阿姆河在各不同歷史文明語言中有各種稱呼，古希臘語稱 Ὦξος（Oxos），拉丁語稱Ōxus。希伯來語稱其גּוֹזָן（Gozan）；阿拉伯語則為جيحون（Jihôn、Jayhoun）中國古稱烏滸水、媯水。《元史》作暗木河。《明史》作阿木河。The Amu Darya[a] (also called the Amu, Amo River, or Jay-hoon, and historically known by its Latin name Oxus or Greek Ὦξος)[2] is a major river in Central Asia and Afghanistan. Rising in the Pamir Mountains, north of the Hindu Kush, the Amu Darya is formed by the confluence of the Vakhsh and Panj rivers, in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve on the border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and flows from there north-westwards into the southern remnants of the Aral Sea. In its upper course, the river forms part of Afghanistan's northern border with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. In ancient history, the river was regarded as the boundary of Greater Iran with "Turan", which roughly corresponded to present-day Central Asia.In classical antiquity, the river was known as the Ōxus in Latin and Ὦξος (Ôxos) in Greek — a clear derivative of Vakhsh, the name of the largest tributary of the river.[citation needed] In Vedic Sanskrit, the river is also referred to as Vakṣu (वक्षु). The Brahmanda Purana refers to the river as Chaksu. The Avestan texts too refer to the River as Yakhsha/Vakhsha (and Yakhsha Arta ("upper Yakhsha") referring to the Jaxartes/Syr Darya twin river to Amu Darya). In Middle Persian sources of the Sassanid period the river is known as Wehrōd[3] (lit. 'good river'). Amu Darya, has a flow of about 70 cubic kilometres per year on average.The name Amu is said to have come from the medieval city of Āmul, (later, Chahar Joy/Charjunow, and now known as Türkmenabat), in modern Turkmenistan, with Darya being the Persian word for "river". Medieval Arabic and Islamic sources call the river Jayhoun (Arabic: جَـيْـحُـوْن, romanized: Jayḥūn; also Jaihun, Jayhoon, or Dzhaykhun) which is derived from Gihon, the biblical name for one of the four rivers of the Garden of Eden.[5][6] River Amu Darya passes through one of the world's highest deserts.
Balōchistān (Balochi: بلوچستان; also Balūchistān or Balūchestān, often interpreted as the Land of the Baloch) is an arid desert and mountainous region in south-western Asia. It comprises the Pakistani province of Balochistan, Iranian province of Sistan and Baluchestan, and the southern areas of Afghanistan including Nimruz, Helmand and Kandahar provinces. Balochistan borders the Pashtunistanregion to the north, Sindh and Punjab to the east, and Persian regions to the west. South of its southern coastline, including the Makran Coast, are the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman.The name Balochistan is generally believed to derive from that of the Baloch people,[5] but this is not certain. The term "Baloch" does not appear in pre-Islamic sources. It is likely that the Balochs were known by some other name at their place of origin and acquired the name "Baloch" after arriving in Balochistan sometime in the 10th century. The Suffix "-stān" is a Persian word meaning "place". Sanskrit origin of Bal+Ucch meaning (strength+High) Strongmen , is still used in Rajasthan and Gujarat for people beyond River Indus and Makran. Johan Hansman relates the term "Baloch" to Meluḫḫa, the name by which the Indus Valley Civilisation is believed to have been known to the Sumerians (2900–2350 BC) and Akkadians (2334–2154 BC) in Mesopotamia. Meluḫḫa disappears from the Mesopotamian records at the beginning of the second millennium B.C. However, Hansman states that a trace of it in a modified form, as Baluḫḫu, was retained in the names of products imported by the Assyrians (911–605 BC).[10] Al-Muqaddasī (985 AD), who visited the capital of Makran Bannajbur, states that it was populated by people called Balūṣī (Baluchi), leading Hansman to postulate "Baluch" as a modification of Meluḫḫa and Baluḫḫu. Asko Parpola relates the name Meluḫḫa to Indo-Aryan words mleccha (Sanskrit) and milakkha/milakkhu (Pali) etc., which do not have an Indo-European etymology even though they were used to refer to non-Aryan people. Taking them to be proto-Dravidian in origin, he interprets the term as meaning either a proper name milu-akam (from which tamilakam was dervied when the Indus people migrated south) or melu-akam, meaning "high country", a possible reference to Balochistan high lands. Historian Romila Thapar also interprets Meluḫḫa as a proto-Dravidian term, possibly mēlukku, and suggests the meaning "western extremity" (of the Dravidian-speaking regions in the Indian subcontinent). A literal translation into Sanskrit, aparānta, was later used to describe the region by the Indo-Aryans. During the time of Alexander the Great, the Greeks called the land Gedrosia and its people Gedrosoi, terms of unknown origin.[14] Using etymological reasoning, H. W. Bailey reconstructs a possible Iranian name, uadravati, meaning the land of underground channels, which could have been transformed to badlaut in the 9th century and further to balōč in later times. This reasoning remains speculative.
- https://www.quora.com/Can-people-living-on-either-side-of-Iran-Pakistan-border-understand-each-others-language-If-yes-which-language-can-they-use-to-communicate
The Chu (Shu or Chui, Chuy) (Kazakh: Шу/Şuw, شۋ; Kyrgyz: Чүй, Çüy, چۉي; Dungan: Чў, Çw(from 楚 chǔ); Russian: Чу) is a river in northern Kyrgyzstan and southern Kazakhstan. Of the length of approximately 1 067 kilometres[1] (663 miles), the first 115 kilometres are in Kyrgyzystan, then for 221 kilometres the river is the border between Kyrgyzystan and Kazakhstan, and the last 731 kilometres are in Kazakhstan. It's one of the longest rivers in Kyrgyzstan and in Kazakhstan.Chuy Region, the northernmost and most populous administrative region of Kyrgyzstan, is named after the river; so are the Chuy Avenue, the main street of Bishkek, and the city of Shu in Kazakhstan's Jambyl Region.
- The area of this river was originally home to the Iranian Sughds who spoke Soghdian, an East Iranian language. During the Middle Ages, the area was strategically important. It was the setting of Suayub, the capital of the Western Turkic Khaganate, and Balasagun, the capital of the Kara-Khitans.
阿拉山口The Dzungarian Gate is a geographically and historically significant mountain pass between China and Central Asia.[1] It has been described as the "one and only gateway in the mountain-wall which stretches from Manchuria to Afghanistan.In his Histories, Herodotus relates travelers' reports of a land in the northeast where griffins guard gold and where the North Wind issues from a mountain cave. Given the parallels between Herodotus' story and modern reports,[6][7] scholars such as Carl Ruck,[8] J.D.P. Bolton[9] and Ildikó Lehtinen[10] have speculated on a connection between the Dzungarian Gate and the home of Boreas, the North Wind of Greek mythology. With legend describing the people who live on the other side of this home of the North Wind as a peaceful, civilized people who eat grain and live by the sea, the Hyperboreans have been identified by some as the Chinese.Its gateway status is now supplanted by the new gateway city of Khorgas.
- One of the earliest mentions of the Dzungaria region dates to when Emperor Wu of Han (reigning 156–87 BCE), dispatched the Han Chinese diplomat Zhang Qian to investigate lands to the west. The northernmost Silk Road trackway, about 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) in length, connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xi'an to the west over the Wushao Ling Pass to Wuwei and emerged in Kashgar before linking to ancient Parthia.Dzungaria is named after a Mongolian kingdom which existed in Central Asia during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It derived its name from the Dzungars, who were so called because they formed the left wing (züün, left; gar, hand) of the Mongolian army, the self-named Oirats. It was raised to its greatest prominence by Kaldan (also known as Galdan Boshigtu Khan) in the latter half of the 17th century, who made repeated incursions on the territory of the Kazakh state, until Kaldan was wiped out by the Qing government in about 1757–1759. It played an important part in the history of Mongolia and the great westward Mongolian migrations. After 1761 its territory fell mostly to the Qing dynasty (Xinjiang and north-western Mongolia) and partly to Russian Turkestan (earlier the Kazakh state provinces of Semirechye- Jetysu and Irtysh river).
