresis of negatively charged particles (anions) is called anaphoresis. Electrophoresis is a technique used in laboratories in order to separate macromolecules based on size. The technique applies a negative charge so proteins move towards a positive charge. This is used for both DNA and RNA analysis. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) has a clearer resolution than agarose and is more suitable for quantitative analysis. In this technique DNA foot-printing can identify how proteins bind to DNA. It can be used to separate proteins by size, density and purity. It can also be used for plasmid analysis, which develops our understanding of bacteria becoming resistant to antibiotics.
- RNA interference (RNAi) is a biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation, by neutralizing targeted mRNA molecules. Historically, it was known by other names, including co-suppression, post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS), and quelling. Only after these apparently unrelated processes were fully understood did it become clear that they all described the RNAi phenomenon.
protein
- The Bradford protein assay is a spectroscopic analytical procedure used to measure the concentration of protein in a solution. It is subjective, i.e., dependent on the amino acid composition of the measured protein. The Bradford protein assay was developed by Marion M. Bradford.
- An expression vector, otherwise known as an expression construct, is usually a plasmid or virus designed for gene expression in cells. The vector is used to introduce a specific geneinto a target cell, and can commandeer the cell's mechanism for protein synthesis to produce the protein encoded by the gene. Expression vectors are the basic tools in biotechnology for the production of proteins. The vector is engineered to contain regulatory sequences that act as enhancer and promoter regions and lead to efficient transcription of the gene carried on the expression vector.[1] The goal of a well-designed expression vector is the efficient production of protein, and this may be achieved by the production of significant amount of stable messenger RNA, which can then be translated into protein. The expression of a protein may be tightly controlled, and the protein is only produced in significant quantity when necessary through the use of an inducer, in some systems however the protein may be expressed constitutively. Escherichia coli is commonly used as the host for protein production, but other cell types may also be used. An example of the use of expression vector is the production of insulin, which is used for medical treatments of diabetes.
- Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE), describes a technique widely used in biochemistry, forensics, genetics, molecular biology and biotechnology to separate biological macromolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, according to their electrophoretic mobility. Mobility is a function of the length, conformation and charge of the molecule. As with all forms of gel electrophoresis, molecules may be run in their native state, preserving the molecules' higher-order structure. This method is called Native-PAGE. Alternatively, a chemical denaturant may be added to remove this structure and turn the molecule into an unstructured molecule whose mobility depends only on its length and mass-to-charge ratio. This procedure is called SDS-PAGE.
- The western blot (sometimes called the protein immunoblot) is a widely used analytical technique used in molecular biology, immunogeneticsand other molecular biology disciplines to detect specific proteins in a sample of tissue homogenate or extract. Synthetic or animal-derived antibodies are created that react with a specific target protein. The sample to be tested is prepared and put together with these antibodies on a membrane – if the specific protein sought for is present, after a gel electrophoresis step this will result in an accordingly stained band on the western blot. Other related techniques include dot blot analysis, quantitative dot blot, immunohistochemistry, and immunocytochemistry where antibodies are used to detect proteins in tissues and cells by immunostaining, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
- Two-hybrid screening (originally known as yeast two-hybrid system or Y2H) is a molecular biology technique used to discover protein–protein interactions (PPIs)[1] and protein–DNA interactions[2][3] by testing for physical interactions (such as binding) between two proteins or a single protein and a DNA molecule, respectively.
extraction of plant substances
- using water or methanol
- tests
- The agar diffusion test (Kirby–Bauer antibiotic testing, KB testing, or disc diffusion antibiotic sensitivity testing) is a test of the antibiotic sensitivity of bacteria. It uses antibiotic discs to test the extent to which bacteria are affected by those antibiotics.
- Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) is a type of size exclusion chromatography (SEC), that separates analytes on the basis of size. The technique is often used for the analysis of polymers. As a technique, SEC was first developed in 1955 by Lathe and Ruthven. The term gel permeation chromatography can be traced back to J.C. Moore of the Dow Chemical Company who investigated the technique in 1964 and the proprietary column technology was licensed to Waters Corporation, who subsequently commercialized this technology in 1964. GPC systems and consumables are now also available from a number of manufacturers. It is often necessary to separate polymers, both to analyze them as well as to purify the desired product.
- Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), also known as molecular sieve chromatography, is a chromatographic method in which molecules in solution are separated by their size, and in some cases molecular weight. It is usually applied to large molecules or macromolecular complexes such as proteins and industrial polymers. Typically, when an aqueous solution is used to transport the sample through the column, the technique is known as gel-filtration chromatography, versus the name gel permeation chromatography, which is used when an organic solvent is used as a mobile phase. SEC is a widely used polymer characterization method because of its ability to provide good molar mass distribution (Mw) results for polymers.
Styrene, also known as ethenylbenzene, vinylbenzene, and phenylethene, is an organic compound with the chemical formula C6H5CH=CH2. This derivative of benzene is a colorless oily liquid that evaporates easily and has a sweet smell, although high concentrations have a less pleasant odor. Styrene is the precursor to polystyrene and several copolymers. 苯乙烯也被称为乙烯基苯，是用苯取代乙烯的一个氢原子形成的有机化合物。室温下，苯乙烯是一种具有甜味的粘稠易挥发液体，但苯乙烯浓度过高时，气味就会变得令人不愉快。苯乙烯中，乙烯基的电子与苯环共轭。苯乙烯不溶于水，溶于乙醇、乙醚中，暴露于空气中逐渐发生聚合及氧化。工业上是合成树脂、离子交换树脂及合成橡胶等的重要单体。Styrene is named after storax balsam, the resin of Liquidambar trees of the Altingiaceae plant family. Styrene occurs naturally in small quantities in some plants and foods (cinnamon, coffee beans, and peanuts)[6] and is also found in coal tar.
- Styrene is regarded as a "known carcinogen", especially in case of eye contact, but also in case of skin contact, of ingestion and of inhalation, according to several sources
- 苯乙烯期貨（EB）26日在大 連商品交易所上市交易。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/09/27/b07-0927.pdf
Aseptic processing is the process by which a sterile (aseptic) product (typically food or pharmaceutical) is packaged in a sterile container in a way that maintains sterility.Sterility is achieved with a flash-heating process (temperature between 195 and 295 °F (91 to 146 °C)),[1] which retains more nutrients and uses less energy than conventional sterilization techniques such as retort or hot-fill canning. Pharmaceutical Sterile processing includes use of clean rooms, bacteria retaining filters, dry or steam heat. Aseptic food preservation methods allow processed food to keep for long periods of time without preservatives, as long as they are not opened. The aseptic packages are typically a mix of paper (70%), polyethylene (LDPE) (24%), and aluminum (6%), with a tight polyethylene inside layer. Sterile pharmaceuticals are usually packaged in plastic or glass. Together these materials form a tight seal against microbiological organisms, contaminants, and degradation, eliminating the need for refrigeration. The first aseptic filling plant for milk was presented in Switzerland in 1961. The Tetra Pak company later became one of the leading suppliers of processing and packaging equipment for dairies. Aseptic techniques were common in Europe and Asia before they were introduced in the United States in the 1980s. Aseptic containers may range in size from a few fluid ounces to a nearly 8-million-US-gallon (30,000 m3) aseptic tank on an ocean-going ship.[2]Aseptic processing makes worldwide export and import of new, economical and safe food products possible. Bag-In-Box technology is commonly used because it provides strong containers that are lightweight and easy to handle prior to being filled. Other common package types are drink boxes and pouches.
Ion chromatography (or ion-exchange chromatography) is a chromatography process that separates ions and polar molecules based on their affinity to the ion exchanger. It works on almost any kind of charged molecule—including large proteins, small nucleotides, and amino acids. The two types of ion chromatography are anion-exchange and cation-exchange. It is often used in protein purification, water analysis, and quality control.
Mutagenesis /mjuːtəˈdʒɛnɪsɪs/ is a process by which the genetic information of an organism is changed, resulting in a mutation. It may occur spontaneously in nature, or as a result of exposure to mutagens. It can also be achieved experimentally using laboratory procedures. In nature mutagenesis can lead to cancer and various heritable diseases, but it is also a driving force of evolution. Mutagenesis as a science was developed based on work done by Hermann Muller, Charlotte Auerbach and J. M. Robson in the first half of the 20th century.
emulsion
- a biphasic liquid preparation having two immiscible liquids, formed together in the dispersing process. The term is derived from the world emulgeo meaning to milk, milk is an example of a national emulsion of fat and water, along with other components. An emulsion is forming when shear is applied to the process, causing the oil to break up into droplets that are coated with surfactant and are inhibited from coalescing due to the interfacial repulsion. As the emulsion is sheared, larger oil droplets are stretched, undergo a capillary instability, and rupture into smaller droplets. The emulsion process is performed by applying a high pressure over the system having oil phase, aqueous phase and surfactant or co-surfactant. The pressure is applied with the help of a special equipment known as high shear mixer or homogenizer.
- types
- oil in water
- oil is presented as the dispersed phase and water as the disperson medium (continuous phase). Milk is one of the examples of the oil in water type of emulsion
- water in oil
- water forms the dispersed phase, and the oil acts as the dispersion medium. Butter and cream are typical examples.
- water in silicone
- oil in water in oil
- water in oil in water
- multiple emulsion
- nano emulsion
Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol among others, is a chemical with the formula CH3OH (a methyl group linked to a hydroxyl group, often abbreviated MeOH). Methanol acquired the name wood alcohol because it was once produced chiefly by the destructive distillation of wood. Today, methanol is mainly produced industrially by hydrogenation of carbon monoxide. Methanol is the simplest alcohol, consisting of a methyl group linked to a hydroxyl group. It is a light, volatile, colorless, flammable liquid with a distinctive odor similar to that of ethanol (drinking alcohol).[18] Methanol is however far more toxic than ethanol. At room temperature, it is a polar liquid. With more than 20 million tons produced annually, it is used as a precursor to other commodity chemicals, including formaldehyde, acetic acid, methyl tert-butyl ether, as well as a host of more specialized chemicals.
enzyme
- β-galactosidase, also called lactase, beta-gal or β-gal, is a glycoside hydrolase enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of β-galactosidesinto monosaccharides through the breaking of a glycosidic bond. β-galactosides include carbohydrates containing galactose where the glycosidic bond lies above the galactose molecule. Substrates of different β-galactosidases include ganglioside GM1, lactosylceramides, lactose, and various glycoproteins.
