- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-African-countries-never-replace-their-colonial-language-with-their-local-native-language-to-create-more-pride-for-their-nationality note paras 2-5
monarchy+republic
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-strangest-style-of-government-in-history-or-in-current-use-today
A composite monarchy (or composite state) is a historical category, introduced by H. G. Koenigsberger in 1975 and popularised by Sir John H. Elliott, that describes early modern states consisting of several countries under one ruler, sometimes designated as a personal union, who governs his territories as if they were separate kingdoms, in accordance with local traditions and legal structures. The composite state was the most common[4] type of state in the early modern era in Europe.[5] Koenigsberger divides composite states into two classes: those, like the Spanish Empire, that consisted of countries separated by either other states or by the sea, and those, like Poland–Lithuania, that were contiguous. A medieval example of a composite monarchy was the Angevin Empire. Theorists of the 16th century believed that "conformity" (similarity in language and customs) was important to success of a composite state. Francesco Guicciardini praised the acquisition of the Kingdom of Navarre by the King of Aragon in 1512 on account of their conformità. Yet, differences could be persistent. Navarre retained its own law and customs separate from the rest of Spain down to 1841. In France, a far more unified state than Spain in the early modern period, the state was divided into different customary tax regimes, the pays d'élection and pays d'état. This was abolished during the 1789 Revolution.The 17th-century Spanish jurist Juan de Solórzano Pereira distinguished a state whose components were aeque principaliter (equally important) from an "accessory" union in which a newly acquired territory was subsumed under the laws of an already existing one, such as when New Spain was incorporated into the Crown of Castile, or when Wales was joined to the Kingdom of England.
单一制A unitary state is a state governed as a single entity in which the central government is ultimately supreme. Unitary states stand in contrast with federations, also known as federal states.In unitary states, the central government may create (or abolish) administrative divisions (sub-national units).[1] Such units exercise only the powers that the central government chooses to delegate. Although political power may be delegated through devolution to regional or local governments by statute, the central government may abrogate the acts of devolved governments or curtail (or expand) their powers. A large majority of the world's states (166 of the 193 UN member states) have a unitary system of government.Devolution within a unitary state, like federalism may be symmetrical, with all sub-national units having the same powers and status, or asymmetric, with sub-national units varying in their powers and status. Many unitary states have no areas possessing a degree of autonomy.[4] In such countries, sub-national regions cannot decide their own laws. Examples are Romania, Ireland and Norway. Svalbard has even less autonomy than the mainland. It is directly controlled by the government and has no local rule.
Federalism is the mixed or compound mode of government, combining a general government (the central or "federal" government) with regional governments (provincial, state, cantonal, territorial or other sub-unit governments) in a single political system. Its distinctive feature, exemplified in the founding example of modern federalism by the United Statesunder the Constitution of 1787, is a relationship of parity between the two levels of government established. Federalism can thus be defined as a form of government in which there is a division of powers between two levels of government of equal status.Federalism differs from confederalism, in which the general level of government is subordinate to the regional level, and from devolution within a unitary state, in which the regional level of government is subordinate to the general level.[3] It represents the central form in the pathway of regional integration or separation,[4] bounded on the less integrated side by confederalism and on the more integrated side by devolution within a unitary state.Leading examples of the federation or federal state include the United States, India, Brazil, Mexico, Russia, Germany, Canada, Switzerland, Argentina, and Australia. Some also today characterize the European Union as the pioneering example of federalism in a multi-state setting, in a concept termed the federal union of states.
- The Round Table Movement evolved out of Lord Milner's Kindergarten. They held meetings called 'The Moot', named after the Anglo-Saxon meeting, but also because they were discussing 'moot' points. The movement began at a conference at Plas Newydd, Lord Anglesey's estate in Wales, over the weekend of 4–6 September.[1] The framework of the organisation was devised by Lionel Curtis, but the overall idea was due to Lord Milner. Former South Africa administrator Philip Kerr became secretary to the organisation.In 1910 they would publish a journal The Round Table Journal: A Quarterly Review of the Politics of the British Empire. The aim of the original movement was closer union between Britain and the self-governing colonies, which Lionel Curtis believed could only be achieved by imperial federation, though others such as Leo Amery were in favour of improved co-operation.In 1910–1911 Lionel Curtis took a tour of the Dominions to set up local Round Table groups. Groups were formed in Canada, the Union of South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and a Newfoundland Group was set up in 1912.