- 中国・カザフスタン間の石油パイプライン建設合意に基づき2003年3月よりカザフスタン・カラガンダ州アタスから建設の始まったパイプラインは、2005年11月に阿拉山口で開通・接続された。2006年より正式稼働している。
- 深圳中歐班列「灣區號」首發列車昨日緩緩駛出平湖南國家物流樞紐，將由阿拉山口出境，途徑哈薩克斯坦、俄羅斯、白俄羅斯、波蘭等國，預計於16天後最終抵達德國杜伊斯堡，全程運輸距離13,438公里。此趟列車運輸貨物主要為電子產品、家用電器、鞋服、玩具和口罩等，貨值約324.7萬美金。此後，「灣區號」計劃每周開行一列，並視市場需求增開頻率。據悉，「十四五」規劃期間，「灣區號」不僅將北聯歐亞日韓構建鐵路國際物流運輸通道，還將依託深圳世界級港口樞紐及全球物流網絡，南拓東盟、南亞市場打造水公鐵國際多式聯運大通道。「灣區號」的立體運輸網絡體系搭建完成後，將實現「絲綢之路經濟帶」與「21世紀海上絲綢之路」在深圳聯接，為粵港澳大灣區打造陸上絲綢之路大通道的努力再添碩果。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/08/19/a07-0819.pdf
哈里河（波斯語：هریرود，土庫曼語：Tejen，Tedzhen），又名捷詹河 The Hari River (Dari: هری رود, romanized: Harī Rōd; Pashto: د هري سیند) or Herat River is a river flowing 1,100 kilometres (680 mi) from the mountains of central Afghanistan to Turkmenistan, where it forms the Tejend oasis and disappears in the Karakum Desert.In Turkmenistan it is known as the Tejen or Tedzhen riverand passes close to the city of Tedzhen. To the Ancient Greeks it was known as the Arius.[1] In Latin, it was known as the Tarius.
興都庫什山 The Hindu Kush (Dari, Pashto, Urdu: هندوکش /kʊʃ, kuːʃ/; commonly understood to mean Hindu killers or killer of the Hindus in Persian[2][3][4][5][6][7][8]) is an 800-kilometre-long (500 mi) mountain range that stretches through Afghanistan,[9][10] from its centre to Northern Pakistanand into Tajikistan.The Hindu Kush range region was a historically significant centre of Buddhism with sites such as the Bamiyan Buddhas.In the time of Alexander the Great, the HinduKush range was referred to as the Caucasus Indicus" (as opposed to the Greater Caucasusrange between the Caspian and Black Seas). The mountain range was called "Paropamisadae" by Hellenic Greeks in the late first millennium BC.[27]The earliest known usage of the name Hindu Kush occurs on a map published about 1000 CE.A Persian-English dictionary[29] indicates that the suffix 'koš' [koʃ] is the present stem of the verb "to kill" ('koštan' کشتن). According to Francis Joseph Steingass, the word and suffix "-kush" means "a male; (imp. of kushtan in comp.) a killer, who kills, slays, murders, oppresses as azhdaha-kush".[30]According to one interpretation, the name Hindu Kush means "kills the Hindu" or "Hindu killer" and is a reminder of the days when slaves from the Indian subcontinent died in the harsh weather typical of the Afghan mountains while being taken to Central Asia. The World Book Encyclopedia states that the word kush means death, and was probably given to the mountains because of their dangerous passes.n his travel memoirs about Khorasan, the 14th century Moroccan traveller Muhammad Ibn Battuta mentioned crossing into India via the mountain passes of the Hindu Kush. In his Rihla, he states that the name of the mountain range translates to "Hindu-slayer" due to slaves from India dying there.
Kunlun is originally the name of a mythical mountain believed to be a Taoist paradise. The first to visit this paradise was, according to the legends, King Mu (976-922 BCE) of the Zhou Dynasty. He supposedly discovered there the Jade Palace of the Yellow Emperor, the mythical originator of Chinese culture, and met Hsi Wang Mu (Xi Wang Mu), the 'Spirit Mother of the West' usually called the 'Queen Mother of the West', who was the object of an ancient religious cult which reached its peak in the Han Dynasty, and also had her mythical abode in these mountains.
The Siliguri Corridor, or Chicken's Neck, is a narrow stretch of land, located in the Indian state of West Bengal, that connects India's northeastern states to the rest of India, with the countries of Nepal and Bangladesh lying on either side of the corridor. The Kingdom of Bhutan lies on the northern side of the corridor. The Kingdom of Sikkim formerly lay on the northern side of the corridor, until its merger with India in 1975. The city of Siliguri, in the state of West Bengal, is the major settlement in this area and the central node that connects Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sikkim, Darjeeling hills, Northeast India and the rest of India.The Siliguri Corridor was created in 1947 after the Partition of Bengal (1947) of Bengal between India and Pakistan (former state of East Pakistan, now independent Bangladesh). The kingdom of Sikkim formerly lay on the northern side of the corridor, until its union with India in 1975 via a publicly held referendum. This gave India a buffer to the north of the Siliguri Corridor and consolidated India's control over the western side of the Chinese Chumbi Valley.
- hkej 27mar18 shum article
Transoxiana (also spelled Transoxania), known in Arabic sources as Mā Warāʾ an-Nahr (Arabic: ما وراء النهر, [ˈmaː waˈraːʔ anˈnahr] – '[what is] beyond the [Oxus] river') and in Persian as Farā-rūd (Persian: فرارود, [fæɾɒːˈɾuːd̪]—'beyond the [Amudarya] river'), is the ancient name used for the portion of Central Asia corresponding approximately with modern-day Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, southern Kyrgyzstan, and southwest Kazakhstan. Geographically, it is the region between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers.[1] The area had been known to the ancient Iranians as Turan, a term used in the Persian national epic Shahnameh,[2] and to the Romans as Transoxania (Land beyond the Oxus). The Arabic term Mā warāʼ an-Nahr (Land Beyond the River) passed into Persian literary usage and stayed on until post-Mongol times.The region was one of the satrapies (provinces) of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia under the name Sogdiana. It was defined within the classical world of Iran to distinguish it from Iran proper, especially its northeastern province of Khorasan[4]—a term originating with the Sasanians[5]—although early Arab historians and geographers tended to subsume the region within the loosely defined term "Khorasan" designating a much larger territory. The territories of Khwarazm, Sogdiana, Chaghaniyan, and Khuttal were located in the southern part of Transoxiana; Chach, Osrushana, and Farghana were located in the northern part.河中地區 Transoxiana / ˌtɹænsɔk͡sɪˈænə /[1]（也拼寫為Transoxania），在阿拉伯語中稱為 MāWarāʾan-Nahr（阿拉伯語：ما وراء النهر, [ˈmaː waˈraːʔ anˈnahr] – “過了阿姆河（Oxus [river]）以外的地方”）在波斯語則稱為 Farârud（波斯語：فرارود，[fæɾɒːˈɾuːd̪]-“超出阿姆河（[Amudarya] river）以外的地方”），是中亞裡面一個區域的古稱，大約包括現代的烏茲別克斯坦，塔吉克斯坦，吉爾吉斯斯坦南部，和哈薩克斯坦西南部。在地理上，它是阿姆河與錫爾河之間的地區。[2] 古代伊朗人將該地區稱為圖蘭（Turan）（波斯民族史詩《列王紀》Shahnameh[3]），羅馬人將該地區稱為Transoxania（阿姆河以外的土地）。阿拉伯人稱為 “Māwarāʼ an-Nahr”（河流以外的土地），這名詞導入波斯語文學中，並一直持續到後蒙古時代。
- Turan (Avestan: Tūiriiānəm, Middle Persian: Tūrān, Persian: توران, romanized: Turân, pronounced [t̪ʰuːˈɾɒːn], "The Land of Tur") is a historical region in Central Asia. The term is of Iranian origin[1][2] and may refer to a particular prehistoric human settlement, a historic geographical region, or a culture. The original Turanians were an Iranian[3][4][5] tribe of the Avestan age.In ancient Iranian mythology, Tūr or Turaj (Tuzh in Middle Persian)[6][better source needed] is the son of the emperor Fereydun. According to the account in the Shahnameh the nomadic tribes who inhabited these lands were ruled by Tūr. In that sense, the Turanians could be members of two Iranian peoples both descending from Fereydun, but with different geographical domains and often at war with each other.[7][8] Turan, therefore, comprised five areas: the Kopet Dag region, the Atrek valley, parts of Bactria, Sogdia and Margiana.A later association of the original Turanians with Turkic peoples is based primarily on the subsequent Turkification of Central Asia, including the above areas.[10][11] According to C. E. Bosworth, however, there was no cultural relationship between the ancient Turkic cultures and the Turanians of the Shahnameh.
- The oldest existing mention of Turan is in the Farvardin yashts, which are in the Young Avestan language and have been dated by linguists to approximately 2300 BCE.[13] According to Gherardo Gnoli, the Avesta contains the names of various tribes who lived in proximity to each other: "the Airyas [Aryans], Tuiryas [Turanians], Sairimas [Sarmatians], Sainus [Ashkuns] and Dahis [Dahae]".[14] In the hymns of the Avesta, the adjective Tūrya is attached to various enemies of Zoroastrism like Fraŋrasyan (Shahnameh: Afrāsīāb). The word occurs only once in the Gathas, but 20 times in the later parts of the Avesta. The Tuiryas as they were called in Avesta play a more important role in the Avesta than the Sairimas, Sainus and Dahis. Zoroaster himself hailed from the Airya people but he also preached his message to other neighboring tribes.
- From the 5th century CE, the Sasanian Empire defined "Turan" in opposition to "Iran", as the land where lay its enemies to the northeast.The continuation of nomadic invasions on the north-eastern borders in historical times kept the memory of the Turanians alive.[19] After the 6th century the Turks, who had been pushed westward by other tribes, became neighbours of Iran and were identified with the Turanians.[19][26] The identification of the Turanians with the Turks was a late development, possibly made in the early 7th century; the Turks first came into contact with the Iranians only in the 6th century.