An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The dissolved electrolyte separates into cationsand anions, which disperse uniformly through the solvent. Electrically, such a solution is neutral. If an electric potential is applied to such a solution, the cations of the solution are drawn to the electrode that has an abundance of electrons, while the anions are drawn to the electrode that has a deficit of electrons. The movement of anions and cations in opposite directions within the solution amounts to a current. This includes most soluble salts, acids, and bases. Some gases, such as hydrogen chloride, under conditions of high temperature or low pressure can also function as electrolytes. Electrolyte solutions can also result from the dissolution of some biological (e.g., DNA, polypeptides) and synthetic polymers (e.g., polystyrene sulfonate), termed "polyelectrolytes", which contain charged functional groups. A substance that dissociates into ions in solution acquires the capacity to conduct electricity. Sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium, and phosphate are examples of electrolytes, informally known as "lytes". In medicine, electrolyte replacement is needed when a person has prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, and as a response to strenuous athletic activity. Commercial electrolyte solutions are available, particularly for sick children (such as oral rehydration solution, Suero Oral, or Pedialyte) and athletes (sports drinks). Electrolyte monitoring is important in the treatment of anorexia and bulimia.
甲基異丁基酮 Methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) is the organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CHCH2C(O)CH3. This colourless liquid, a ketone, is used as a solvent for gums, resins, paints, varnishes, lacquers, and nitrocellulose.無色有愉快氣味液體。性質穩定。微溶於水，與多數有機溶劑互溶。蒸氣與空氣形成爆炸性混合物。具強的局部刺激性和毒性。用作溶劑（用於溶解四環素、除蟲菊酯和滴滴涕以及用於油品脫蠟等）、無機鹽分離劑、選礦劑、粘合劑、橡膠膠水、蒙布漆和有機合成原料等。在電子束光刻技術中用作對PMMA的顯影溶劑。早期曾用於核燃料再處理的氧化-還原法。
甲基異丁基酮 Methyl isobutyl ketone (MIBK) is the organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CHCH2C(O)CH3. This colourless liquid, a ketone, is used as a solvent for gums, resins, paints, varnishes, lacquers, and nitrocellulose.無色有愉快氣味液體。性質穩定。微溶於水，與多數有機溶劑互溶。蒸氣與空氣形成爆炸性混合物。具強的局部刺激性和毒性。用作溶劑（用於溶解四環素、除蟲菊酯和滴滴涕以及用於油品脫蠟等）、無機鹽分離劑、選礦劑、粘合劑、橡膠膠水、蒙布漆和有機合成原料等。在電子束光刻技術中用作對PMMA的顯影溶劑。早期曾用於核燃料再處理的氧化-還原法。
肽（peptide，來自希臘文的“消化”），旧称胜，即胜肽，又稱縮氨酸，是天然存在的小生物分子，介於胺基酸和蛋白質之間的物質。Peptides (from Gr.: πεπτός, peptós "digested"; derived from πέσσειν, péssein "to digest") are short chains of amino acidmonomers linked by peptide (amide) bonds. The covalent chemical bonds are formed when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another. The shortest peptides are dipeptides, consisting of 2 amino acids joined by a single peptide bond, followed by tripeptides, tetrapeptides, etc. A polypeptide is a long, continuous, and unbranched peptide chain. Hence, peptides fall under the broad chemical classes of biological oligomers and polymers, alongside nucleic acids, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides, etc.
- Silk amino acid (SAAs) also known as Sericin is a natural water-soluble glycoprotein extracted from raw silk. It is used as an additive in skin and hair care products due to its high levels of serine which has excellent moisture preservation characteristics.[1][2] As a water-based additive it is used to provide a protective barrier and silky feel to lotions, soaps, personal lubricants, hair and skincare products.[3] Silk amino acids are produced by hydrolyzing (or breaking apart) silk proteins into smaller peptide chains, typically 18 to 19 amino acids in length. Silk amino acids have a lower molecular weight than silk protein powders and are moisturizing to skin and hair. Silk amino acids are used in formulating shampoos, conditioner, hair treatments, bodywash, body lotions, cleansers, toners and facial moisturizers, mascara, lipstick and color cosmetics.
Zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts. The term zeolite was originally coined in 1756 by Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who observed that rapidly heating the material, believed to have been stilbite, produced large amounts of steam from water that had been adsorbed by the material. Based on this, he called the material zeolite, from the Greek ζέω (zéō), meaning "to boil" and λίθος (líthos), meaning "stone".[2] The classic reference for the field has been Breck's book Zeolite Molecular Sieves: Structure, Chemistry, And Use. Zeolites occur naturally but are also produced industrially on a large scale. As of September 2016, 232 unique zeolite frameworks have been identified, and over 40 naturally occurring zeolite frameworks are known.[4][5] Every new zeolite structure that is obtained has to be approved by the International Zeolite Association Structure Commission and receives a three letter designation.
- Industrially important zeolites are produced synthetically. Typical procedures entail heating aqueous solutions of alumina and silica with sodium hydroxide. Equivalent reagents include sodium aluminate and sodium silicate. Further variations include changes in the cations to include quaternary ammonium cations. Synthetic zeolites hold some key advantages over their natural analogues. The synthetic materials are manufactured in a uniform, phase-pure state. It is also possible to produce zeolite structures that do not appear in nature. Zeolite A is a well-known example. Since the principal raw materials used to manufacture zeolites are silica and alumina, which are among the most abundant mineral components on earth, the potential to supply zeolites is virtually unlimited.
- Zeolites are widely used as ion-exchange beds in domestic and commercial water purification, softening, and other applications. In chemistry, zeolites are used to separate molecules(only molecules of certain sizes and shapes can pass through), and as traps for molecules so they can be analyzed. Zeolites are also widely used as catalysts and sorbents. Their well-defined pore structure and adjustable acidity make them highly active in a large variety of reactions.Zeolites can be used as solar thermal collectors and for adsorption refrigeration. In these applications, their high heat of adsorption and ability to hydrate and dehydrate while maintaining structural stability is exploited. This hygroscopic property coupled with an inherent exothermic (energy releasing) reaction when transitioning from a dehydrated to a hydrated form make natural zeolites useful in harvesting waste heat and solar heat energy. Zeolites are also used as a molecular sieve in cryosorption style vacuum pumps. The largest single use for zeolite is the global laundry detergent market. This amounted to 1.44 million metric tons per year of anhydrous zeolite A in 1992.[citation needed] Non-clumping cat litter is often made of zeolite or diatomite.
- Clinoptilolite is a natural zeolite comprising a microporous arrangement of silica and alumina tetrahedra. The name is derived from the Greek words klino (κλίνω; "oblique"), ptylon (φτερών; "feather"), and lithos (λίθος; "stone").
4, R being an alkyl group or an aryl group.[1] Unlike the ammonium ion (NH+
4) and the primary, secondary, or tertiary ammonium cations, the quaternary ammonium cations are permanently charged, independent of the pH of their solution. Quaternary ammonium salts or quaternary ammonium compounds (called quaternary amines in oilfieldparlance) are salts of quaternary ammonium cations.Quaternary ammonium salts are used as disinfectants, surfactants, fabric softeners, and as antistatic agents (e.g. in shampoos). In liquid fabric softeners, the chloride salts are often used. In dryer anticling strips, the sulfate salts are often used. Spermicidal jellies also contain quaternary ammonium salts.Quaternary ammonium compounds are present in osmolytes, specifically glycine betaine, which stabilize osmotic pressure in cells.Choline is also a precursor for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Choline is also a constituent of lecithin, which is present in many plants and animal organs. It is found in phospholipids. For example, phosphatidylcholines, a major component of biological membranes, are a member of the lecithin group of fatty substances in animal and plant tissues. Carnitine participates in the beta-oxidation of fatty acids.季銨鹽，又稱四級銨鹽[1]是銨離子的四個氫離子都被烴基取代後形成的季銨陽離子的鹽，具有通式 R4N+X−。其中四個烴基可以相同，也可以不相同，X−多為鹵素陰離子，HSO4−，RCOO−及OH−（季銨鹼）。季銨鹽的性質類似於銨鹽，大多數易溶於水，水溶液導電。季銨鹽可以通過胺與鹵代烴反應製取。有些季銨鹽是良好的表面活性劑和相轉移催化劑。第四級アンモニウム塩は抗菌性も持つ[4]。ある第四級アンモニウム化合物、特に長鎖アルキル基が含んでいるものは、抗菌剤や消毒薬に使われる。たとえば塩化ベンザルコニウム、塩化ベンゼトニウム、塩化メチルベンゼトニウム、塩化セチルピリジニウム、セトリモニウム、塩化ドファニウム、臭化テトラエチルアンモニウム、塩化ジデシルジメチルアンモニウム、臭化ドミフェンなどがある。真菌、アメーバ、エンベロープを持つウイルスに対しても[5]、細胞膜を破壊することにより作用する。他にも様々な生物を破壊するが、芽胞、結核菌、非エンベロープのウイルス、シュードモナス属などは例外である。
Gum arabic, also known as acacia gum, is a natural gum consisting of the hardened sap of various species of the acacia tree. Originally, gum arabic was collected from Acacia nilotica which was called the "gum arabic tree";[1] in the present day, gum arabic is predominantly collected from two related species, namely Acacia senegal[2] and Vachellia (Acacia) seyal. Producers harvest the gum commercially from wild trees, mostly in Sudan (80%) and throughout the Sahel, from Senegal to Somalia—though it is historically cultivated in Arabia and West Asia.Gum arabic is used primarily in the food industry as a stabilizer. It is edible and has E number E414. Gum arabic is a key ingredient in traditional lithography and is used in printing, paint production, glue, cosmetics and various industrial applications, including viscosity control in inks and in textile industries, though less expensive materials compete with it for many of these roles. While gum arabic is now produced throughout the African Sahel, it is still harvested and used in the Middle East. For example, Arab populations use the natural gum to make a chilled, sweetened, and flavored gelato-like dessert.