A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a union of sovereign states, united for purposes of common action often in relation to other states.[1] Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issues, such as defense, foreign relations, internal trade or currency, with the general government being required to provide support for all its members. Confederalism represents a main form of inter-governmentalism, this being defined as any form of interaction between states which takes place on the basis of sovereign independence or government.The nature of the relationship among the member states constituting a confederation varies considerably. Likewise, the relationship between the member states and the general government, and the distribution of powers among them is highly variable. Some looser confederations are similar to international organisations. Other confederations with stricter rules may resemble federal systems.Since the member states of a confederation retain their sovereignty, they have an implicit right of secession. Political philosopher Emmerich Vattel observed: ‘Several sovereign and independent states may unite themselves together by a perpetual confederacy without each in particular ceasing to be a perfect state. … The deliberations in common will offer no violence to the sovereignty of each member’.Under a confederal arrangement, in contrast with a federal one, the central authority is relatively weak. Decisions made by the general government in a unicameral legislature, a council of the member states, require subsequent implementation by the member states to take effect. They are therefore not laws acting directly upon the individual, but instead have more the character of inter-state agreements.[4] Also, decision-making in the general government usually proceeds by consensus (unanimity) and not by majority, which makes for a slow and inefficient government.
******The term "tetrarchy" (from the Greek: τετραρχία, tetrarchia, "leadership of four [people]")[a] describes any form of government where power is divided among four individuals, but in modern usage usually refers to the system instituted by Roman EmperorDiocletian in 293, marking the end of the Crisis of the Third Century and the recovery of the Roman Empire. This tetrarchy lasted until c. 313, when mutually destructive civil wars eliminated most of the claimants to power, leaving Constantine in control of the western half of the empire, and Licinius in control of the eastern half.Although the term "tetrarch" was current in antiquity, it was never used of the imperial college under Diocletian. Instead, the term was used to describe independent portions of a kingdom that were ruled under separate leaders. The tetrarchy of Judaea, established after the death of Herod the Great, is the most famous example of the antique tetrarchy. The term was understood in the Latin world as well, where Pliny the Elder glossed it as follows: "each is the equivalent of a kingdom, and also part of one" (regnorum instar singulae et in regna contribuuntur).As used by the ancients, the term describes not only different governments, but also a different system of government from the Diocletianic arrangements. The Judaean tetrarchy was a set of four independent and distinct states, where each tetrarch ruled a quarter of a kingdom as they saw fit; the Diocletianic tetrarchy was a college led by a single supreme leader. When later authors described the period, this is what they emphasized: Ammianus had Constantius II admonish Gallus for disobedience by appealing to the example in submission set by Diocletian's lesser colleagues; his successor Julian compared the Diocletianic tetrarchs to a chorus surrounding a leader, speaking in unison under his command.[2] Only Lactantius, a contemporary of Diocletian and a deep ideological opponent of the Diocletianic state, referred to the tetrarchs as a simple multiplicity of rulers.Much modern scholarship was written without the term. Although Edward Gibbon pioneered the description of the Diocletianic government as a "New Empire", he never used the term "tetrarchy"; neither did Theodor Mommsen. It did not appear in the literature until used in 1887 by schoolmaster Hermann Schiller in a two-volume handbook on the Roman Empire (Geschichte der Römischen Kaiserzeit), to wit: "die diokletianische Tetrarchie". Even so, the term did not catch on in the literature until Otto Seeckused it in 1897.Between 309 and 313 most of the claimants to the imperial office died or were killed in various civil wars. Constantine forced Maximian's suicide in 310. Galerius died naturally in 311. Maxentius was defeated by Constantine at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 and subsequently killed. Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in 313 after being defeated in battle by Licinius. By 313, therefore, there remained only two emperors: Constantine in the West and Licinius in the East. The tetrarchic system was at an end, although it took until 324 for Constantine to finally defeat Licinius, reunite the two halves of the Roman Empire and declare himself sole Augustus.
- other examples
- Tetrarchies in the ancient world existed in both Thessaly (in northern Greece) and Galatia (in central Asia Minor; including Lycaonia) as well as among the British Cantiaci.
- The constellation of Jewish principalities in the Herodian kingdom of Judea was known as a tetrarchy; see Tetrarchy (Judea).