- According to Clifford E. Boseworth:In early Islamic times Persians tended to identify all the lands to the northeast of Khorasan and lying beyond the Oxus with the region of Turan, which in the Shahnama of Ferdowsi is regarded as the land allotted to Fereydun's son Tur. The denizens of Turan were held to include the Turks, in the first four centuries of Islam essentially those nomadizing beyond the Jaxartes, and behind them the Chinese (see Kowalski; Minorsky, "Turan"). Turan thus became both an ethnic and a geographical term, but always containing ambiguities and contradictions, arising from the fact that all through Islamic times the lands immediately beyond the Oxus and along its lower reaches were the homes not of Turks but of Iranian peoples, such as the Sogdians and Khwarezmians.The terms "Turk" and "Turanian" became used interchangeably during the Islamic era. The Shahnameh, or the Book of Kings, the compilation of Iranian mythical heritage, uses the two terms equivalently. Other authors, including Tabari, Hakim Iranshah and many other texts follow like. A notable exception is the Abl-Hasan Ali ibn Masudi, an Arab historian who writes: "The birth of Afrasiyab was in the land of Turks and the error that historians and non-historians have made about him being a Turk is due to this reason".[28] By the 10th century, the myth of Afrasiyab was adopted by the Qarakhanid dynasty.[20] During the Safavid era, following the common geographical convention of the Shahnameh, the term Turan was used to refer to the domain of the Uzbek empire in conflict with the Safavids.[citation needed]Some linguists derive the word from the Indo-Iranian root *tura- "strong, quick, sword(Pashto)", Pashto turan (thuran) "swordsman". Others link it to old Iranian *tor "dark, black", related to the New Persian tār(ik), Pashto tor (thor), and possibly English dark. In this case, it is a reference to the "dark civilization" of Central Asian nomads in contrast to the "illuminated" Zoroastrian civilization of the settled Ārya.
- In the declining days of the Ottoman Empire, some Turkish nationalists adopted the word Turanian to express a pan-Turkic ideology, also called Turanism. As of 2013 Turanism forms an important aspect of the ideology of the Turkish Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), whose members are also known as Grey Wolves.
- Turandot – or Turandokht – is a female name in Iran and it means "Turan's Daughter" in Persian. (It is best known in the West through Puccini's famous opera Turandot (1921–24).)Turan is also a common name in the Middle East, and as family surnames in some countries including Bahrain, Iran, Bosnia and Turkey.The Ayyubid ruler Saladin had an older brother with the name Turan-Shah.Turaj, whom ancient Iranian myths depict as the ancestor of the Turanians, is also a popular name and means Son of Darkness. The name Turan according to Iranian myths derives from the homeland of Turaj. The Pahlavi pronunciation of Turaj is Tuzh, according to the Dehkhoda dictionary. Similarly, Iraj, which is also a popular name, is the brother of Turaj in the Shahnameh. An altered version of Turaj is Zaraj, which means son of gold.
- religion
The historian Mark Dickens notes:Transoxiana’s principal pre-Islamic religion was Zoroastrianism, albeit in local manifestations. However, Buddhism, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Mazdakism also had many adherents, especially in urban areas. This initial religious diversity was gradually eroded after the Arab conquest.
The Wakhan Corridor (alternatively Vakhan Corridor, or Wakhan) is the narrow strip of territory in northeastern Afghanistan that extends toChina and separates Tajikistan from Pakistan. The corridor, wedged between the Pamirs to the north and the Karakoram range to the south, is about 350 km (220 mi) long and 13–65 kilometres (8.1–40.4 mi) wide.[1] Inside the Wakhan Corridor is a high mountain valley from which the Panj and Pamir Rivers emerge and form the Amu Darya. A trade route through the valley has been used by travelers going to and from East, South and Central Asia since antiquity. Wakhan Corridor can also refer to the valley and the trade route. The closure of the Afghan-Chinese border crossing at the Wakhjir Pass at the east end of the Wakhan Corridor, however, has turned the valley into a cul de sac inhabited by nomads. The corridor was a political creation of The Great Game. On the corridor's north side, agreements between Britain and Imperial Russia in 1873 and between Britain and Afghanistan in 1893 effectively split the historic region of Wakhan by making the Panj and Pamir Rivers the border between Afghanistan and the Russian Empire.[1] On its south side, the Durand Line agreement of 1893 marked the boundary between British India and Afghanistan. This left a narrow strip of land as a buffer between the two empires, which became known as the Wakhan Corridor in the 20th century. As of 2010, the Wakhan Corridor had 12,000 inhabitants.[2] The northern part of the Wakhan is also referred to as the Pamir.
Central Asian security bloc
- China's plans to create a new Central Asian security bloc have raised concerns in Moscow that Russia is declining geopolitically in Central Asia and may now be competing with China. General Fang Fenghui, the chief of general staff of the People's Liberation Army, said on a visit to Kabul this month that China was proposing an anti-terror regional alliance consisting of Afghanistan, China, Pakistan, and Tajikistan. Almost no details about the grouping have been announced, but a spokesman for Afghanistan President Ashraf Ghani "said the Chinese military chief asked for Afghanistan's participation in the Chinese-proposed anti-terrorism mechanism with Pakistan and Tajikistan," VOA reported. "President Ghani has endorsed the proposal," the spokesman said. China has been exploring a greater role in Afghan security; during Fang's visit he also promised$70 million in military aid to Afghanistan. But the fact that this proposed alliance would include Tajikistan, and exclude Russia, has raised alarm bells in Moscow. Russia has, until now, seen itself either as the primary security provider in Central Asia or, at times, a partner with China. But that may be changing. "There is a danger in this new alliance, along with Pakistan and Afghanistan China is including Tajikistan, which Russia has until recently considered part of its zone of influence," said Andrey Serenko, of the Russian think tank Center for the Study of Contemporary Afghanistan, in aninterview with the newspaper Izvestiya. "Russia's involvement in Ukraine and the Middle East have resulted in us losing our position in Central Asia. It appears that in this 'Central Asian NATO' under the Chinese umbrella, Russia may be the odd one out." "The attempt to create this sort of military alliance, were it to be realized, would de facto reject the antiterror component of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization," wrote Central Asia analyst Alexander Knyazev in a piece in the newspaper Nezavisimaya Gazeta. "The existence of the Collective Security Treaty Organization in this case is completely being ignored." [Both groups are Central Asia-focused security organizations; China and Russia are both in the SCO; Russia leads the CSTO.]http://www.eurasianet.org/node/77896
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20180214/PDF/b9_screen.pdf arts objects
- peshawar and taxila were the two most important centers for the emerging and development of gandaharan buddhist art during the reign of king kanishka
粟特（古波斯语：Suguda-），或譯窣利、索格特，為中亞古代民族，屬於歐羅巴人種中的伊朗人種，中國人稱之為昭武九姓、九姓胡、雜種胡，粟特原本生活在阿姆河和錫爾河之間的澤拉夫善河流域，通稱索格底亞那（Sogdiana），今屬烏茲別克，部份在塔吉克和吉爾吉斯。粟特由大小不一的綠洲國家組成，常臣屬於外族，屬於商業民族，控制了絲綢之路上的貿易，散居遠方。Sogdia or Sogdiana (Persian: سغد, transliteration: Suγd) was the ancient Indo-European civilization of an Iranian people that at different times included territory located in present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan such as: Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand, Panjikent and Shahrisabz. Sogdiana was also a province of the Achaemenid Empire, eighteenth in the list on the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great (i. 16). In the Avesta, Sogdiana is listed as the second best land that the supreme deity Ahura Mazda had created. It comes second, after Airyanem Vaejah, "homeland of the Aryans", in the Zoroastrian book of Vendidad, indicating the importance of this region from ancient times. Sogdiana was conquered by the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great in 328 BC and later formed part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Sasanian Empire. The Sogdian states, although never politically united, were centred on the main city of Samarkand. Sogdiana lay north of Bactria, east of Khwarezm, and southeast of Kangju between the Oxus (Amu Darya) and the Jaxartes (Syr Darya), embracing the fertile valley of the Zeravshan (ancient Polytimetus). Sogdian territory corresponds to the modern provinces of Samarkand and Bokhara in modern Uzbekistan as well as the Sughd province of modern Tajikistan. During the High Middle Ages, Sogdian cities included sites stretching towards Issyk Kul such as that at the archeological site of Suyab. Sogdian, an Eastern Iranian language, is no longer a spoken language, but its direct descendant, Yaghnobi, is still spoken by the Yaghnobis of Tajikistan. It was widely spoken in Central Asia as a lingua franca and even served as one of the Turkic Khaganate's court languages for writing documents. Sogdians also lived in Imperial China and rose to special prominence in the military and government of the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Sogdian merchants and diplomats traveled as far west as the Byzantine Empire. They played an important part as middlemen in the trade route of the Silk Road. While originally following the faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism from Persia, Buddhism from India, and Nestorian Christianity from West Asia, the gradual conversion to Islam among the Sogdians and their descendants began with the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana in the 8th century. The Sogdian conversion to Islam was virtually complete by the end of the Samanid Empire in 999, coinciding with the decline of the Sogdian language, as it was largely supplanted by Persian.