苯酚又名石炭酸、羟基苯Phenol, also known as phenolic acid, is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula C6H5OH. It is a white crystallinesolid that is volatile. It is mildly acidic and requires careful handling due to its propensity to cause chemical burns. Phenol was first extracted from coal tar, but today is produced on a large scale (about 7 billion kg/year) from petroleum. It is an important industrial commodity as a precursor to many materials and useful compounds.[7] It is primarily used to synthesize plastics and related materials. Phenol and its chemical derivatives are essential for production of polycarbonates, epoxies, Bakelite, nylon, detergents, herbicides such as phenoxy herbicides, and numerous pharmaceutical drugs.苯酚可作杀菌剂、麻醉剂、防腐剂。英國外科醫生约瑟夫·李斯特（Lister J）於1865年将其用于外科手术消毒，為最早以藥劑進行術前消毒的醫生；但由于苯酚的毒性，这一技术最终被取代。现在苯酚可用于制备消毒剂，如TCP；或用其稀溶液直接进行消毒。苯酚是多种化工产品的原料，用来合成阿司匹林等药品，以及一些农药、香料、染料。亦用来合成树脂，最主要的一种是和甲醛缩合而成的酚醛树脂。尽管苯酚的浓溶液毒性很强，它仍在整形外科手术中充当脱皮剂。
Oleic acid is a fatty acid that occurs naturally in various animal and vegetable fats and oils. It is an odorless, colorless oil, although commercial samples may be yellowish. The principal use of oleic acid is as a component in many foods, in the form of its triglycerides. It is a component of the normal human diet as a part of animal fats and vegetable oils. Oleic acid as its sodium salt is a major component of soap as an emulsifying agent. It is also used as an emollient.[19] Small amounts of oleic acid are used as an excipient in pharmaceuticals, and it is used as an emulsifying or solubilizing agent in aerosol products.
次亜塩素酸/次氯酸Hypochlorous acid (HClO) is a weak acid that forms when chlorine dissolves in water, and itself partially dissociates, forming hypochlorite, ClO−. HClO and ClO− are oxidizers, and the primary disinfection agents of chlorine solutions.Hypochlorous acid was discovered in 1834 by the French chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard (1802–1876) by adding, to a flask of chlorine gas, a dilute suspension of mercury(II) oxide in water.[3] He also named the acid and its compounds.In biology, hypochlorous acid is generated in activated neutrophils by myeloperoxidase-mediated peroxidation of chloride ions, and contributes to the destruction of bacteria. In the cosmetics industry it is used as a skin cleansing agent, which benefits the body's skin rather than causing drying.[citation needed] It is also used in baby products, because baby skin is particularly sensitive and can be easily irritated.[citation needed] In water treatment, hypochlorous acid is the active sanitizer in hypochlorite-based products (e.g. used in swimming pools). In food service and water distribution, specialized equipment to generate weak solutions of HClO from water and salt is sometimes used to generate adequate quantities of safe (unstable) disinfectant to treat food preparation surfaces and water supplies.
二氧化氯（Chlorine dioxide）是一种无机化合物 ，化学式 ClO2 。它在 11 °C 以上是一种黄绿色气体，在 −59 °C 到 11 °C 之间是一种红棕色液体，更低温下是橙色的固体。 它是一种氧化剂，能够将氧转移到各种基质上，同时通过氧化还原反应获得一个或多个电子。 它进入水时不水解，通常作为水溶液中的溶解气体处理。 二氧化氯的潜在危害包括健康问题，爆炸性和可燃性。 [5] 它常用于漂白剂。二氧化氯是氯的最稳定的氧化物，也是唯一大量生产的卤素氧化物[6]。二氧化氯是一種被世界衛生組織 (World Health Organization, WHO) 列為A1級的安全高效綠色消毒劑，而且美國環境保護署 (Environmental Protection Agency, EPA) 已批淮用於醫療衛生業儀器設備的消毒。台灣現行食品衛生法規也將二氧化氯歸類為食品添加物第二類殺菌劑。台灣使用氯 (chlorine, Cl2) 於飲用水之處理及一般殺菌藥劑應用，其功能與方法早已為人所熟悉接受之，而二氧化氯 (chlorine dioxide, ClO2)，為一種在淨水處理功能上比氯 (Cl2) 更具優勢的水質處理藥劑，但由於其制造成本費用較高，用於飲用水的處理較少，至今僅小金門的紅山淨水場和金門的榮湖淨水場，曾採用二氧化氯作為前氧化處理藥劑之案例。二氧化氯 (ClO2) 在歐美等先進國家已被廣泛的使用於飲用水的消毒殺菌，可有效且安全的取代次氯酸 (hypochlorous acid, HOCl) 及次氯酸鹽 (hypochlorite, OCl-) 等。
- 二氧化氯是一種人工製造出來的氣體，對細菌、病毒、黴菌的細胞壁有較強的吸附和穿透能力，能抑制蛋白質合成，達到抑菌、殺菌效果，而且是一種對環境、人體和動物比較友善的綠色消毒劑，通常用在自來水消毒，也是合法的食品用洗潔劑。二氧化氯的主要用途在自來水的消毒，和麵粉與木質紙漿的漂白。电解水通常是指含鹽（如氯化鈉）的水经过电解之後所生成的產物。電解過後的水本身是中性，可以加入其他離子，或者可经过半透膜分離[1]而生成两种性質的水。其中一种是碱性離子水，另一种是酸性離子水。以氯化鈉為水中所含電解質的電解水，在電解後會含有氫氧化鈉、次氯酸與次氯酸鈉（如果是純水經過電解，則只會產生氫氧根離子、氫氣、氧氣與氫離子）。在某些條件下，電解後產生的酸性電解水有殺菌用途[2][3]。製備電解水的機構稱之為電解槽，其內部主要構成部品是電極板與離子膜，兩者都是目前許多科技產品應用的技術。一般常見的電解水製造設備，簡稱電解水機或電解離子水生成器（Ionic Water Generator）[5]。 依據公共自來水質溶存主要成份而言，「硫酸鹽」、「碳酸氫鹽」或少量「氯鹽」經實際功率、流量及其它電解條件的配合，可以製備出單獨溶存較高「鈣離子」或「鈉離子」濃度且適合飲用的「鹼性離子水」，此即是訴求飲水的「機能性」的飲水設備。在1990年代之前，由於電解槽電解極板的材質等問題，操作使用電解水機電解水仍面臨諸多硬體方面的疑難白金電極板的應用，終於在新近10年間，才造成電解水機製造飲用電解水發展的盛況。初期，以鹼性水之鈣離子及負電位為主要訴求。由於日本本土自來水質很軟，仍必須添加鈣素（碳酸鈣成份）才能有效促進電解水之製造；但在台灣，除少數地區水質較軟外，多數地區自來水質都是中度硬水或硬水，反而造成電解水機操作使用約半年至一年時間而已，終究因為電解槽內，特別是離子膜表面嚴重卡鈣的問題，以致電解效能急遽下降或失效，電解水的療效，也因之變得無法加以驗證。 Electrolysed water (electrolyzed water, EOW, ECA, electrolyzed oxidizing water, electro-activated water or electro-chemically activated water solution) is produced by the electrolysis of ordinary tap water containing dissolved sodium chloride.[1] The electrolysis of such salt solutions produces a solution of hypochlorous acid and sodium hydroxide, despite the impossibility of hypochlorous acid coexisting with sodium hydroxide in solution. The resulting water can be used as a disinfectant.
- An AA battery in a glass of tap water with salt showing hydrogen produced at the negative terminal
Sodium gluconate is a compound with formula NaC6H11O7. It is the sodium salt of gluconic acid. Its E number is E576. Sodium gluconate is widely used in textile dyeing, printing and metal surface water treatment. It is also used as a chelating agent, a steel surface cleaning agent, a cleaning agent for glass bottles, and as a chelating agent for cement, plating and alumina dyeing industries. It is a white powder that is very soluble in water.グルコン酸ナトリウム（グルコンさんナトリウム、sodium gluconate）はグルコン酸のナトリウム塩で、化学式C6H11O7Naで表される有機化合物。日本では、1998年9月に新しく食品添加物（E576）に指定された。タンパク質の冷凍変性防止作用や水分活性低下効果、キレート作用などを持つ。 食品添加物としては味噌・醤油、魚肉練り製品、パン、プロセスチーズなどに調味料、pH調整剤、イーストフード、乳化剤、発酵調整剤などとして使用される[1]。工業用としては金属処理、繊維工業における漂白・糊抜き、製紙工業における漂白・脱墨、コンクリートの凝結遅延剤などとして使用される[2]。
Adhesives
- polyvinyl acetate / synthetuc pokymer
plastic
- https://plastics.americanchemistry.com/Understanding-Plastic-Film/
Benzoyl chloride, also known as benzenecarbonyl chloride, is an organochlorine compound with the formula C6H5COCl. It is a colourless, fuming liquid with an irritating odour. It is mainly useful for the production of peroxides but is generally useful in other areas such as in the preparation of dyes, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, and resins.苯甲醯氯（C6H5COCl），也稱苯醯氯，為無色發煙液體，具有刺激性氣味。
Acetone peroxide (also called APEX) is an organic peroxide and a primary high explosive. It is produced by the reaction of acetone and hydrogen peroxide to yield a mixture of linear monomer and cyclic dimer, trimer, and tetramer forms. The trimer is known as triacetone triperoxide (TATP) or tri-cyclic acetone peroxide (TCAP). The dimer is known as diacetone diperoxide (DADP). Acetone peroxide takes the form of a white crystalline powder with a distinctive bleach-like odor (when impure) or a fruit-like smell when pure, and can explode powerfully if subjected to heat, friction, static electricity, concentrated sulfuric acid, strong UV radiation or shock. Until about 2015 explosives detectors were not set to detect non-nitrogenous explosives as most explosives used were nitrogen-based. Nitrogen-free TATP was used as the explosive in several terrorist bomb attacks since 2001.Acetone peroxide (specifically, triacetone triperoxide) was discovered in 1895 by Richard Wolffenstein.
- Ketone peroxides, including acetone peroxide and methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, find application as initiators for polymerization reactions, e.g., silicone or polyester resins, in the making of fiberglass-reinforced composites.[citation needed] For these uses, the peroxides are typically in the form of a dilute solution in an organic solvent; methyl ethyl ketone peroxide is more common for this purpose, as it is stable in storage.[citation needed] Acetone peroxide is used as a flour bleaching agent to bleach and "mature" flour.[33] Acetone peroxides are unwanted by-products of some oxidation reactions such as those used in phenol syntheses.[34] Due to their explosive nature, their presence in chemical processes and chemical samples creates potential hazardous situations. Accidental occurrence at illicit MDMA laboratories is possible.[35] Numerous methods are used to reduce their appearance, including shifting pH to more alkaline, adjusting reaction temperature, or adding inhibitors of their production.[34] For example, triacetone peroxide is the major contaminant found in diisopropyl ether as a result of photochemical oxidation in air.