- In the novel The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe, the Pevensie siblings rule Narnia as a tetrarchy of two kings and two queens.
Golden Liberty (Latin: Aurea Libertas; Polish: Złota Wolność, Lithuanian: Auksinė laisvė), sometimes referred to as Golden Freedoms, Nobles' Democracy or Nobles' Commonwealth(Polish: Rzeczpospolita Szlachecka or Złota wolność szlachecka) was a political system in the Kingdom of Poland and, after the Union of Lublin(1569), in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Under that system, all nobles (szlachta), regardless of rank or economic status, were considered to have equal legal status and enjoyed extensive legal rights and privileges. The nobility controlled the legislature (the Sejm—the Polish parliament) and the Commonwealth's elected king.
This political system, unique in Europe, stemmed from the consolidation of power by the szlachta (noble class) over other social classes and over the monarchical political system. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (established by the Nihil novi Act (1505), King Henry's Articles (1573), and various Pacta conventa) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power.The Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, but somewhat similar political systems existed in other contemporary states, like the Republic of Venice.[25] (Both states were styled the "Most Serene Republic".[26])A similar fate was averted by Italy; first due to a secular inability of the kings of France and Spain, and the Papacy, to come to terms on how to divide the country, then through the reaction against Habsburg domination which, as late as 1861, finally aligned most of the country's states in support of a national monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel II of the House of Savoy, hitherto king of Sardinia.Notably, neither the Republic of Venice nor Italy had a liberum veto among their institutions.
集産主義的無政府主義、または無政府集産主義あるいはアナルコ・コレクティビズム Le collectivisme libertaire Collectivist anarchism,also known as anarchist collectivism or anarcho-collectivism[3] and referred to as revolutionary socialism or a form of such, is a revolutionary anarchist doctrine that advocates the abolition of both the state and private ownership of the means of production as it instead envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. Collectivist anarchism is seen as a blend of individualism and collectivism.For the collectivization of the means of production, collectivist anarchism originally envisaged that workers will revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production.[6] Once collectivization takes place, money would be abolished to be replaced with labour notes and workers' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations of voluntary membership based on job difficulty and the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market.Collectivist anarchism is contrasted with anarcho-communism, where wages would be abolished and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods "to each according to his need". It is most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, the anti-authoritarian sections of the International Workingmen's Association and the early Spanish anarchist movement.
- Giuseppe Fanelli met Bakunin at Ischia in 1866.In October 1868, Bakunin sponsored Fanelli to travel to Barcelona to share his libertarian visions and recruit revolutionists to the International.[15] Fanelli's trip and the meeting he organised during his travels provided the catalyst for the Spanish exiles, the largest workers' and peasants' movement in modern Spain and the largest anarchist movement in modern Europe.[16] Fanelli's tour took him first to Barcelona, where he met and stayed with Elie Recluse. Recluse and Fanelli were at odds over Recluse's friendships with Spanish republicans and Fanelli soon left Barcelona for Madrid.[16] Fanelli stayed in Madrid until the end of January 1869, conducting meetings to introduce Spanish workers, including Anselmo Lorenzo, to the First National. In February 1869, Fanelli left Madrid, journeying home via Barcelona. He met with painter Josep Lluís Pellicer and his cousin Rafael Farga i Pellicer, along with others who were to play an important role establishing the International in Barcelona as well as the Alliance section.In 1870, Bakunin led a failed uprising in Lyon on the principles later exemplified by the Paris Commune, calling for a general uprising in response to the collapse of the French government during the Franco-Prussian War, seeking to transform an imperialist conflict into social revolution, or what Vladimir Lenin later termed revolutionary defeatism. In his Letters to A Frenchman on the Present Crisis, Bakunin also argued for a revolutionary alliance between the working class and the peasantry, advocated a system of militias with elected officers as part of a system of self-governing communes and workplaces and argued the time was ripe for revolutionary action, saying that "we must spread our principles, not with words but with deeds, for this is the most popular, the most potent, and the most irresistible form of propaganda.These ideas corresponded strikingly close with the program of the Paris Commune in 1871, much of which was developed by followers of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as Marxists were almost entirely absent from the Commune. Bakunin was a strong supporter of the Paris Commune, which was brutally suppressed by the French government. He saw the Paris Commune as above all a "rebellion against the State" and commended the Communards for rejecting not only the state, but also revolutionary dictatorship.[19] In a series of powerful pamphlets, he defended the Paris Commune and the International against the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini, thereby winning over many Italian republicans to the International and the cause of revolutionary socialism. The collectivist anarchists at first used the term collectivism to distinguish themselves from the mutualism of the followers of Proudhon and the state socialists associated with Karl Marx. In his 1867 essay "Federalism, Socialism, and Anti-Theologism", Bakunin wrote that "we shall always protest against anything that may in any way resemble communism or state socialism", which Bakunin regarded as fundamentally authoritarian.The Bonnot Gang (La Bande à Bonnot) was a French criminal anarchist group that operated in France and Belgium during the Belle Époque, from 1911 to 1912. Composed of individuals who identified with the emerging illegalist milieu, the gang used cutting-edge technology (including automobiles and repeating rifles) not yet available to the French police.