The Scythians (/ˈsɪθi.ən/ or /ˈsɪði.ən/; from Greek Σκύθης, Σκύθοι), also known as Scyth, Saka, Sakae, Sacae, Sai, Iskuzai, or Askuzai, were a large group of Iranian Eurasian nomads who were mentioned by the literate peoples surrounding them as inhabiting large areas in the central Eurasian steppes from about the 9th century BC until about the 1st century BC. The Scythian languages belonged to the Eastern branch of the Iranian languages. The "classical Scythians" known to ancient Greek historians were located in the northern Black Sea and fore-Caucasus region. Other Scythian groups documented by Assyrian, Achaemenid and Chinese sources show that they also existed in Central Asia, where they were referred to as the Iskuzai/Askuzai, Saka (Old Persian: Sakā; New Persian: ساکا; Greek: Σάκαι; Armenian: սկյութները; Latin: Sacae, Sanskrit: शक Śaka), and Sai (Chinese: 塞; Old Chinese: *sˤək), respectively. Although ancient Persian sources also used Saka to refer to the Western Scythians of the northern Black Sea, modern scholars usually use the term Saka to refer to Iranian-speaking tribes who inhabited the Eastern Steppe and the Tarim Basin.
- russia'svplanetavinform film distribution has ajnnounced a deal on action adventure the scythian, set at the time of vikings, and features a young warrior who sets off on a perilous journey to save his family (screen daily day 3 of 2018 filmart)
- "scythians: warriors of ancient siberia" in british museum from 14sept17 to 14 jan 2018
The Kushan Empire (Ancient Greek: Βασιλεία Κοσσανῶν; Bactrian: Κυϸανο, Kushano; Sanskrit: कुषाण राजवंश Kuṣāṇa Rājavaṃśa; BHS: Kashana Guṣāṇa-vaṃśa; Chinese: 贵霜帝国; Parthian: Kušan Kashana -xšaθr[7]) was a syncretic empire, formed by the Yuezhi, in the Bactrian territories in the early 1st century. It spread to encompass much of Afghanistan,[8] present-day Pakistan and then the northern parts of India at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares), where inscriptions have been found dating to the era of the Kushan Emperor Kanishka the Great.[9] Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward toward the Indian subcontinent the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority. The Kushans were one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation,[12][13] a possibly Iranic[14][15] or Tocharian,[16][17][18][19][20][21] Indo-European nomadic people who migrated from Gansu and settled in ancient Bactria.[13] The Kushans possibly used the Greek language initially for administrative purposes, but soon began to use Bactrian language.[3] Kanishka sent his armies north of the Karakoram mountains, capturing territories as far as Kashgar, Khotan and Yarkant, in the Tarim Basin of modern-day Xinjiang, China. A direct road from Gandhara to China remained under Kushan control for more than a century, encouraging travel across the Karakoram and facilitating the spread of Mahayana Buddhism to China. The Kushan dynasty had diplomatic contacts with the Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Aksumite Empire and Han China. While much philosophy, art, and science was created within its borders, the only textual record of the empire's history today comes from inscriptions and accounts in other languages, particularly Chinese. The Kushan empire fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms in the 3rd century AD, which fell to the Sasanians invading from the west, establishing the Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom in the areas of Sogdiana, Bactria and Gandhara. In the 4th century, the Guptas, an Indian dynasty also pressed from the east. The last of the Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian kingdoms were eventually overwhelmed by invaders from the north, known as the Kidarites, and then the Hepthalites.
- 遠的是匈奴強大，把月氏人逼走，結果造就中亞北印的貴霜王朝，盛極一時，既是中國絲綢等出海路往波斯、阿拉伯以至經紅海到地中海，也是佛教傳入中國的要道，包括把亞歷山大時代的希臘雕塑文化轉化為佛像藝術。西漢東漢都打敗匈奴促使其西遷，啟動了歐亞大草原游牧民族的大遷徙。首先是哥特人入歐，攻擊羅馬帝國；繼而是匈奴人打垮了羅馬帝國。從歐洲到北非，由此而開啟歐洲文明的大變局，日耳曼民族替代拉丁民族，Celtic民族遷至邊鄙地區，也讓北方芬蘭語族和東方斯拉夫民族進入歐洲割據。這是典型的歐亞互動，更不用說蒙古西征的顛覆。俄羅斯留下了不少蒙古的血脈、制度與文化。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20171221/00184_001.html- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20180214/PDF/b9_screen.pdf arts objects
- peshawar and taxila were the two most important centers for the emerging and development of gandaharan buddhist art during the reign of king kanishka
The Samanid Empire (Persian: سامانیان, Sāmāniyān), also known as the Samanid dynasty, Samanid Emirate, or simply Samanids, was a Sunni[7] Iranianempire,[8] ruling from 819 to 999. The empire was mostly centered in Khorasan and Transoxiana during its existence, but at its greatest extent, the empire encompassed all of today's Afghanistan, and large parts of Iran, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan and Pakistan. The Samanid state was founded by four brothers; Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas—each of them ruled their own territory under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Isma'il ibn Ahmad (892–907) united the Samanid state under one ruler, thus effectively putting an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was also under him that the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority. The Samanid Empire is part of the Iranian Intermezzo, which saw the creation of a Persianate culture and identity that brought Iranian speech and traditions into the fold of the Islamic world. This would lead to the formation of the Turko-Persian culture. The Samanids promoted the arts, giving rise to the advancement of science and literature, and thus attracted scholars such as Rudaki, Ferdowsi, and Avicenna. While under Samanid control, Bukhara was a rival to Baghdad in its glory. Scholars note that the Samanids revived Persian more than the Buyids and the Saffarids, while continuing to patronize Arabic to a smaller degree. In a famous edict, Samanid authorities declared that "here, in this region, the language is Persian, and the kings of this realm are Persian kings."
- The eponymous ancestor of the Samanid dynasty was Saman Khuda, a Persian noble who belonged to a dehqan family, which was a class of land-owning magnates. The original home of the Samanids is unclear, for some Arabic and Persian texts claim that the name was derived from a village near Samarqand, while others assert it was a village near Balkh or Tirmidh. The latter is more probable since the earliest appearance of the Samanid family appears to be in Khorasanrather than Transoxiana. In some sources the Samanids claimed to be descended from the noble Mihran family of Bahram Chobin, whereas one author claimed that they belonged to the Turkish Oghuz tribe, although this is most unlikely. Originally a Zoroastrian, Saman Khuda converted to Islam during the governorship ofAsad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri in Khorasan, and named his oldest son as Asad in the governor's honour. In 819, the governor of Khorasan, Ghassan ibn Abbad, rewarded the four sons of Asad for their aid against the rebel Rafi ibn al-Layth; Nuh received Samarkand; Ahmad received Farghana; Yahya received Shash; andIlyas received Herat. This marked the beginning of the Samanid dynasty.
- note the samanid statue in tajikistan, with two lions by each side
粟特（古波斯语：Suguda-），或譯窣利、索格特，為中亞古代民族，屬於歐羅巴人種中的伊朗人種，中國人稱之為昭武九姓、九姓胡、雜種胡，粟特原本生活在阿姆河和錫爾河之間的澤拉夫善河流域，通稱索格底亞那（Sogdiana），今屬烏茲別克，部份在塔吉克和吉爾吉斯。粟特由大小不一的綠洲國家組成，常臣屬於外族，屬於商業民族，控制了絲綢之路上的貿易，散居遠方。Sogdia or Sogdiana (Persian: سغد, transliteration: Suγd) was the ancient Indo-European civilization of an Iranian people that at different times included territory located in present-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan such as: Samarkand, Bukhara, Khujand, Panjikent and Shahrisabz. Sogdiana was also a province of the Achaemenid Empire, eighteenth in the list on the Behistun Inscription of Darius the Great (i. 16). In the Avesta, Sogdiana is listed as the second best land that the supreme deity Ahura Mazda had created. It comes second, after Airyanem Vaejah, "homeland of the Aryans", in the Zoroastrian book of Vendidad, indicating the importance of this region from ancient times. Sogdiana was conquered by the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great in 328 BC and later formed part of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom and Sasanian Empire. The Sogdian states, although never politically united, were centred on the main city of Samarkand. Sogdiana lay north of Bactria, east of Khwarezm, and southeast of Kangju between the Oxus (Amu Darya) and the Jaxartes (Syr Darya), embracing the fertile valley of the Zeravshan (ancient Polytimetus). Sogdian territory corresponds to the modern provinces of Samarkand and Bokhara in modern Uzbekistan as well as the Sughd province of modern Tajikistan. During the High Middle Ages, Sogdian cities included sites stretching towards Issyk Kul such as that at the archeological site of Suyab. Sogdian, an Eastern Iranian language, is no longer a spoken language, but its direct descendant, Yaghnobi, is still spoken by the Yaghnobis of Tajikistan. It was widely spoken in Central Asia as a lingua franca and even served as one of the Turkic Khaganate's court languages for writing documents. Sogdians also lived in Imperial China and rose to special prominence in the military and government of the Chinese Tang dynasty (618–907 AD). Sogdian merchants and diplomats traveled as far west as the Byzantine Empire. They played an important part as middlemen in the trade route of the Silk Road. While originally following the faiths of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism from Persia, Buddhism from India, and Nestorian Christianity from West Asia, the gradual conversion to Islam among the Sogdians and their descendants began with the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana in the 8th century. The Sogdian conversion to Islam was virtually complete by the end of the Samanid Empire in 999, coinciding with the decline of the Sogdian language, as it was largely supplanted by Persian.