Corrosion
- metal+oxygen+water=rust
- Volatile corrosion inhibitors (VCI) are a type of corrosion inhibitor that are used to protect ferrous materials and non ferrous metals against corrosion or oxidation where it is impractical to apply surface treatments.[1] They slowly release chemical compounds within a sealed airspace that actively prevents surface corrosion. A typical application is to protect stored tools or parts inside bags, boxes or cupboards, one advantage of VCIs being that if the container is opened and reclosed, levels of inhibitor will recover. The history of VCIs also known as Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors (VpCIs), metal air inhibitors, vapor phase inhibitors (VPI) began in the 1940s when Shell Petroleum developed the very first of the traditional VCI's using a chemical compound called DICHAN or Dicyclohexylammonium Nitrite. This was used by the US military to prevent various metal components from corrosion and used it in multiple formats such as VCI paper, VCI powder, VCI solutions etc. Due to the dangerous nature of the chemistry DICHAN is now a mostly banned substance and there was a distinct break in the development of VCI's into two major groups of nitrite based VCI's and Amine based VCI's. The inclusion of either nitrite, secondary and tertiary amines is now frowned upon in the packaging world as combinations of these types of chemicals can cause Nitrosamines which are cancer forming agents.
- polyvinyl acetate / synthetuc pokymer
- Brand - www.aabbitt.com
- starch paste
- hide glue (made of animal protein)
- cellulose gums (sodium carboxymethylcellulose and methyi cellulose)
- lincrusta glue - specially for application of lincrusta
- impact adhesives
Dunaliella salina
- Dunaliella salina is a type of halophile green micro-algae especially found in sea salt fields. Known for its antioxidant activity because of its ability to create large amount of carotenoids, it is used in cosmetics and dietary supplements. Few organisms can survive like D. salina does in such highly saline conditions as salt evaporation ponds. To survive, these organisms have high concentrations of β-carotene to protect against the intense light, and high concentrations of glycerol to provide protection against osmotic pressure. This offers an opportunity for commercial biological production of these substances.
The photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is hampered by strong bonds of H2O molecules and low ionic conductivity of pure water. The photocatalysts dispersed in pure water can serve as a water activation agent, which provides an alternative pathway to overcome such limitations. Here we report that the light illuminated α−Fe2O3/Pt nanoparticles may produce a reservoir of reactive intermediates including H2O2, ·OH, OH− and H+ capable of promoting the pure water reduction/oxidation half−reactions at cathode and highly photocatalytic−active TiO2/In2S3/AgInS2 photoanode, respectively. Remarkable photocurrent enhancement has been obtained with α−Fe2O3/Pt as water activation agent. The use of α−Fe2O3/Pt to promote the reactivity of pure water represents a new paradigm for reproducible hydrogen fuel provision by PEC water splitting, allowing efficient splitting of pure water without adding of corrosive chemicals or sacrificial agent. http://www.nature.com/articles/srep09130
In chemistry, photocatalysis is the acceleration of a photoreaction in the presence of a catalyst. In catalysed photolysis, light is absorbed by an adsorbed substrate. In photogenerated catalysis, the photocatalytic activity (PCA) depends on the ability of the catalyst to create electron–hole pairs, which generate free radicals (e.g. hydroxyl radicals: •OH) able to undergo secondary reactions. Its practical application was made possible by the discovery of water electrolysis by means of titanium dioxide (TiO2).
- applications including
- cellulose gums (sodium carboxymethylcellulose and methyi cellulose)
- lincrusta glue - specially for application of lincrusta
- impact adhesives
- Based on rubber/neoprene, give off hazardous vapours
Oxalic acid is an organic compound with the formula C2H2O4. It is a colorless crystalline solid that forms a colorless solution in water. Its condensed formula is HOOCCOOH, reflecting its classification as the simplest dicarboxylic acid. Its acid strength is much greater than that of acetic acid. Oxalic acid is a reducing agent[7] and its conjugate base. It occurs naturally in many foods, but excessive ingestion of oxalic acid or prolonged skin contact can be dangerous.Its name comes from the fact that early investigators isolated oxalic acid from wood-sorrel (Oxalis) flowering plants.草酸（英文：Oxalic acid，全称酢浆草酸），也称乙二酸，是一種強有機酸，化學式為H2C2O4。常见的草酸通常含有两分子的结晶水（H2C2O4·2H2O）。草酸在菠菜和植物大黃中廣泛存在。在化学工业上用以制造季戊四醇、草酸钴、草酸镍、碱性品绿，钢铁、土壤分析成套试剂、化学试剂等。快速染料用作显色助染剂。稻草、麦杆制品的漂白剂（草酸有还原性），铁锈污染消除剂（草酸与铁作用，生成可溶性的草酸铁，容易被水洗去，故可除去织物上所沾染的铁迹）。草酸是一種存在於許多植物的酸，但也是一種腎毒性和腐蝕性的酸性有毒物質。純草酸的半致死劑量（LD50），以對大鼠的影響作計量，大約為每公斤體重375毫克 [2]，換算至一個約65公斤的人，大約需要25公克的份量。另外，口服的最低致死劑量（LDLo）約為600mg/kg 。草酸有著非常刺激性的味道，長久接觸草酸的水溶液，可引致關節痛。在一般人的尿液裡，亦含有微量草酸，份量大約有數毫克[4]。草酸對混凝土、木材及玻璃均具腐蝕性。
Dunaliella salina
- Dunaliella salina is a type of halophile green micro-algae especially found in sea salt fields. Known for its antioxidant activity because of its ability to create large amount of carotenoids, it is used in cosmetics and dietary supplements. Few organisms can survive like D. salina does in such highly saline conditions as salt evaporation ponds. To survive, these organisms have high concentrations of β-carotene to protect against the intense light, and high concentrations of glycerol to provide protection against osmotic pressure. This offers an opportunity for commercial biological production of these substances.
The photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting is hampered by strong bonds of H2O molecules and low ionic conductivity of pure water. The photocatalysts dispersed in pure water can serve as a water activation agent, which provides an alternative pathway to overcome such limitations. Here we report that the light illuminated α−Fe2O3/Pt nanoparticles may produce a reservoir of reactive intermediates including H2O2, ·OH, OH− and H+ capable of promoting the pure water reduction/oxidation half−reactions at cathode and highly photocatalytic−active TiO2/In2S3/AgInS2 photoanode, respectively. Remarkable photocurrent enhancement has been obtained with α−Fe2O3/Pt as water activation agent. The use of α−Fe2O3/Pt to promote the reactivity of pure water represents a new paradigm for reproducible hydrogen fuel provision by PEC water splitting, allowing efficient splitting of pure water without adding of corrosive chemicals or sacrificial agent. http://www.nature.com/articles/srep09130
In chemistry, photocatalysis is the acceleration of a photoreaction in the presence of a catalyst. In catalysed photolysis, light is absorbed by an adsorbed substrate. In photogenerated catalysis, the photocatalytic activity (PCA) depends on the ability of the catalyst to create electron–hole pairs, which generate free radicals (e.g. hydroxyl radicals: •OH) able to undergo secondary reactions. Its practical application was made possible by the discovery of water electrolysis by means of titanium dioxide (TiO2).
- applications including
- Conversion of water to hydrogen gas by photocatalytic water splitting. An efficient photocatalyst in the UV range is based on a sodium tantalite (NaTaO3) doped with La and loaded with a cocatalyst nickel oxide. The surface of the sodium tantalite crystals is grooved with so called nanosteps that is a result of doping with lanthanum (3–15 nm range, see nanotechnology). The NiO particles which facilitate hydrogen gas evolution are present on the edges, with the oxygen gas evolving from the grooves.
- Use of titanium dioxide in self-cleaning glass. Free radicals generated from TiO2 oxidize organic matter.
- Disinfection of water by supported titanium dioxide photocatalysts, a form of solar water disinfection (SODIS).
- Use of titanium dioxide in self-sterilizing photocatalytic coatings (for application to food contact surfaces and in other environments where microbial pathogens spread by indirect contact).[30]
- Oxidation of organic contaminants using magnetic particles that are coated with titanium dioxide nanoparticles and agitated using a magnetic field while being exposed to UV light.
- phtocatalytic spray https://www.jetro.go.jp/ttppoas/anken/0001167000/1167642_e.html
Sodium dodecyl sulfate, synonymously sodium lauryl sulfate (or laurilsulfate; SDS or SLS, respectively), is a synthetic organic compound with the formula CH3(CH2)11SO4Na. It is an anionic surfactant used in many cleaning and hygiene products. The sodium salt is of an organosulfate class of organics. It consists of a 12-carbon tail attached to a sulfate group, that is, it is the sodium salt of dodecyl hydrogen sulfate, the ester of dodecyl alcohol and sulfuric acid. Its hydrocarbon tail combined with a polar "headgroup" give the compound amphiphilic properties and so make it useful as a detergent.[not verified in body] Also derived as a component of mixtures produced from inexpensive coconut and palm oils, SDS is a common component of many domestic cleaning, personal hygiene and cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food products, as well as of industrial and commercial cleaning and product formulations.
Saccharomyces is a genus of fungi that includes many species of yeasts. Saccharomyces is from Greek σάκχαρον (sugar) and μύκης (mushroom) and means sugar fungus. Many members of this genus are considered very important in food production. It is known as the brewer's yeast or baker's yeast. They are unicellular and saprophytic fungi. One example is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is used in making wine, bread, beer, and for human and animal health. Other members of this genus include the wild yeast Saccharomyces paradoxusthat is the closest relative to S. cerevisiae, Saccharomyces bayanus, used in making wine, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae var boulardii, used in medicine.
ammonia
- Ammonia or azane is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. The simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical products and is used in many commercial cleaning products.