utopia
- [talking maps] first description of an ideal state in plato's republic (380bce); the noun "utopia" first used in dec1516 by sir thomas more with the publication of utopia (concerning the best state of a commonwealth and the new island of utopia). It tells the story of more's visit to antwerp as henry viii's diplomatic rep, where he meets peter giles, his friend and fellow humanist scholar. Giles introduces more to the fictional character of raphael hythloday (means expert in nonsense in greek), a portuguese traveller who, having sailed to the new world of america with amerigo vespucci, subsequently discovers the mythical island of utopia. The name of utopia's capital amaurt comes from greek for dark or unknown. The 2nd edition of the book was illustrated with a printed woodcut map of the island in two different states created by ambrosius holbein. More describes utopia as having 54 cities, the same number as tudor england, but holbein's map reduces them to just six. The image of skull evokes the medieval tradition of memento mori, a warning to remember your mortality in the face of worldly temptation. But mori can mean both "of death" and "of more (the author)".
Pantisocracy (from the Greek πᾶν and ἰσοκρατία meaning "equal or level government by/for all") was a utopian scheme devised in 1794 by, among others, the poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey for an egalitarian community. It is a system of government where all rule equally. They originally intended to establish such a community in the United States, choosing a site on the banks of the Susquehanna River after considering other places such as Kentucky.[1] By 1795 Southey had doubts about the viability of this and proposed moving the project to Wales. The two men were unable to agree on the location, causing the project to collapse.Others involved included the poet Robert Lovell and three of the Fricker sisters, Sara, Edith and Mary, who married the three poets, and George Burnett (who proposed unsuccessfully to another Fricker sister, Martha).
- economist 31oct2020
Utopian socialism is the first current of modern socialism and socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint-Simon, Charles Fourier, Étienne Cabet, Robert Owen and Henry George. Utopian socialism is often described as the presentation of visions and outlines for imaginary or futuristic ideal societies, with positive ideals being the main reason for moving society in such a direction. One key difference between utopian socialists and other socialists such as most anarchistsand Marxists is that utopian socialists generally do not believe any form of class struggle or social revolution is necessary for socialism to emerge. Utopian socialists believe that people of all classes can voluntarily adopt their plan for society if it is presented convincingly.
- eg new lanark scotland (refer to french version)
- Fourier declared that concern and cooperation were the secrets of social success. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an immense improvement in their productivity levels. Workers would be recompensed for their labors according to their contribution. Fourier saw such cooperation occurring in communities he called "phalanxes," based upon structures called Phalanstères or "grand hotels". These buildings were four-level apartment complexes where the richest had the uppermost apartments and the poorest had a ground-floor residence. Wealth was determined by one's job; jobs were assigned based on the interests and desires of the individual. There were incentives: jobs people might not enjoy doing would receive higher pay. Fourier considered trade, which he associated with Jews, to be the "source of all evil" and advocated that Jews be forced to perform farm work in the phalansteries.[11] By the end of his life, Fourier advocated the return of Jews to Palestine with the assistance of the Rothschilds.