- An Lushan, whose father was Sogdian and mother a Gokturk, rose to the position of a military governor (jiedushi) in the northeast before leading the An Lushan Rebellion (755 - 763 AD), which split the loyalties of the Sogdians in China. The An Lushan rebellion was supported by many Sogdians, and in its aftermath many of them were slain or changed their names to escape their Sogdian heritage, so that little is known about the Sogdian presence in North China since that time. Sogdians continued as active traders in China following the defeat of the rebellion, but many of them were compelled to hide their ethnic identity. A prominent case was An Chongzhang, Minister of War, and Duke of Liang who, in 756, asked Emperor Suzong of Tang to allow him to change his name to Li Baoyu because of his shame in sharing the same surname with the rebel leader. This change of surnames was enacted retroactively for all of his family members, so that his ancestors would also be bestowed the surname Li.
- During the Tang and subsequent Five Dynasties and Song Dynasty, a large community of Sogdians also existed in the multicultural entrepôt of Dunhuang, Gansu, a major center of Buddhist learning and home to the Buddhist Mogao Caves. Although Dunhuang and the Hexi Corridor were captured by the Tibetan Empire after the An Lushan Rebellion, in 848 the ethnic Han Chinese general Zhang Yichao (799–872) managed to wrestle control of the region from the Tibetans during their civil war, establishing the Guiyi Circuit under Emperor Xuānzong of Tang (r. 846–859). Although the region occasionally fell under the rule of different states, it retained its multilingual nature as evidenced by an abundance of manuscripts (religious and secular) in Chinese and Tibetan, but also Sogdian, Khotanese (another Eastern Iranian language native to the region), Uyghur, and Sanskrit. From the Chinese surnames listed in the Tang-era Dunhuang manuscript Pelliot chinois 3319V (containing the following text: 石定信右全石丑子石定奴福延福全保昌張丑子李千子李定信), the names of the Nine Zhaowu Clans (or the "nine jeweled surnames" 昭武九姓), the prominent ethnic Sogdian families of China, have been deduced. Of these the most common Sogdian surname throughout China was Shi (石, generally given to those from Chach, modern Tashkent), whereas the surnames Shi (史, from Kesh, modern Shahrisabz), An (安, from Bukhara), Mi (米, from Panjakent), Kang (康, from Samarkand), Cao (曹, from Kabudhan, north of the Zeravshan River), and He (何, from Kushaniyah) appear frequently in Dunhuang manuscripts and registers. The influence of Sinicized and multilingual Sogdians during this Guiyijun (歸義軍) period (c. 850 - c. 1000 AD) of Dunhuang is evident in a large number of manuscripts written in Chinese characters from left to right instead of vertically, mirroring the direction of how the Sogdian alphabet is read. Sogdians of Dunhuang also commonly formed and joined lay associations among their local communities, convening at Sogdian-owned taverns in scheduled meetings mentioned in their epistolary letters. Sogdians living in Turfan under the Tang dynasty and Gaochang Kingdom engaged in a variety of occupations that included: farming, military service, painting, leather crafting and selling products such as iron goods. The Sogdians had been migrating to Turfan since the 4th century, yet the pace of migration began to climb steadily with the Muslim conquest of Persia and Fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651, followed by the Islamic conquest of Samarkand in 712.
- 昭武九姓，亦称九姓胡，中国南北朝、隋、唐时期对西域锡尔河以南至阿姆河流域的粟特民族和国家及其来华后裔之统称。即康、史、安、曹、石、米、何、火寻（花剌子模）和戊地九姓（出自《新唐书》，又有包括穆、東安、畢、沛捍、那色波、烏那曷、漕等姓的说法），唐代又称九姓胡。《隋书》记载，九姓的祖先是月氏人，原居祁连山昭武城（今甘肃张掖市临泽县），为匈奴所破，迁居葱岭，分为多个小国，其王均以昭武为姓。昭武九國在南北朝時隸屬懨噠，隋朝時隸屬西突厥。唐朝平西突厥後，划入康居都督府，归安西都护管辖。康国为康居都督府、史为怯沙州、安为安息州、石为大宛都督府、米为安息州、何为南谧州。昭武九姓人善商贾，和中国通商很早，唐代在中国的外商，以昭武九姓人最多，其中又以康国人、石国人为主。九姓由于世代经商，成为古代西亚文明、南亚文明与东亚文明的重要媒介。石国、康国的胡腾舞、胡旋舞和柘枝舞曾传入长安，为唐人所喜爱。而狮子、哈巴狗、汗血马等物种传入东土，也与九姓有关。昭武九姓的史料始见于《魏书》、《北史》、《隋书》、两《唐书》中的各 《西域传》。“昭武”一词最早见于《汉书》中《地理志》所属的张掖郡昭武县（今甘肃）。不过也有近代学者提出议论，认为昭武九姓中的“昭武”应为外语音转写，德国学者J.Marquart认为昭武应是后突厥碑文中的Čub对音，日本学者白鸟库吉进一步补充，认为Čub在伊朗语为“温”，在突厥语中则为“昭武”。植一雄认为“昭武”是嚈哒头罗曼碑文中的Jabula对音，为嚈哒姓氏或称号。另外在敦煌粟特文书上，还多次发现ʏβɯ一词，一般认为读作“昭武”，意为“城主”，用来称呼首领。昭武九姓（しょうぶきゅうせい、拼音：Zhāowŭjiŭxìng）とは、中国の南北朝時代から隋・唐時代にかけて、中央アジアのソグディアナ地方に存在していた9つのオアシス都市国家。昭武九姓の国々に居住する国民のほとんどがソグド人である。中国に来住したソグド人は、漢文書による行政上の必要から漢字名を持たされたらしく、その際には出身都市名を示す漢語が姓として採用された。
- サマルカンド (samarkand)→康
- ブハラ(Bukhara)→安（安禄山など）
- マーイムルグ()→米
- キッシュ(same as the word Quiche)→史（史思明など）
- クシャーニヤ(Sogdiana)→何
- カブーダン→曹
- タシケント(Tashkent)→石
- パイカンド()→畢
これらを一括してソグド姓と呼ぶ。また、都市名を特定できないが、羅，穆，翟もソグド姓に含まれる。 - hk
- dr ting's tour to uzbekistan (land of sogdians) http://www.daao.hku.hk/home/enews/images/20130321/land_of_the_Sogdians.pdf
The Scythians (/ˈsɪθi.ən/ or /ˈsɪði.ən/; from Greek Σκύθης, Σκύθοι), also known as Scyth, Saka, Sakae, Sacae, Sai, Iskuzai, or Askuzai, were a large group of Iranian Eurasian nomads who were mentioned by the literate peoples surrounding them as inhabiting large areas in the central Eurasian steppes from about the 9th century BC until about the 1st century BC. The Scythian languages belonged to the Eastern branch of the Iranian languages. The "classical Scythians" known to ancient Greek historians were located in the northern Black Sea and fore-Caucasus region. Other Scythian groups documented by Assyrian, Achaemenid and Chinese sources show that they also existed in Central Asia, where they were referred to as the Iskuzai/Askuzai, Saka (Old Persian: Sakā; New Persian: ساکا; Greek: Σάκαι; Armenian: սկյութները; Latin: Sacae, Sanskrit: शक Śaka), and Sai (Chinese: 塞; Old Chinese: *sˤək), respectively. Although ancient Persian sources also used Saka to refer to the Western Scythians of the northern Black Sea, modern scholars usually use the term Saka to refer to Iranian-speaking tribes who inhabited the Eastern Steppe and the Tarim Basin.