硝酸鹽Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the molecular formula NO−
3 and a molecular mass of 62.0049 u. Nitrates also describe the organic functional group RONO2. These nitrate esters are a specialized class of explosives.Almost all inorganic nitrate salts are soluble in water at standard temperature and pressure. A common example of an inorganic nitrate salt is potassium nitrate (saltpeter). A rich source of inorganic nitrate in the human body comes from diets rich in leafy green foods, such as spinach and arugula. NO3- (inorganic nitrate) is the viable active component within beetroot juice and other vegetables. Dietary nitrate may be found in cured meats, various leafy vegetables, and drinking water; nitrite consumption is primarily determined by the amount of processed meats eaten, and the concentration of nitrates in these meats. Nitrite and water are converted in the body to nitric oxide, which could reduce hypertension. Anti-hypertensive diets, such as the DASH diet, typically contain high levels of nitrates, which are first reduced to nitrite in the saliva, as detected in saliva testing, prior to forming nitric oxide.Nitrates are mainly produced for use as fertilizers in agriculture because of their high solubility and biodegradability. The main nitrate fertilizers are ammonium, sodium, potassium, and calcium salts. Several million kilograms are produced annually for this purpose. The second major application of nitrates is as oxidizing agents, most notably in explosives where the rapid oxidation of carbon compounds liberates large volumes of gases (see gunpowder for an example). Sodium nitrate is used to remove air bubbles from molten glass and some ceramics. Mixtures of the molten salt are used to harden some metals. Explosives and table tennis balls are made from celluloid. Although nitrites are the nitrogen compound chiefly used in meat curing, nitrates are used in certain specialty curing processes where a long release of nitrite from parent nitrate stores is needed. The use of nitrates in food preservation is controversial. This is due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when nitrates are present in high concentrations and the product is cooked at high temperatures.[3] The effect is seen for red or processed meat, but not for white meat or fish.[4][5] Potently, the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines may be inhibited by the use of the antioxidants vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E during curing.硝酸钾俗称火硝或土硝。主要用于焰火、黑色火药、火柴、导火索、烛芯、烟草、彩电显像管、药物、化学试剂、催化剂、陶瓷釉彩、玻璃、复合肥料、及花卉、蔬菜、果树等经济作物的叶面喷施肥料等。對敏感牙齒有舒緩作用，所以有很多牙膏也有硝酸钾。硝酸鉀也是天氣瓶內的一種鹽類。 在医学上，硝酸钾用于治疗肾结石，目前发现人类泌尿结石有26种成分，其中没有硝酸钾，因为硝酸钾非常活泼，不易形成结石，反而能够与其它结石中的钙结合并且排出体外。是治疗含钙结石的主要药物，为了防止硝酸钾在大肠杆菌作用下形成有致癌性的亚硝酸盐，一般都与硫酸铝钾一起服用。
- Potassium nitrate, because of its early and global use and production, has many names. Hebrew and Egyptian words for it had the consonants n-t-r, indicating likely cognation in the Greek nitron, which was Latinised to nitrum or nitrium. Thence Old French had niter and Middle English nitre. By the 15th century, Europeans referred to it as saltpeter[8] and later as nitrate of potash, as the chemistry of the compound was more fully understood. The Arabs called it "Chinese snow" (Arabic: ثلج الصين thalj al-ṣīn). It was called "Chinese salt" by the Iranians/Persians[9][10][11][12][13] or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" (Persian: نمک شوره چيني namak shūra chīnī).
-******[1776 chronicle] goods imported to uk through london and bristol in 1776 - saltpetre from bengal
硝酸銨 Ammonium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula NH ₄NO ₃. It is a white crystalline solid consisting of ions of ammonium and nitrate. It is highly soluble in water and hygroscopic as a solid, although it does not form hydrates. It is predominantly used in agriculture as a high-nitrogen fertilizer.
- 硝酸銨主要用於農業，作為高氮肥料，其他用途是作為工業炸藥，用於採礦、採石及土木建築等。由於硝酸銨便宜及易於取得，加上威力強勁，恐怖分子用於合成威力強勁的土製炸彈。硝酸銨可溶於水、甲醇及乙醇。它本身頗為穩定，正常情況下要有燃料或外部催化劑協助，才會引起爆炸，因此儲存倉庫牆壁必須完全防火。惟硝酸銨不耐高溫，分解溫度約攝氏二百一十度，一旦燃燒會釋出大量氧氣，助長火勢及引發爆炸。歷史上多次爆炸案均與硝酸銨有關，其中九五年美國俄克拉何馬城爆炸案，施襲者駕駛一輛裝有二點二噸硝酸銨的貨車，在政府大樓前引爆，致一百六十八人死。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200806/00180_004.html
Cyanide
- black cherry tree leaves contain substantial amount of cyanide
- Sodium cyanide is an inorganic compound with the formula NaCN. It is a white, water-soluble solid. Cyanide has a high affinity for metals, which leads to the high toxicity of this salt. Its main application, in gold mining, also exploits its high reactivity toward metals. It is a strong base. When treated with acid, it forms the toxic gas hydrogen cyanide.
Kaolinite /ˈkeɪəlɪˌnaɪt/ is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica (SiO4) linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina (AlO6) octahedra.[6] Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as kaolin /ˈkeɪəlɪn/ or china clay.The name "kaolin" is derived from "Gaoling" (高嶺; literally: "High Ridge"), a Chinese village near Jingdezhen in southeastern China's Jiangxi Province. The name entered English in 1727 from the French version of the word: kaolin, following Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles's reports from Jingdezhen.
- The main use of the mineral kaolinite (about 50% of the time) is the production of paper; its use ensures the gloss on some grades of coated paper. Kaolin is also known for its capabilities to induce and accelerate blood clotting. In April 2008 the US Naval Medical Research Institute announced the successful use of a kaolinite-derived aluminosilicate infusion in traditional gauze, known commercially as QuikClot Combat Gauze, which is still the hemostat of choice for all branches of the US military. Among others, kaolin is used (or was used in the past):
Ferrosilicon is an alloy of iron and silicon with an average silicon content between 15 and 90 weight percent. It contains a high proportion of iron silicides.Ferrosilicon is produced by reduction of silica or sand with coke in the presence of iron. Ferrosilicon is used by the military to quickly produce hydrogen for balloons by the ferrosilicon method. The chemical reaction uses sodium hydroxide, ferrosilicon, and water. The generator is small enough to fit in a truck and requires only a small amount of electric power, the materials are stable and not combustible, and they do not generate hydrogen until mixed. The method has been in use since World War I. A heavy steel pressure vessel is filled with sodium hydroxide and ferrosilicon, closed, and a controlled amount of water is added; the dissolving of the hydroxide heats the mixture to about 200 °F (93 °C) and starts the reaction; sodium silicate, hydrogen and steam are produced.
二氧化硅Silicon dioxide, also known as silica (from the Latin silex), is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula SiO2, most commonly found in nature as quartz and in various living organisms. In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent of sand. Silica is one of the most complex and most abundant families of materials, existing as a compound of several minerals and as synthetic product. Notable examples include fused quartz, fumed silica, silica gel, and aerogels. It is used in structural materials, microelectronics, and as components in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Inhaling finely divided crystalline silica is toxic and can lead to severe inflammation of the Lung tissue, silicosis, bronchitis, lung cancer, and systemic autoimmune diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.Uptake of amorphous Silicon dioxide, in high doses, leads to non-permanent short-term inflammation, where all effects heal.
- An estimated 95% of silicon dioxide produced is consumed in the construction industry, e.g. for the production of Portland cement. Silica, in the form of sand is used as the main ingredient in sand casting for the manufacture of metallic components in engineering and other applications. The high melting point of silica enables it to be used in such applications.Crystalline silica is used in hydraulic fracturing of formations which contain tight oil and shale gas.
Camphor (/ˈkæmfər/) is a waxy, flammable, transparent solid with a strong aroma.[5] It is a terpenoid with the chemical formula C10H16O. It is found in the wood of the camphor laurel(Cinnamomum camphora), a large evergreen tree found in Asia (particularly in Sumatra and Borneo islands, Indonesia) and also of the unrelated kapur tree, a tall timber tree from the same region. It also occurs in some other related trees in the laurel family, notably Ocotea usambarensis. The oil in rosemary leaves (Rosmarinus officinalis), in the mint family, contains 10 to 20% camphor,[6] while camphorweed (Heterotheca) only contains some 5%.[7] Camphor can also be synthetically produced from oil of turpentine. It is used for its scent, as an ingredient in cooking (mainly in India), as an embalming fluid, for medicinal purposes, and in religious ceremonies. A major source of camphor in Asia is camphor basil (the parent of African blue basil).
- クスノキの葉や枝などのチップを水蒸気蒸留すると結晶として得ることができる[3]。クスノキの中に含まれている樟脳はd体である。製造工程としては、クスノキを切削機で薄い木片に砕いて大釜に入れ、木の棒などで叩いて均等に詰めたのち、高温で蒸して成分を水蒸気として抽出し、それをゆっくり冷却して結晶化させる。冷却器の中の水の表面に浮いた白い結晶を網ですくい集め、乾燥後袋詰めなどして商品とする。この天然樟脳を製造している所は、江戸時代から続く福岡県みやま市の内野樟脳が2006年時点で1軒のみだったが[4][5]、その後技術指導などにより2014年時点で全国で4軒を数える[6]。6世紀にアラビアで製法が発明されたといわれ、日本へは16世紀に伝わったとされる[7]。寛永14年（1637年）には島津藩の特産品として薩摩から欧州や中国へ輸出されており、金・銀に次ぐ日本の重要な輸出産品だった[7]。クスノキは島津藩の御用木として勝手な伐採は禁止されており、樟脳の生産は主に鹿児島のほか、長崎の五島で行なわれていたが[7]、岩崎弥太郎が外国船で樟脳が必需品であることを知り、土佐藩でも外貨獲得のための産品として盛んに製造されるようになった[9]。かつてはセルロイドの可塑剤として非常に大量に使用されていた。日本は当時植民地であった台湾においてクスノキのプランテーションを経営していたため、20世紀はじめには世界最大の生産国であった（樟脳と台湾も参照）。「樟脳専売局集集出張所」は台湾南投の集集にある。しかし1920年代に入ると化学合成品が開発されて押されるようになり、やがてセルロイドに代わるプラスチックが出現してこの用途はほとんど無くなった。明治期、日本の事業家土倉龍治郎が、台湾で林業・電気事業と共に樟脳事業を展開、成功していた。無煙火薬の原料としてノーベルも注目していた。
Mothballs are small balls of chemical pesticide and deodorant, sometimes used when storing clothing and other articles susceptible to damage from mold or moth larvae (especially clothes moths like Tineola bisselliella). Use of mothballs when clothing is stored out-of-season has given rise to the colloquial usage of the terms "mothballed" and "put into mothballs", to refer to anything which is put into storage or whose operation is suspended.Older mothballs consisted primarily of naphthalene, but due to naphthalene's flammability, many modern mothball formulations instead use 1,4-dichlorobenzene. The latter formulation may be somewhat less flammable, although both chemicals have the same NFPA 704 rating for flammability. The latter chemical is also variously labeled as para-dichlorobenzene, p-dichlorobenzene, pDCB, or PDB, making it harder to identify unless all these synonyms are known to a potential purchaser. Both of these formulations have the strong, pungent, sickly-sweet odor often associated with mothballs. Both naphthalene and 1,4-dichlorobenzene undergo sublimation, meaning that they evaporate from a solid state directly into a gas; this gas is toxic to moths and moth larvae. Naphthalene and 1,4-dichlorobenzene should not be used together because the mixture may cause damage to items being preserved. Due to the health risks of 1,4-dichlorobenzene, and flammability of naphthalene, other substances like camphor are sometimes used. alternatives to mothballs to control clothes moths include dry cleaning, freezing, thorough vacuuming, or washing in hot water.[19] Camphor is also used as a moth repellent, particularly in China.[20] Unlike naphthalene and dichlorobenzene, camphor has medicinal applications and is not regarded as a carcinogen, though it is toxic in large doses.