- [situationist int] phalansterian players rivaling each other (composite passion), varying their activities (butterfly passion) and striving for the most advanced radicality (cabalist passion)
Revanchism (from French: revanche, "revenge") is the political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial losses incurred by a country, often following a war or social movement. As a term, revanchism originated in 1870s France in the aftermath of the Franco-Prussian War among nationalists who wanted to avenge the French defeat and reclaim the lost territories of Alsace-Lorraine. Revanchism draws its strength from patriotic and retributionist thought and is often motivated by economic or geo-political factors. Extreme revanchist ideologues often represent a hawkish stance, suggesting that their desired objectives can be achieved through the positive outcome of another war. It is linked with irredentism, the conception that a part of the cultural and ethnic nation remains "unredeemed" outside the borders of its appropriate nation state. Revanchist politics often rely on the identification of a nation with a nation state, often mobilizing deep-rooted sentiments of ethnic nationalism, claiming territories outside the state where members of the ethnic group live, while using heavy-handed nationalism to mobilize support for these aims. Revanchist justifications are often presented as based on ancient or even autochthonous occupation of a territory since "time immemorial", an assertion that is usually inextricably involved in revanchism and irredentism, justifying them in the eyes of their proponents.
imperium in imperio
- Sutton Elbert Griggs (June 19, 1872 - January 2, 1933) was an African-American author, Baptist minister, and social activist. He is best known for his novel Imperium in Imperio, a utopian work that envisions a separate African-American state within the United States.
segregation
- reformation period
- protestant north and catholic south in low countries
- northwest and southwest of france
- method
- [eckstut] for centuries, muslims tagged those they considered "other" withba yellow signifier. This tradition dates back to ninth century, when jews and christians of baghdad were required to wear yellow badges. The practice was to be adapted in other parts of the world. In 13thc, england's edward i issued a statue requiring all jews to wear a patch of yellow felt. in 16thc, when india was under islamic rule, one of akbar the great's generals used yellow armbands to tag hindus. And in 1930s, the nazis infamously required jews to be identified thru armbands or badges with yellow stars of david. Even today, the taliban uses yellow armbands to mark hindus in afghanistan.
A filibuster or freebooter, in the context of foreign policy, is someone who engages in an (at least nominally) unauthorized military expedition into a foreign country or territory to foment or support a revolution. The term is usually used to describe United States citizens who fomented insurrections in Latin America in the mid-19th century (Texas, California, Cuba, Nicaragua, Colombia), but is also applicable in the modern day. Filibuster expeditions have also occasionally been used as cover for government-approved deniable operations. A notable late-20th century example of this would be the Argentinian 'scrap metal merchants' who landed on South Georgia at the outset of the Falklands War.[citation needed] Filibusters are irregular soldiers who (normally) act without official authority from their own government, and are generally motivated by financial gain, political ideology, or the thrill of adventure. The freewheeling actions of the filibusters of the 1850s led to the name being applied figuratively to the political act of filibustering in the United States Congress. Unlike a mercenary, a filibuster leader/commander works for himself, whilst a mercenary leader works for others. - The English term "filibuster" derives from the Spanishfilibustero, itself deriving originally from the Dutchvrijbuiter, "privateer, pirate, robber" (also the root of English "freebooter"[3]). The Spanish form entered the English language in the 1850s, as applied to military adventurers from the United States then operating in Central America and the Spanish West Indies. The Spanish term was first applied to persons raiding Spanish colonies and ships in the West Indies, the most famous of whom was Sir Francis Drake with his 1573 raid on Nombre de Dios. With the end of the era of Caribbean piracy in the early 18th century "filibuster" fell out of general currency.[citation needed] The term was revived in the mid-19th century to describe the actions of adventurers who tried to take control of various Caribbean, Mexican, and Central-American territories by force of arms. In Sonora, Mexico, there were the French Marquis Charles de Pindray and Count Gaston de Raousset-Boulbon and the Americans Joseph C. Morehead and Henry Alexander Crabb. The three most prominent filibusters of that era were Narciso López and John Quitman in Cuba and William Walker in Baja California, Sonora, and lastly Nicaragua. The term returned to American parlance to refer to López's 1851 Cuban expeditions. Several Americans were involved in freelance military schemes, including Aaron Burr, William Blount (West Florida), Augustus W. Magee (Texas), George Mathews (East Florida), George Rogers Clark (Louisiana and Mississippi), William S. Smith (Venezuela), Ira Allen (Canada), William Walker (Mexico and Nicaragua), William A. Chanler (Cuba and Venezuela) and James Long (Texas).[5] Gregor MacGregor was a Scottish filibuster in Florida, Central, and South America.