- russia'svplanetavinform film distribution has ajnnounced a deal on action adventure the scythian, set at the time of vikings, and features a young warrior who sets off on a perilous journey to save his family (screen daily day 3 of 2018 filmart)
- "scythians: warriors of ancient siberia" in british museum from 14sept17 to 14 jan 2018
- 考古學家於二○一七年在克里米亞半島東部利戈夫斯科一個興建高速公路的地盤，發現一個約五千年前斯基泰（Scythians）文明時期墓穴，並出土一具二十多歲的男性骨架及兩個燧石箭頭陪葬品。骨架呈稍向左傾平躺姿勢，頭部附近和頭骨上有大塊紅色顏料碎片。專家以3D圖像掃描後發現，頭骨上有長一百四十毫米及寬一百二十五毫米的鑽孔痕迹。根據骨骼位置判斷，男子當時曾接受開腦手術，可惜失敗死亡。人類學家多布羅沃爾基婭指出，遠古時代的顱骨穿孔手術成功機率非常高，但這男子較不幸。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20201025/00180_030.html
- diaspora
- The traditional story is that a mythical royal family, Pharaoh, (probably a Scythian family) was expelled from Egypt and escaped to the western Mediterranean, settling in Spain and being responsible for the name “Iberia”, named after the son of the family, “Hiber”. But they then travelled on up the west coast to settle again in the island of Ireland, hence the Roman name “Hibernia”. Now the mother in the family was called “Scota”, giving her name to the tribes of north Ireland, the Scots. https://www.quora.com/Is-genetics-now-proving-that-the-Scythia-Egyptian-origin-myth-of-the-Scots-could-well-be-true
The Baloch or Baluch (Balochi: بلوچ) are a people who live mainly in the Balochistan region of the southeastern-most edge of the Iranian plateau in Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan, as well as in the Arabian Peninsula.The exact origin of the word 'Baloch' is unclear. Rawlinson (1873) believed that it is derived from the name of the Babylonian king and god Belus. Dames (1904) believed that it is derived from the Persian term for cockscomb, said to have been used as a crest on the helmets of Baloch troops in 6th century BCE. Herzfeld (1968) proposed that it is derived from the Median term brza-vaciya, which describes a loud or aggressive way of speaking. Naseer Dashti (2012) presents another possibility, that of being derived from the name of the ethnic group `Balaschik' living in Balashagan, between the Caspian Sea and Lake Van in present day Turkey and Azerbaizan, who are believed to have migrated to Balochistan during the Sassanid times. The remnants of the original name such as 'Balochuk' and 'Balochiki' are said to be still used as ethnic names in Balochistan. Some writers suggest a derivation from Sanskrit words bal, meaning strength, and och meaning high or magnificent.[11] An earliest Sanskrit reference to the Baloch might be the Gwalior inscription of the Gurjara-Pratihara ruler Mihira Bhoja (r. 836–885), which says that the dynasty's founder Nagabhata I repelled a powerful army of Valacha Mlecchas, translated as "Baluch foreigners" by D. R. Bhandarkar. The army in question is that of the Umayyad Caliphate after the conquest of Sindh.According to Baloch lore, their ancestors hail from Aleppo in what is now Syria.[13] They are descendants of Hazrat Ameer Hamza, uncle of the prophet Muhammad, who settled in Halab (present-day Aleppo). They fled to the Sistan region,[14] remaining there for nearly 500 years until they fled to the Makran region following a deception against the Sistan leader Badr-ud-Din.
匈那人Hunas or Huna (Middle Brahmi script: Gupta ashoka huu.jpgGupta allahabad nnaa.jpg Hūṇā) was the name given by the ancient Indians to a group of Central Asian tribes who, via the Khyber Pass, entered the Indian Subcontinent at the end of the 5th or early 6th century. Huna Kingdom occupied areas as far as Eran and Kausambi, greatly weakening the Gupta Empire. The Hunas were ultimately defeated by the Indian Gupta Empire and the Indian king Yasodharman. The Hunas are thought to have included the Xionite and/or Hephthalite, the Kidarites, the Alchon Huns (also known as the Alxon, Alakhana, Walxon etc.) and the Nezak Huns. Such names, along with that of the Harahunas (also known as the Halahunas or Harahuras) mentioned in Hindu texts, have sometimes been used for the Hunas in general; while these groups (and the Iranian Huns) appear to have been a component of the Hunas, such names were not necessarily synonymous. The relationship, if any, of the Hunas to the Huns, a Central Asian people who invaded Europe during the same period, is also unclear.The Kidarites, who invaded Bactria in the second half of the 4th century,[3] are generally regarded as the first wave of Hunas to enter South Asia.Gujars are sometimes said to have been originally a sub-tribe of the Hunas.In its farthest geographical extent in India, the territories controlled by the Hunas covered the region up to Malwa in central India.[5] Their repeated invasions and war losses were the main reason for the decline of the Gupta Empire.
- The Mongolian-Tibetan historian Sumpa Yeshe Peljor (writing in the 18th century) lists the Hunas alongside other peoples found in Central Asia since antiquity, including the Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Tukharas, Khasas and Daradas.Chinese sources link the Central Asian tribes comprising the Hunas to both the Xiongnu of north east Asia and the Huns who later invaded and settled in Europe.[10] Similarly, Gerald Larson suggests that the Hunas were a Turkic-Mongolian grouping from Central Asia.[6] The works of Ptolemy (2nd century) are among the first European texts to mention the Huns, followed by the texts by Marcellinus and Priscus. They too suggest that the Huns were an inner Asian people.The 6th-century Roman historian Procopius of Caesarea (Book I. ch. 3), related the Huns of Europe with the Hephthalites or "White Huns" who subjugated the Sassanids and invaded northwestern India, stating that they were of the same stock, "in fact as well as in name", although he contrasted the Huns with the Hephthalites, in that the Hephthalites were sedentary, white-skinned, and possessed "not ugly" features. The Kidarites, who invaded Bactria in the second half of the 4th century,[16] are generally regarded as the first wave of Hunas to enter Indian Subcontinent.The Hūṇas were initially based in the Oxus basin in Central Asia and established their control over Gandhara in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent by about 465 CE.[17] From there, they fanned out into various parts of northern, western, and central India. The Hūṇas are mentioned in several ancient texts such as the Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata, Purāṇas, and Kalidasa’s Raghuvaṃśa.
The Wakhi people, or Khik (called Gujali in Gojal, Pakistan), are an ethnic group in the Wakhan of today's Badakhshan region located in northeastern Afghanistan and southeastern Tajikistan. They also live in adjacent areas of Tajikistan, Xinjiang and in Pakistan, both in the Chitral District and in Gojal).[1][2] They speak the Wakhi language.In Pakistan, the central organization of Wakhis is the Wakhi Tajik Culture Association Pakistan (WCA), an organization that is working with the Pakistani Ministry of Culture and Tourism and Lok Virsa Pakistan. The WCA aims to preserve the Wakhi language and culture and to record its poetry and music.
Indo european
- "Aryan" (/ˈɛəriən, ˈɛərjən, ˈær-/) is a term meaning "noble" which was used as a self-designation by Indo-Iranian people. The word was used by the Indic people of the Vedic period in India as an ethnic label for themselves, as well as to refer to the noble class and geographic location known as Āryāvarta where Indo-Aryan culture was based. The closely related Iranian people also used the term as an ethnic label for themselves in the Avestascriptures, and the word forms the etymological source of the country Iran. It was believed in the 19th century that it was also a self-designation used by all Proto-Indo-Europeans, a theory that has now been abandoned.[8] Scholars point out that, even in ancient times, the idea of being an "Aryan" was religious, cultural and linguistic, not racial.The term "Aryan" is used by Indian nationalists and Iranian nationalists to refer themselves as Aryan in contrast to the Indo-Aryan migration theory.[30][31] During the 19th century it was proposed that "Aryan" was also the self-designation of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.[8] Based on speculations that the Proto-Indo-European homeland was located in northern Europe, a 19th-century hypothesis which is now abandoned, the word developed a racialist meaning.[8] It has been used in Nazi racial theory to describe persons corresponding to the "Nordic" physical ideal of Nazi Germany (the "master race" ideology).
- An Aryan paragraph (German: Arierparagraph) is a clause in the statutes of an organization, corporation, or real estate deed that reserves membership and/or right of residence solely for members of the "Aryan race" and excludes from such rights any non-Aryans, particularlyJews or those of Jewish descent. They were an essential aspect of public life in Germanyand Austria from 1885 to 1945.