- 1,4-Dichlorobenzene (1,4-DCB, p-DCB, or para-dichlorobenzene, sometimes abbreviated as PDB or para) is an organic compound with the formula C6H4Cl2. This colorless solid has a strong odor. The molecule consists of a benzene ring with two chlorine atoms (replacing hydrogen atoms) on opposing sites of the ring. It is used as a disinfectant, pesticide, and deodorant, most familiarly in mothballs in which it is a replacement for the more traditional naphthalene because of naphthalene's greater flammability (though both chemicals have the same NFPA 704 rating). It is also used as a precursor in the production of the chemically and thermally resistant polymer poly(p-phenylene sulfide).
碳酸鈣，俗稱灰石、石灰石、石粉 Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite (most notably as limestone, which is a type of sedimentary rock build mainly of calcite) and is the main component of pearls and the shells of marine organisms, snails, and eggs. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to create limescale. It is medicinally used as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.
- industrial applications in construction, oil industry, paint, adhesives, ceramic/glazing etc
- Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement for gastric antacid (e.g., Tums). It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia (primarily in patients with chronic renal failure). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert filler for tablets and other pharmaceuticals.
Calcium carbonate is used in the production of calcium oxide as well as toothpaste and has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as organic apples.
硫酸镁（magnesium sulfate、magnesium sulphate），或無水硫酸镁 Magnesium sulfate is an inorganic salt with the formula MgSO4(H2O)x where 0≤x≤7. It is often encountered as the heptahydrate sulfate mineral epsomite (MgSO4·7H2O), commonly called Epsom salt. The overall global annual usage in the mid-1970s of the monohydrate was 2.3 million tons, of which the majority was used in agriculture. Epsom salt has been traditionally used as a component of bath salts. Epsom salt can also be used as a beauty product. Athletes use it to soothe sore muscles, while gardeners use it to improve crops. It has a variety of other uses: for example, Epsom salt is also effective in the removal of splinters.It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, the most important medications needed in a basic health system.Magnesium sulfate is a common mineral pharmaceutical preparation of magnesium, commonly known as Epsom salt, used both externally and internally. Magnesium sulfate is highly water-soluble and solubility is inhibited with lipids typically used in lotions. Lotions often employ the use of emulsions or suspensions to include both oil and water-soluble ingredients. Hence, magnesium sulfate in a lotion may not be as freely available to migrate to the skin nor to be absorbed through the skin, hence both studies may properly suggest absorption or lack thereof as a function of the carrier (in a water solution vs. in an oil emulsion or suspension). Temperature and concentration gradients may also be contributing factors to absorption. Externally, magnesium sulfate paste is used to treat skin inflammations such as small boils or localised infections. Known in the UK as "drawing paste", it is also used to remove splinters.[6] The standard British Pharmacopoeia composition is dried Magnesium Sulfate 47.76 % w/w, Phenol 0.49 % w/w. and glycerol (E422). Epsom salt is used as bath salts and for isolation tanks. Magnesium sulfate is the main preparation of intravenous magnesium.In agriculture, magnesium sulfate is used to increase magnesium or sulfur content in soil. It is most commonly applied to potted plants, or to magnesium-hungry crops, such as potatoes, roses, tomatoes, lemon trees, carrots, and peppers. The advantage of magnesium sulfate over other magnesium soil amendments (such as dolomitic lime) is its high solubility, which also allows the option of foliar feeding. Solutions of magnesium sulfate are also nearly neutral, compared with alkaline salts of magnesium as found in limestone; therefore, the use of magnesium sulfate as a magnesium source for soil does not significantly change the soil pH.Magnesium sulfate is used as a brewing salt in making beer.[15] It may also be used as a coagulant for making tofu.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), also known as lye and caustic soda, is an inorganic compound. It is a white solid and highly caustic metallic base and alkali of sodium which is available in pellets, flakes, granules, and as prepared solutions at different concentrations. Sodium hydroxide forms an approximately 50% (by mass) saturated solution with water. Sodium hydroxide is soluble in water, ethanol, and methanol. This alkali is deliquescent and readily absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide in air. Sodium hydroxide is used in many industries, mostly as a strong chemical base in the manufacture of pulp and paper, textiles, drinking water, soaps and detergents and as a drain cleaner. 氫氧化鈉，又称烧碱和苛性钠，化學式為NaOH，是一種具有高腐蝕性的強鹼，一般為白色片狀或顆粒，能溶於水生成鹼性溶液，另也能溶解於甲醇及乙醇。此鹼性物具有潮解性，會吸收空氣裡的水蒸氣，亦會吸取二氧化碳等酸性氣體。氫氧化鈉為常用的化學品之一。其應用廣泛，為很多工業過程的必需品：常用於製造木浆紙張、紡織品、肥皂及其他清潔劑等，另也用於家居鹼性通渠用品。
Saccharomyces is a genus of fungi that includes many species of yeasts. Saccharomyces is from Greek σάκχαρον (sugar) and μύκης (mushroom) and means sugar fungus. Many members of this genus are considered very important in food production. It is known as the brewer's yeast or baker's yeast. They are unicellular and saprophytic fungi. One example is Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is used in making wine, bread, beer, and for human and animal health. Other members of this genus include the wild yeast Saccharomyces paradoxusthat is the closest relative to S. cerevisiae, Saccharomyces bayanus, used in making wine, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae var boulardii, used in medicine.
ammonia
- Ammonia or azane is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH3. The simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell. It contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many pharmaceutical products and is used in many commercial cleaning products.
硝酸鹽Nitrate is a polyatomic ion with the molecular formula NO−
3 and a molecular mass of 62.0049 u. Nitrates also describe the organic functional group RONO2. These nitrate esters are a specialized class of explosives.Almost all inorganic nitrate salts are soluble in water at standard temperature and pressure. A common example of an inorganic nitrate salt is potassium nitrate (saltpeter). A rich source of inorganic nitrate in the human body comes from diets rich in leafy green foods, such as spinach and arugula. NO3- (inorganic nitrate) is the viable active component within beetroot juice and other vegetables. Dietary nitrate may be found in cured meats, various leafy vegetables, and drinking water; nitrite consumption is primarily determined by the amount of processed meats eaten, and the concentration of nitrates in these meats. Nitrite and water are converted in the body to nitric oxide, which could reduce hypertension. Anti-hypertensive diets, such as the DASH diet, typically contain high levels of nitrates, which are first reduced to nitrite in the saliva, as detected in saliva testing, prior to forming nitric oxide.Nitrates are mainly produced for use as fertilizers in agriculture because of their high solubility and biodegradability. The main nitrate fertilizers are ammonium, sodium, potassium, and calcium salts. Several million kilograms are produced annually for this purpose. The second major application of nitrates is as oxidizing agents, most notably in explosives where the rapid oxidation of carbon compounds liberates large volumes of gases (see gunpowder for an example). Sodium nitrate is used to remove air bubbles from molten glass and some ceramics. Mixtures of the molten salt are used to harden some metals. Explosives and table tennis balls are made from celluloid. Although nitrites are the nitrogen compound chiefly used in meat curing, nitrates are used in certain specialty curing processes where a long release of nitrite from parent nitrate stores is needed. The use of nitrates in food preservation is controversial. This is due to the potential for the formation of nitrosamines when nitrates are present in high concentrations and the product is cooked at high temperatures.[3] The effect is seen for red or processed meat, but not for white meat or fish.[4][5] Potently, the production of carcinogenic nitrosamines may be inhibited by the use of the antioxidants vitamin C and the alpha-tocopherol form of vitamin E during curing.硝酸钾俗称火硝或土硝。主要用于焰火、黑色火药、火柴、导火索、烛芯、烟草、彩电显像管、药物、化学试剂、催化剂、陶瓷釉彩、玻璃、复合肥料、及花卉、蔬菜、果树等经济作物的叶面喷施肥料等。對敏感牙齒有舒緩作用，所以有很多牙膏也有硝酸钾。硝酸鉀也是天氣瓶內的一種鹽類。 在医学上，硝酸钾用于治疗肾结石，目前发现人类泌尿结石有26种成分，其中没有硝酸钾，因为硝酸钾非常活泼，不易形成结石，反而能够与其它结石中的钙结合并且排出体外。是治疗含钙结石的主要药物，为了防止硝酸钾在大肠杆菌作用下形成有致癌性的亚硝酸盐，一般都与硫酸铝钾一起服用。
- Potassium nitrate, because of its early and global use and production, has many names. Hebrew and Egyptian words for it had the consonants n-t-r, indicating likely cognation in the Greek nitron, which was Latinised to nitrum or nitrium. Thence Old French had niter and Middle English nitre. By the 15th century, Europeans referred to it as saltpeter[8] and later as nitrate of potash, as the chemistry of the compound was more fully understood. The Arabs called it "Chinese snow" (Arabic: ثلج الصين thalj al-ṣīn). It was called "Chinese salt" by the Iranians/Persians[9][10][11][12][13] or "salt from Chinese salt marshes" (Persian: نمک شوره چيني namak shūra chīnī).