A rump state is the remnant of a once much larger state, left with a reduced territory in the wake of secession, annexation, occupation, decolonization, or a successful coup d'état or revolution on part of its former territory. In the latter case, a government stops short of going into exile because it still controls part of its former territory. 殘存國家，又譯為殘存政府、偏安國家、偏安政府、偏安政權，政治學名詞，意指一個原先的大國家或大政府，因為國家分裂、遭受入侵、軍事佔領、國家或政權被人民推翻等，造成政府機構被部分顛覆，因而只擁有部份國土的政治實體。原本的大國家或大政府失去對大部分領土的控制及管轄能力，因此政府機能嚴重萎縮，它的國家政府組織與主權只能在這個小區域中運作。殘存國家是一種失敗國家，它近似於流亡政府，都自認為是正統政权，宣稱自己擁有全部國土的合法權利[1]，並認為有一天將會重新控制所有的國土。但是在国际上，因為國力不強，可能只有得到部份國家的承認，在國際外交上受到很大的限制。它與流亡政府主要的不同，殘存國家仍然控制自己國土的某一個部分，而流亡政府則已喪失了全部國土的控制權，在外國政府的領土中運作。- note the following examples
- The state of Xu, which originally controlled much of the Huai River valley,[5] was gradually reduced to the area around its capital from the 7th century BC
- After the Jurchen Jin Dynasty assumed control over north China, a rump Song state continued
- After the Qing Empire assumed control over most of Ming China, there was resistance by the Southern Ming and the longer-lived Kingdom of Tungning.
- Russia is considered by one source to be a rump state of the former Soviet Union.[8]
- The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, that is, the name the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro used from 1992 to 2003, was often viewed as the rump state left behind by the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1992) when it broke up.[9] This view of it was held not only by its founders[9] but also by many people antagonistic to them, who perceived Serbians and Montenegrins as unofficially or unwelcomely dominant among the various peoples under the socialist regime.
- 陸奧國
- since 1868
Banana republic or banana state is a political science term used originally for politically unstable countries in Latin America whose economies are largely dependent on exporting a limited-resource product, e.g. bananas. It typically has stratified social classes, including a large, impoverished working class and a ruling plutocracy of business, political, and military elites. This politico-economic oligarchy controls the primary-sector productions to exploit the country's economy.
American multinational United Fruit had a major hand in the creation of the banana republic phenomenon. Together with other US-based multinational Cuyamel Fruit Company (which was later bought by UF) and occasionally tolerance or even support from the United States government, they created the circumstances for a banana republic in several South American countries including Honduras and Guatemala.
Narco-state (also narco-capitalism or narco-economy[a]) is a political and economic term applied to countries where all legitimate institutions become penetrated by the power and wealth of the illegal drug trade.[2] The term was first used to describe Bolivia following the 1980 coup of Luis García Meza which was seen to be primarily financed with the help of narcotics traffickers.It has been argued that narco-states can be divided into five categories depending on their level of dependence on the narcotics trade and the threat the narcotics trade in said country poses to domestic and international stability. These five categories are (in ascending order): incipient, developing, serious, critical, and advanced.
- guinea bissau
- economist 1nov19 article
- https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/politics/uk-pariah-state-warning-iran-21263830
An interregnum (plural interregna or interregnums) is a period of discontinuity or "gap" in a government, organization, or social order. Archetypally, it was the period of time between the reign of one monarch and the next (coming from Latin inter-, "between" and rēgnum, "reign" [from rex, rēgis, "king"]), and the concepts of interregnum and regency therefore overlap. Historically, the longer and heavier interregna were typically accompanied by widespread unrest, civil and succession wars between warlords, and power vacuums filled by foreign invasions or the emergence of a new power. A failed state is usually in interregnum. The term also refers to the periods between the election of a new parliament and the establishment of a new government from that parliament in parliamentary democracies, usually ones that employ some form of proportional representation that allows small parties to elect significant numbers, requiring time for negotiations to form a government. In the UK, Canada and other "first past the post" electoral systems, this period is usually very brief, except in the rare occurrence of a hung parliament as occurred both in the UK in 2017 and in Australia in 2010. In parliamentary interregnums, the previous government usually stands as a caretaker government until the new government is established. The term has been applied to the period of time between the election of a new President of the United States and his or her inauguration, during which the outgoing president remains in power, but as a lame duck. In some Christian churches, "interregnum" describes the time between vacancy and appointment of priests or bishops to various roles.