- https://www.quora.com/If-Iranians-arent-Arab-what-are-they
- 今日印度北部則多的是身材高、膚色白、面部方正的雅利安族。http://rthk9.rthk.hk/elearning/travel/articles/07/f07_01_01_00_02.htm
- https://www.quora.com/Did-Dravidians-live-also-in-Mesopotamia-and-the-Iranian-plateau-before-the-Aryan-invasion
- ********The earliest representatives of an Aryan culture, those who would be now termed speakers of the Proto-Indo-Iranian language, were probably living in the territory of the Sintashta and Andronovo cultural horizons during the Early Bronze Age. That would be mainly in present-day Kazakhstan, but also encompassing parts of Russia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan.The bulk of their ancestors had come some generations before from the northwest in what is now western Russia and perhaps also parts of Belarus and northern Ukraine, an easternmost branch of the Corded Ware Culture of Northern Europe. It’s possible that the earliest dialects that could be identified as distinctly Indo-Iranian started to be spoken when they were still living in Northern Europe. At that time, it’s highly likely that Indo-Iranian speakers were still very closely related to Balto-Slavic speakers both in genetics as well as in language, which might, for example, explain the often commented about similarities between Lithuanian and Sanskrit. https://www.quora.com/From-which-modern-country-did-the-Aryans-come-from
- 美國太空總署（NASA）探測器新視野號在今年初，造訪一顆冥王星十六億公里外、稱為Ultima Thule的古柏帶小天體。惟這名稱有極右納粹的意味，NASA周二宣布將它改稱美國原住民語中的Arrokoth，意即「天空」。新視野號一月造訪這顆正式稱為2014 MU69的古柏帶天體，新視野號團隊以暱稱Ultima Thule稱呼這天體。該詞在古典及中世紀歐洲文學中，描述為超越已知世界邊界的神秘北部土地，可解作為天涯海角。到了二十世紀初，有德國極右神秘主義者採用該名稱，代表雅利安人傳說古代北方國家，後來更在納粹黨內流轉。面對外間壓力，新視野號團隊決定選定一個全新名字，並經國際天文學聯合會批准，最終獲NASA正名。NASA補充指已徵得美國原住民部落長老同意，而新名稱將啟發人們尋找地球以外的星球及世界，但無評論改名是否與納粹爭議有關。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191114/00180_024.html
- https://www.quora.com/Why-does-the-Indo-Aryan-migration-theory-offend-Indians The Proto-Indo-Europeans were certainly not particularly advanced technologically, as the reconstructed vocabulary indicates. Rather, by the late Neolithic, about 4000–3000 BC, when Proto-Indo-European was most likely spoken prior to its split-up, all of Eurasia was technologically primitive, the wheel just having been invented.The most plausible scenario is that the Proto-Indo-Europeans were the first to have both domesticated horses and wheeled wagons, plus secondary animal products (milk and wool) – the secondary products revolution –, giving them an edge over other cultures, especially neighbouring cultures, some of which, such as the Danubian civilisation, appear to have been comparably sophisticated. There was nothing inherent to this culture that made it superior, just pure luck.Therefore, there is nothing particularly shameful about the idea that the dominant language of Ancient India traces back to this culture, and the analogue to European colonisation (which is based on military superiority) doesn’t really work.
- 年輕時讀過一本書，提到自詡人種最優秀的雅利安人希特勒，對康巴人卻情有獨鍾，認為他們屬優秀人種。據說他曾派員到康巴找尋體格、相貌都合意的康巴漢子，讓他們與雅利安女子結合，以培育出更優秀的人種。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20201211/PDF/a20_screen.pdf
- any relation?
- 建於一九一四年的法國潛艇亞利安號（Ariane）。它於第一次世界大戰時部署在仍屬法國保護地的突尼斯北部比塞大（Bizerte）港口，一九一七年在水面被德國魚雷擊沉，當時船上廿九名船員只有八人生還。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20201010/00180_033.html
- domari language https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-lesser-known-Indo-Aryan-languages/answer/Lara-Novakov
- The Ghawazi (also ghawazee) dancers of Egypt were a group of female traveling dancers of the Dom people (also known as Nawar). The ghawazi style gave rise to the Egyptian raqs sharqi by the first half of the 20th century. While the performative raqs sharqi in urban Egypt was heavily influenced by Western styles such as classical ballet or Latin American dance, the term ghawazi in Egypt refers to the dancers in rural Egypt who have preserved the traditional 18th- to 19th-century style. The Arabic غوازي ghawāzī (singular غازية ghāziya) means "conqueror", as the ghaziya is said to "conquer" the hearts of her audience. They were also known as awālim (singular alma, transliterated almeh in French as almée). Both terms are 19th-century euphemisms for "erotic dancer";[1] almeh literally means "learned woman" and came to be used as a replacement for ghaziya after the ghawazi were legally banned in 1834. The term "ghawazi" is inherited from the Northern Indian term "Gowaar" meaning singer. The term "Gaon" is equal to the verb "sing" and the term "Gana" means song. This explains the inheritance of Nawari or Dom people from the group of performing artists known as "Bazigar" in Punjab.An almeh in origin was a courtesan in Arab tradition, a woman educated to sing and recite classical poetry and to discourse. After the ghawazi were banned, they were forced to pretend that they were in fact awalim. The term almeh was introduced in French Orientalism as almée and used synonymously with "belly dancer".
language
- The Dungan language (/ˈdʊŋɡɑːn/ or /ˈdʌŋɡən/) is a Sinitic language[3] spoken primarily in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by the Dungan people, an ethnic group related to the Hui people of China. Although it is derived from the Central Plains Mandarin of Gansu and Shaanxi, it is primarily written in Cyrillic and contains loanwords and archaisms not found in modern varieties of Mandarin.
The Dungan people of Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan (with smaller groups living in other post-Soviet states) are the descendants of several groups of the Hui people that migrated to the region in the 1870s and the 1880s after the defeat of the Dungan revolt in Northwestern China. The Hui of Northwestern China (often referred to as "Dungans" or "Tungani" by the 19th-century western writers as well as by members of Turkic nationalities in China and Central Asia) would normally speak the same Mandarin dialect as the Han people in the same area (or in the area from which the particular Hui community had been resettled). At the same time, due to their unique history, their speech would be rich in Islamic or Islam-influenced terminology, based on loanwords from Arabic, Persian, and Turkic languages, as well as translations of them into Chinese. The Hui traders in the bazaars would be able to use Arabic or Persian numbers when talking between themselves, to keep their communications secret from Han bystanders. While not constituting a separate language, these words, phrases and turns of speech, known as Huihui hua (回回話, "Hui speech"), served as markers of group identity. As early 20th century travellers in Northwestern China would note, "the Mohammedan Chinese have to some extent a vocabulary, and always a style and manner of speech, all their own". As the Dungans in the Russian Empire, and even more so in the Soviet Union, were isolated from China, their language experienced significant influence from the Russian and the Turkic languages of their neighbors. In the Soviet Union, a written standard of the Dungan language was developed, based on a Gansu dialect, rather than the Beijing base of Standard Chinese. The language was used in the schools in Dungan villages. In the Soviet time there were several school textbooks published for studying the Dungan language, a three volume Russian–Dungan dictionary (14,000 words), the Dungan–Russian dictionary, linguistics monographs on the language and books in Dungan. The first Dungan-language newspaper was established in 1932; it continues publication today in weekly form.When Dru C. Gladney, who had spent some years working with the Hui people in China, met with Dungans in Almaty in 1988, he described the experience as speaking "in a hybrid Gansu dialect that combined Turkish and Russian lexical items".
Buzkashi (literally "goat grabbing" in Persian), also known as kokpar, kupkari and ulak tartysh,[3] is the Central Asian sport in which horse-mounted players attempt to place a goat or calf carcass in a goal. It is the national sport of Afghanistan, although it was banned under the Taliban regime. Traditionally, games could last for several days, but in its more regulated tournament version, it has a limited match time. Buzkashi may have begun with the nomadic Turkic-Mongol peoples who came from farther north and east spreading westward from China and Mongolia between the 10th and 15th centuries in a centuries-long series of migrations that ended only in the 1930s. From Scythian times until recent decades, buzkashi has remained as a legacy of that bygone era. During the rule of the Taliban regime, buzkashi was banned in Afghanistan, as the Taliban considered the game immoral. After the Taliban regime was ousted, the game resumed being played. Today buzkashi is played by several Central Asian ethnic groups and in Northern parts of Pakistan, Kyrgyz, Pashtuns, Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Uyghurs, Hazaras, Tajiks, and Turkmens. In the West, the game is also played by Afghani Turks (ethnic Kyrgyz) who migrated to Ulupamir village in the Van district of Turkey from the Pamir region. In western China, there is not only horse-back buzkashi, but also yak buzkashi among Tajiks of Xinjiang.
中亞五國
- 投資14.4億元（人民幣，下同）層高150米的「中亞五國」金融投資服務中心目前在烏魯木齊市經開區（頭屯河區）開建，預計2018年竣工，這將推動烏魯木齊「五大中心」之一的金融中心建設。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/12/18/a16-1218.pdf
history
- "The Great Game" was a political and diplomatic confrontation that existed for most of the 19th century between the British Empire and the Russian Empire over Afghanistan and neighbouring territories in Central and Southern Asia. Russia was fearful of British commercial and military inroads into Central Asia, and Britain was fearful of Russia adding "the jewel in the crown", India, to the vast empire that Russia was building in Asia. This resulted in an atmosphere of distrust and the constant threat of war between the two empires.[1][2][3] Britain made it a high priority to protect all the approaches to India, and the "great game" is primarily how the British did this in terms of a possible Russian threat. Historians with access to the archives have concluded that Russia had no plans involving India, as the Russians repeatedly stated. The Great Game began on 12 January 1830 when Lord Ellenborough, the President of the Board of Control for India, tasked Lord William Bentinck, the Governor-General, to establish a new trade route to the Emirate of Bukhara.[2][3][5] Britain intended to gain control over the Emirate of Afghanistan and make it a protectorate, and to use the Ottoman Empire, the Persian Empire, the Khanate of Khiva, and the Emirate of Bukhara as buffer states between both empires. This would protect India and also key British sea trade routes by stopping Russia from gaining a port on the Persian Gulf or the Indian Ocean.[2][3] Russia proposed Afghanistan as the neutral zone.[6] The results included the failed First Anglo-Afghan War of 1838, the First Anglo-Sikh War of 1845, the Second Anglo-Sikh War of 1848, the Second Anglo-Afghan War of 1878, and the annexation of Kokand by Russia. Historians consider the end of the Great Game to be 10 September 1895 signing of the Pamir Boundary Commission protocols,[7] when the border between Afghanistan and the Russian empire was defined.[8][9][10][11]:p14 The 1901 novel Kim by Rudyard Kipling made the term popular and introduced the new implication of great power rivalry. It became even more popular after the 1979 advent of the Soviet–Afghan War.