-******[1776 chronicle] goods imported to uk through london and bristol in 1776 - saltpetre from bengal
硝酸銨 Ammonium nitrate is a chemical compound with the chemical formula NH ₄NO ₃. It is a white crystalline solid consisting of ions of ammonium and nitrate. It is highly soluble in water and hygroscopic as a solid, although it does not form hydrates. It is predominantly used in agriculture as a high-nitrogen fertilizer.
- 硝酸銨主要用於農業，作為高氮肥料，其他用途是作為工業炸藥，用於採礦、採石及土木建築等。由於硝酸銨便宜及易於取得，加上威力強勁，恐怖分子用於合成威力強勁的土製炸彈。硝酸銨可溶於水、甲醇及乙醇。它本身頗為穩定，正常情況下要有燃料或外部催化劑協助，才會引起爆炸，因此儲存倉庫牆壁必須完全防火。惟硝酸銨不耐高溫，分解溫度約攝氏二百一十度，一旦燃燒會釋出大量氧氣，助長火勢及引發爆炸。歷史上多次爆炸案均與硝酸銨有關，其中九五年美國俄克拉何馬城爆炸案，施襲者駕駛一輛裝有二點二噸硝酸銨的貨車，在政府大樓前引爆，致一百六十八人死。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200806/00180_004.html
Cyanide
- black cherry tree leaves contain substantial amount of cyanide
- Sodium cyanide is an inorganic compound with the formula NaCN. It is a white, water-soluble solid. Cyanide has a high affinity for metals, which leads to the high toxicity of this salt. Its main application, in gold mining, also exploits its high reactivity toward metals. It is a strong base. When treated with acid, it forms the toxic gas hydrogen cyanide.
Kaolinite /ˈkeɪəlɪˌnaɪt/ is a clay mineral, part of the group of industrial minerals, with the chemical composition Al2Si2O5(OH)4. It is a layered silicate mineral, with one tetrahedral sheet of silica (SiO4) linked through oxygen atoms to one octahedral sheet of alumina (AlO6) octahedra.[6] Rocks that are rich in kaolinite are known as kaolin /ˈkeɪəlɪn/ or china clay.The name "kaolin" is derived from "Gaoling" (高嶺; literally: "High Ridge"), a Chinese village near Jingdezhen in southeastern China's Jiangxi Province. The name entered English in 1727 from the French version of the word: kaolin, following Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles's reports from Jingdezhen.
- The main use of the mineral kaolinite (about 50% of the time) is the production of paper; its use ensures the gloss on some grades of coated paper. Kaolin is also known for its capabilities to induce and accelerate blood clotting. In April 2008 the US Naval Medical Research Institute announced the successful use of a kaolinite-derived aluminosilicate infusion in traditional gauze, known commercially as QuikClot Combat Gauze, which is still the hemostat of choice for all branches of the US military. Among others, kaolin is used (or was used in the past):
- in ceramics (it is the main component of porcelain)
- in toothpaste
- as a light diffusing material in white incandescent light bulbs
- in cosmetics
- in 'pre-work' skin protection and barrier creams
Ferrosilicon is an alloy of iron and silicon with an average silicon content between 15 and 90 weight percent. It contains a high proportion of iron silicides.Ferrosilicon is produced by reduction of silica or sand with coke in the presence of iron. Ferrosilicon is used by the military to quickly produce hydrogen for balloons by the ferrosilicon method. The chemical reaction uses sodium hydroxide, ferrosilicon, and water. The generator is small enough to fit in a truck and requires only a small amount of electric power, the materials are stable and not combustible, and they do not generate hydrogen until mixed. The method has been in use since World War I. A heavy steel pressure vessel is filled with sodium hydroxide and ferrosilicon, closed, and a controlled amount of water is added; the dissolving of the hydroxide heats the mixture to about 200 °F (93 °C) and starts the reaction; sodium silicate, hydrogen and steam are produced.
二氧化硅Silicon dioxide, also known as silica (from the Latin silex), is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula SiO2, most commonly found in nature as quartz and in various living organisms. In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent of sand. Silica is one of the most complex and most abundant families of materials, existing as a compound of several minerals and as synthetic product. Notable examples include fused quartz, fumed silica, silica gel, and aerogels. It is used in structural materials, microelectronics, and as components in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Inhaling finely divided crystalline silica is toxic and can lead to severe inflammation of the Lung tissue, silicosis, bronchitis, lung cancer, and systemic autoimmune diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis.Uptake of amorphous Silicon dioxide, in high doses, leads to non-permanent short-term inflammation, where all effects heal.
- An estimated 95% of silicon dioxide produced is consumed in the construction industry, e.g. for the production of Portland cement. Silica, in the form of sand is used as the main ingredient in sand casting for the manufacture of metallic components in engineering and other applications. The high melting point of silica enables it to be used in such applications.Crystalline silica is used in hydraulic fracturing of formations which contain tight oil and shale gas.
Camphor (/ˈkæmfər/) is a waxy, flammable, transparent solid with a strong aroma.[5] It is a terpenoid with the chemical formula C10H16O. It is found in the wood of the camphor laurel(Cinnamomum camphora), a large evergreen tree found in Asia (particularly in Sumatra and Borneo islands, Indonesia) and also of the unrelated kapur tree, a tall timber tree from the same region. It also occurs in some other related trees in the laurel family, notably Ocotea usambarensis. The oil in rosemary leaves (Rosmarinus officinalis), in the mint family, contains 10 to 20% camphor,[6] while camphorweed (Heterotheca) only contains some 5%.[7] Camphor can also be synthetically produced from oil of turpentine. It is used for its scent, as an ingredient in cooking (mainly in India), as an embalming fluid, for medicinal purposes, and in religious ceremonies. A major source of camphor in Asia is camphor basil (the parent of African blue basil).
- クスノキの葉や枝などのチップを水蒸気蒸留すると結晶として得ることができる[3]。クスノキの中に含まれている樟脳はd体である。製造工程としては、クスノキを切削機で薄い木片に砕いて大釜に入れ、木の棒などで叩いて均等に詰めたのち、高温で蒸して成分を水蒸気として抽出し、それをゆっくり冷却して結晶化させる。冷却器の中の水の表面に浮いた白い結晶を網ですくい集め、乾燥後袋詰めなどして商品とする。この天然樟脳を製造している所は、江戸時代から続く福岡県みやま市の内野樟脳が2006年時点で1軒のみだったが[4][5]、その後技術指導などにより2014年時点で全国で4軒を数える[6]。6世紀にアラビアで製法が発明されたといわれ、日本へは16世紀に伝わったとされる[7]。寛永14年（1637年）には島津藩の特産品として薩摩から欧州や中国へ輸出されており、金・銀に次ぐ日本の重要な輸出産品だった[7]。クスノキは島津藩の御用木として勝手な伐採は禁止されており、樟脳の生産は主に鹿児島のほか、長崎の五島で行なわれていたが[7]、岩崎弥太郎が外国船で樟脳が必需品であることを知り、土佐藩でも外貨獲得のための産品として盛んに製造されるようになった[9]。かつてはセルロイドの可塑剤として非常に大量に使用されていた。日本は当時植民地であった台湾においてクスノキのプランテーションを経営していたため、20世紀はじめには世界最大の生産国であった（樟脳と台湾も参照）。「樟脳専売局集集出張所」は台湾南投の集集にある。しかし1920年代に入ると化学合成品が開発されて押されるようになり、やがてセルロイドに代わるプラスチックが出現してこの用途はほとんど無くなった。明治期、日本の事業家土倉龍治郎が、台湾で林業・電気事業と共に樟脳事業を展開、成功していた。無煙火薬の原料としてノーベルも注目していた。
Mothballs are small balls of chemical pesticide and deodorant, sometimes used when storing clothing and other articles susceptible to damage from mold or moth larvae (especially clothes moths like Tineola bisselliella). Use of mothballs when clothing is stored out-of-season has given rise to the colloquial usage of the terms "mothballed" and "put into mothballs", to refer to anything which is put into storage or whose operation is suspended.Older mothballs consisted primarily of naphthalene, but due to naphthalene's flammability, many modern mothball formulations instead use 1,4-dichlorobenzene. The latter formulation may be somewhat less flammable, although both chemicals have the same NFPA 704 rating for flammability. The latter chemical is also variously labeled as para-dichlorobenzene, p-dichlorobenzene, pDCB, or PDB, making it harder to identify unless all these synonyms are known to a potential purchaser. Both of these formulations have the strong, pungent, sickly-sweet odor often associated with mothballs. Both naphthalene and 1,4-dichlorobenzene undergo sublimation, meaning that they evaporate from a solid state directly into a gas; this gas is toxic to moths and moth larvae. Naphthalene and 1,4-dichlorobenzene should not be used together because the mixture may cause damage to items being preserved. Due to the health risks of 1,4-dichlorobenzene, and flammability of naphthalene, other substances like camphor are sometimes used. alternatives to mothballs to control clothes moths include dry cleaning, freezing, thorough vacuuming, or washing in hot water.[19] Camphor is also used as a moth repellent, particularly in China.[20] Unlike naphthalene and dichlorobenzene, camphor has medicinal applications and is not regarded as a carcinogen, though it is toxic in large doses.
- 1,4-Dichlorobenzene (1,4-DCB, p-DCB, or para-dichlorobenzene, sometimes abbreviated as PDB or para) is an organic compound with the formula C6H4Cl2. This colorless solid has a strong odor. The molecule consists of a benzene ring with two chlorine atoms (replacing hydrogen atoms) on opposing sites of the ring. It is used as a disinfectant, pesticide, and deodorant, most familiarly in mothballs in which it is a replacement for the more traditional naphthalene because of naphthalene's greater flammability (though both chemicals have the same NFPA 704 rating). It is also used as a precursor in the production of the chemically and thermally resistant polymer poly(p-phenylene sulfide).
碳酸鈣，俗稱灰石、石灰石、石粉 Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound with the formula CaCO3. It is a common substance found in rocks as the minerals calcite and aragonite (most notably as limestone, which is a type of sedimentary rock build mainly of calcite) and is the main component of pearls and the shells of marine organisms, snails, and eggs. Calcium carbonate is the active ingredient in agricultural lime and is created when calcium ions in hard water react with carbonate ions to create limescale. It is medicinally used as a calcium supplement or as an antacid, but excessive consumption can be hazardous.
- industrial applications in construction, oil industry, paint, adhesives, ceramic/glazing etc
- Calcium carbonate is widely used medicinally as an inexpensive dietary calcium supplement for gastric antacid (e.g., Tums). It may be used as a phosphate binder for the treatment of hyperphosphatemia (primarily in patients with chronic renal failure). It is also used in the pharmaceutical industry as an inert filler for tablets and other pharmaceuticals.
Calcium carbonate is used in the production of calcium oxide as well as toothpaste and has seen a resurgence as a food preservative and color retainer, when used in or with products such as organic apples.
- Agricultural lime, powdered chalk or limestone, is used as a cheap method for neutralising acidic soil, making it suitable for planting.
- Calcium carbonate is a key ingredient in many household cleaning powders like Comet (cleanser) and is used as a scrubbing agent.
工業碳酸鈣按粉碎細度的不同分為四種規格：單飛、雙飛、三飛、四飛。單飛粉用於生產無水氯化鈣，是重鉻酸鈉生產的輔助原料，也是玻璃及水泥生產的主要原料，此外，還用於建築材料和家禽飼料等；雙飛粉是生產無水氯化鈣和玻璃等的原料，也是橡膠和油漆的白色填料，還用於建築材料等；三飛粉可用作塑料、塗料及油漆的填料；四飛粉可用作電線絕緣層之填料、橡膠模壓製品以及瀝青制油氈的填料。碳酸鈣在醫療上用作抗酸藥，能中和胃酸、保護潰瘍面，用於胃酸過多、胃和十二指腸潰瘍等病[23]。碳酸鈣作為食品添加劑，以保證人體所必需的鈣的攝入，但通常不超過2%。除了用於醫藥食品，碳酸鈣還可用作牙粉、牙膏及其他化妝品的原料。在口香糖、巧克力中，可以作為強化劑，既降低成本，又作為基質材料。在牙膏中，重質碳酸鈣作為摩擦劑使用；在化妝品中，較細的優質碳酸鈣可以作為填充劑。
次氯酸是一种化学式为HClO的不稳定弱酸，仅能存在于溶液中，一般用作漂白剂、氧化剂、除臭剂和消毒剂。In organic synthesis, HClO converts alkenes to chlorohydrins. In biology, hypochlorous acid is generated in activated neutrophils by myeloperoxidase-mediated peroxidation of chloride ions, and contributes to the destruction of bacteria.In the cosmetics industry it is used on the skin.[citation needed] It is also used in baby products.[citation needed]In food service and water distribution, specialized equipment to generate weak solutions of HClO from water and salt is sometimes used to generate adequate quantities of safe (unstable) disinfectant to treat food preparation surfaces and water supplies.[9][10]In water treatment, hypochlorous acid is the active sanitizer in hypochlorite-based products (e.g. used in swimming pools).Similarly, in ships and yachts, marine sanitation devices[12] use electricity to convert seawater into hypochlorous acid to disinfect macerated faecal waste before discharge into the sea.
- Calcium carbonate is a key ingredient in many household cleaning powders like Comet (cleanser) and is used as a scrubbing agent.
工業碳酸鈣按粉碎細度的不同分為四種規格：單飛、雙飛、三飛、四飛。單飛粉用於生產無水氯化鈣，是重鉻酸鈉生產的輔助原料，也是玻璃及水泥生產的主要原料，此外，還用於建築材料和家禽飼料等；雙飛粉是生產無水氯化鈣和玻璃等的原料，也是橡膠和油漆的白色填料，還用於建築材料等；三飛粉可用作塑料、塗料及油漆的填料；四飛粉可用作電線絕緣層之填料、橡膠模壓製品以及瀝青制油氈的填料。碳酸鈣在醫療上用作抗酸藥，能中和胃酸、保護潰瘍面，用於胃酸過多、胃和十二指腸潰瘍等病[23]。碳酸鈣作為食品添加劑，以保證人體所必需的鈣的攝入，但通常不超過2%。除了用於醫藥食品，碳酸鈣還可用作牙粉、牙膏及其他化妝品的原料。在口香糖、巧克力中，可以作為強化劑，既降低成本，又作為基質材料。在牙膏中，重質碳酸鈣作為摩擦劑使用；在化妝品中，較細的優質碳酸鈣可以作為填充劑。
次氯酸是一种化学式为HClO的不稳定弱酸，仅能存在于溶液中，一般用作漂白剂、氧化剂、除臭剂和消毒剂。In organic synthesis, HClO converts alkenes to chlorohydrins. In biology, hypochlorous acid is generated in activated neutrophils by myeloperoxidase-mediated peroxidation of chloride ions, and contributes to the destruction of bacteria.In the cosmetics industry it is used on the skin.[citation needed] It is also used in baby products.[citation needed]In food service and water distribution, specialized equipment to generate weak solutions of HClO from water and salt is sometimes used to generate adequate quantities of safe (unstable) disinfectant to treat food preparation surfaces and water supplies.[9][10]In water treatment, hypochlorous acid is the active sanitizer in hypochlorite-based products (e.g. used in swimming pools).Similarly, in ships and yachts, marine sanitation devices[12] use electricity to convert seawater into hypochlorous acid to disinfect macerated faecal waste before discharge into the sea.
- Hypochlorous Acid Water Generator https://www.jetro.go.jp/ttppoas/anken/0001164000/1164083_e.html
plastic
- https://plastics.americanchemistry.com/Understanding-Plastic-Film/
Benzoyl chloride, also known as benzenecarbonyl chloride, is an organochlorine compound with the formula C6H5COCl. It is a colourless, fuming liquid with an irritating odour. It is mainly useful for the production of peroxides but is generally useful in other areas such as in the preparation of dyes, perfumes, pharmaceuticals, and resins.苯甲醯氯（C6H5COCl），也稱苯醯氯，為無色發煙液體，具有刺激性氣味。
Acetone, or propanone, is the organic compound with the formula (CH3)2CO.[15] It is a colorless, volatile, flammable liquid and is the simplest and smallest ketone. Acetone is miscible with water and serves as an important solvent in its own right, typically for cleaning purposes in laboratories. About 6.7 million tonnes were produced worldwide in 2010, mainly for use as a solvent and production of methyl methacrylateand bisphenol A.It is a common building block in organic chemistry. Familiar household uses of acetone are as the active ingredient in nail polish remover and as paint thinner. It has VOC exempt status in the USA.Acetone was first produced by alchemists during the late Middle Ages via the dry distillation of metal acetates (e.g., lead acetate, which produced "spirit of Saturn" (since the alchemical symbol for lead was also the astrological symbol for the planet Saturn)).基酮、二甲基甲酮，簡稱二甲酮，或稱醋酮、木酮，是最簡單的酮. 在常溫下為無色透明液體，易揮發、易燃，有芳香氣味。與水、甲醇、乙醇、乙醚、氯仿和吡啶等均能互溶，能溶解油、脂肪、樹脂和橡膠等，也能溶解醋酸纖維素和硝酸纖維素，是一種重要的揮發性有機溶劑。最常見的用途是用作卸除指甲油的去光水，以及油漆的稀釋劑；同時可作為有機溶劑，應用於醫藥、油漆、塑料、火藥、樹脂、橡膠、照相軟片等行業。在工業上應用於製造雙酚A、甲基丙烯酸甲酯（MMA）、丙酮氰醇、甲基異丁基酮等產品，以及塑膠、纖維、藥物及其他化學物質。自然界中亦存在天然的丙酮，人體內也含有少量的丙酮。在建材方面，主要作為脂肪族減水劑的主要原料。
Acetone peroxide (also called APEX) is an organic peroxide and a primary high explosive. It is produced by the reaction of acetone and hydrogen peroxide to yield a mixture of linear monomer and cyclic dimer, trimer, and tetramer forms. The trimer is known as triacetone triperoxide (TATP) or tri-cyclic acetone peroxide (TCAP). The dimer is known as diacetone diperoxide (DADP). Acetone peroxide takes the form of a white crystalline powder with a distinctive bleach-like odor (when impure) or a fruit-like smell when pure, and can explode powerfully if subjected to heat, friction, static electricity, concentrated sulfuric acid, strong UV radiation or shock. Until about 2015 explosives detectors were not set to detect non-nitrogenous explosives as most explosives used were nitrogen-based. Nitrogen-free TATP was used as the explosive in several terrorist bomb attacks since 2001.Acetone peroxide (specifically, triacetone triperoxide) was discovered in 1895 by Richard Wolffenstein.
- Ketone peroxides, including acetone peroxide and methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, find application as initiators for polymerization reactions, e.g., silicone or polyester resins, in the making of fiberglass-reinforced composites.[citation needed] For these uses, the peroxides are typically in the form of a dilute solution in an organic solvent; methyl ethyl ketone peroxide is more common for this purpose, as it is stable in storage.[citation needed] Acetone peroxide is used as a flour bleaching agent to bleach and "mature" flour.[33] Acetone peroxides are unwanted by-products of some oxidation reactions such as those used in phenol syntheses.[34] Due to their explosive nature, their presence in chemical processes and chemical samples creates potential hazardous situations. Accidental occurrence at illicit MDMA laboratories is possible.[35] Numerous methods are used to reduce their appearance, including shifting pH to more alkaline, adjusting reaction temperature, or adding inhibitors of their production.[34] For example, triacetone peroxide is the major contaminant found in diisopropyl ether as a result of photochemical oxidation in air.
Corrosion
- metal+oxygen+water=rust
- Volatile corrosion inhibitors (VCI) are a type of corrosion inhibitor that are used to protect ferrous materials and non ferrous metals against corrosion or oxidation where it is impractical to apply surface treatments.[1] They slowly release chemical compounds within a sealed airspace that actively prevents surface corrosion. A typical application is to protect stored tools or parts inside bags, boxes or cupboards, one advantage of VCIs being that if the container is opened and reclosed, levels of inhibitor will recover. The history of VCIs also known as Vapor Phase Corrosion Inhibitors (VpCIs), metal air inhibitors, vapor phase inhibitors (VPI) began in the 1940s when Shell Petroleum developed the very first of the traditional VCI's using a chemical compound called DICHAN or Dicyclohexylammonium Nitrite. This was used by the US military to prevent various metal components from corrosion and used it in multiple formats such as VCI paper, VCI powder, VCI solutions etc. Due to the dangerous nature of the chemistry DICHAN is now a mostly banned substance and there was a distinct break in the development of VCI's into two major groups of nitrite based VCI's and Amine based VCI's. The inclusion of either nitrite, secondary and tertiary amines is now frowned upon in the packaging world as combinations of these types of chemicals can cause Nitrosamines which are cancer forming agents.
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