India
- trade route
- http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/8510176c-2188-11e6-9d4d-c11776a5124d.html India, Iran and Afghanistan have agreed to develop a modern port outside the Gulf as well as road and rail links that would allow New Delhi and Kabul to bypass a hostile Pakistan and strengthen trade between south and central Asia. Narendra Modi, Indian prime minister, said in Tehran his country would spend $500m to develop Iran’s Chabahar port on the Gulf of Oman and related infrastructure in a “milestone” deal that would boost growth, spur the unhindered flow of commerce in the region and give landlocked Afghanistan “an assured, effective and a more friendly route to trade with the rest of the world”.
- http://www.mofa.go.kr/eng/brd/m_5676/view.do On October 16, Minister of Foreign Affairs Kang Kyung-wha attended the 12th Korea-Central Asia Cooperation Forum held in Nur-Sultan, the capital of the Republic of Kazakhstan, and paid a courtesy call on President of Kazakhstan Kassym-Jomart Tokayev. Minister Kang highlighted the importance of cooperation with Kazakhstan, the Republic of Korea (ROK)’s top trading and investment partner in Central Asia as well as a core partner of its New Northern Policy.
China
- 「中國＋中亞五國」 16日舉行 首次外長視頻會晤。中國國務委員兼外 長王毅出席並主持會晤。各方一致決定 建立 「中國＋中亞五國」 外長會晤機制 ，定期舉行會晤，攜手應對挑戰，共謀 發展繁榮。會議通過並發表《 「中國＋ 中亞五國」 外長視頻會議聯合聲明》。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200717/PDF/a7_screen.pdf
- pakistan and afghanistan
- energy
- investment
- 烏茲別克斯坦卡姆奇克隧道
- economist 6jun2020 "the beast from the east"central asian govts do not know how to talk about china
Hong Kong
- 中亞協會（香港）https://www.centralasiacentrehk.com/aboutus
- delegation from HK
- 首次中國-阿富汗-巴基斯坦三方外長對話昨日在北京釣魚台國賓館舉行。中國外交部長王毅與阿富汗外長拉巴尼、巴基斯坦外長阿西夫共見記者時稱，中巴雙方願同阿方一道，本着互利共贏原則，積極探討中巴經濟走廊以適當方式向阿富汗延伸。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/12/27/a15-1227.pdf
- energy
- Lng
- 內地入冬強推「煤改氣」後，天然氣供不應求，市場價格不斷抬升。有內媒引述消息人士透露，近日中亞管道天然氣輸送量驟降，令內地天然氣達歷史最低庫存量，而原因是中亞供氣國家希望加價。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20180203/00178_022.html
- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2016/12/13/a16-1213.pdf 12月12日14時，來自中亞和塔里木 氣區的天然氣到達福建省福州市，西氣東 輸三線（西三線）東段工程建成通氣，開 始進行調試。西三線是繼西二線建成投產 後的又一條橫貫中國東西兩端的能源戰略 通道。西三線通氣後，福建省天然氣在一 次能源中的比重將從2015年的5%提升至 2020年的 10%，同時實現天然氣「縣縣 通」的目標。
- 近期中國遭遇持續嚴寒天氣，北方大地需要燃氣供暖，但偏偏中國投資的天然氣管道出了問題。土庫曼、烏茲別克、哈薩克等國對華供氣量居然比合同約定減少了一半，其答覆居然是輸氣設備壞了沒錢修，實際上是這些國家將天然氣轉賣歐洲賺取高價。中亞國家巧立名目趁寒打劫，實在是令人髮指。想當初，中國在當地投資修建油氣管道，這些國家好話說盡，但一涉及到具體利益，這些國家便露出另一副模樣，敲詐勒索無所不用其極。這些國家之所以違背合同約定，不顧國家友誼，就是算準了中國當前對能源的巨大需求，以及中國西北多個城市出現的天然氣能源供應短缺情況，對他們無可奈何，只能忍氣吞聲。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20180210/00182_001.html
- investment
- 中國的陸上絲綢之路，因哈薩克的鐵路建設，已可由新疆出哈薩克，在裏海旁經土庫曼入伊朗境內，可接上伊朗的鐵路網。故此，今年從浙江義烏出發的貨運列車可直達伊朗波斯灣畔的阿巴斯港，節省十多天的海程。按此通道，今年通貨運的東莞至德國列車，也可往阿巴斯港出紅海入印度洋。伊朗正大建鐵路，中國應該參與，更重要的是怎樣重建伊朗至敍利亞地中海海岸的傳統絲綢之路，例如鐵路和電站，會是伊拉克、敍利亞重建的基礎。伊敍石油蘊藏量不少，中國已投資伊拉克的油田。伊斯蘭國崩潰後，伊敍北部的石油帶可連接。從促進當地的和平與發展看，中國應以國際援助的方式資助，或與伊朗聯手。中國在巴基斯坦大建火力發電、水電、太陽光與風電電站，在敍國亦可從光電入手，更關鍵的是在和平條件下興建核電站。中國已計劃在阿富汗建核電站，在海外則已簽協議在英國建核電站。核電站能源供應穩定，少污染，供電規模龐大，可促進敍國發展。由阿富汗至伊朗、伊拉克至敍利亞，核電站建設將是推動中國技術出口與當地發展的重要因素，但中國會面對俄國的競爭。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20160428/00184_001.html
- 烏茲別克斯坦卡姆奇克隧道
- 由中鐵隧道集團承建 的 「中亞第一長隧」─烏茲別克斯坦卡姆奇克隧道 有望於今年上半年完工。作為 「絲路咽喉」，該項目的 完工將對推動中烏經濟合作乃至整個中亞地區的合作具 有重要意義。 據介紹，全長19.2公里的卡姆奇克鐵路隧道，在全 世界隧道中排第13位，被稱為 「中亞第一長隧」。 該項目位於烏茲別克斯坦納曼幹州巴比斯科地區， 穿越庫拉米山、庫伊尼德及薩尼薩拉克薩伊河等複雜地 質環境，也是烏茲別克斯坦 「總統一號工程」──全長 169公里的安革連至琶布電氣化鐵路的 「咽喉」。 該鐵路的建成不僅將改變烏茲別克斯坦境內運輸需 繞道他國的窘境，也將為開展 「一帶一路」沿線經濟合 作提供便利。 正是作為烏茲別克斯坦 「總統一號工程」中的關鍵 性項目，卡姆奇克鐵路隧道受到烏方高度關注。烏茲別 克斯坦民眾以一條流經隧道到首都塔什干的河流為隧道 冠名，寓意對 「互聯互通」的渴望。 據悉，卡姆奇克鐵路隧道也是目前中國企業在中亞 建設的最長隧道。2013年7月，中鐵隧道集團與項目建 設方簽訂項目設計施工總承包合同，合同總造價4.55億 美元。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20160107/PDF/a11_screen.pdf
- economist 6jun2020 "the beast from the east"central asian govts do not know how to talk about china
Hong Kong
- 中亞協會（香港）https://www.centralasiacentrehk.com/aboutus
- http://hd.stheadline.com/news/realtime/hk/1245165/ 中亞五國隨着一帶一路概念成為新興旅遊熱點，惟來自哈薩克的Saya Kyzylbayeva卻在港多次被誤認為華人或印尼人，自身經歷讓她明白港人對中亞的認知有限，遂跟旅遊作家嘉嘉合辦中亞協會（香港），盼藉深度交流團、藝術展及旅遊分享會等活動掀開神秘面紗，讓大眾看見中亞人的熱情好客，更認清「斯坦」國家不等同恐怖主義。中亞五國包括哈薩克斯坦、吉爾吉斯斯坦、塔吉克斯坦、烏茲別克斯坦及土庫曼斯坦
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- 中華廠商會會長李秀恆初步打算於明年初，率團到現代絲綢之路沿綫的中亞國家考察。據了解，廠商會此考察團為期約7日，行程包括毗連中國西北部的國家，即哈薩克、烏茲別克等。不過，由於考察團可能於農曆新年期間成行，換言之，李秀恆和一眾參加的商界人士，可能未能留港過年了。hket 27nov15
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