- the author of a brief history of martial arts (jonathan clements) mentiined that yuan dynasty is such a period
- the author of a brief history of martial arts (jonathan clements) mentiined that yuan dynasty is such a period
- Ernst Fraenkel (26 December 1898 – 28 March 1975) was a German political scientist. He was one of the founding fathers of German political science after World War II.During the Weimar Republic Fraenkel was a member of the social democrats and one of the few juristswho held socialist opinions. Fraenkel was born in a Jewish family in Cologne. He served during the First World War from 1916 to 1918 in the German Army. He wrote his dissertation in law about The void labour contract (Der nichtige Arbeitsvertrag), under Hugo Sinzheimer. During the Weimar Republic he worked as a lawyer for labor law with Franz Leopold Neumann, published scientific publications and was engaged in socialist politics. Having been a soldier in World War I, he was still allowed to work to a limited extent even after the Nazis came to power in 1933.[3] He was connected to several resistance groups such as the Internationaler Sozialistischer Kampfbund (International Socialist Fighting Alliance). In 1938 he finally immigrated to the United Kingdom, in 1939 to the United States. Shortly after arriving in New York Fraenkel moved to Chicago, where he studied American law at the University of Chicago Law School, graduating in 1941.[4] During this period he revised and completed a manuscript that he had brought with him from Germany.[4] In this work, published in 1941 as The Dual State, he analyses the political system of the Nazi state. For Fraenkel there coexisted in the Nazi government a "normative state" (Normenstaat), which secured the continuation of capitalist society for those Germans not threatened by Nazism, and a "prerogative state" (Maßnahmenstaat), which used legal sanctions as well as brutal violence against people considered to be enemies of Nazism and Nazi Germany. Fraenkel lectured at the New School for Social Research. From 1945 on Fraenkel was an adviser to the American government but was soon dissatisfied with their policy of occupation in Korea. For the United Nations he was supposed to be one of the people to prepare free elections in Korea, but the Korean War made the elections impossible and forced Fraenkel to leave the country. In 1951 Fraenkel returned to Germany. He became a lecturer at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik in Berlin and later a professor at the Freie Universität Berlin, where he founded the John F. Kennedy-Institute for North American Studies. He considered his writings to be normative, his concept of pluralism was meant to criticize the existing political system. Those among his students who were active in the 1968 movement, however, saw his American-influenced theories as defending monopolistic capitalism. He died in Berlin.
deep state
- appledaily 15nov2020 fung heikin article
Satyagraha Sanskrit: सत्याग्रह; satya: "truth", graha: "insistence" or "holding firmly to") or holding onto truth or truth force – is a particular form of nonviolent resistance or civil resistance. The term satyagraha was coined and developed by Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948).[2] He deployed satyagraha in the Indian independence movement and also during his earlier struggles in South Africa for Indian rights. Satyagraha theory influenced Martin Luther King Jr.'s and James Bevel's campaigns during the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, and many other social justice and similar movements. Someone who practices satyagraha is a satyagrahi. - appledaily 15nov2020 fung heikin article
social contract
- !!!!!!!!https://edition.cnn.com/2019/11/15/americas/chile-congress-constitution-protests-intl-hnk/index.html Chile's Congress has reached an agreement to reform the country's constitution in an effort to restore peace after weeks of violent protests that have led to the deaths of at least 20 people.The new constitution will seek a "peaceful and democratic exit to the crisis," Chilean Senate President Jaime Quintana announced at a news conference in Santiago early Friday morning.Quintana said the new code would "build a true social contract" and be "100% democratic" compared to the current constitution, which was approved in 1980 during the rule of military dictator Augusto Pinochet.
- 紐瑟姆表示，在家避難令於前晚生效，它是一個社會契約，希望加州民眾盡可能自願地遵循命令不要出門。該命令雖然沒有完全禁止戶外活動，但禁止十人以上的聚會，從事醫療保健、食品行業的人士及公務員仍可繼續上班。三藩市灣區七個縣周二已率先實施在家避難令，下令居民留在家中，只能外出購買生活必需品。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200321/00180_010.html
- ft new social contract
- 7jul2020 - will the low-paid ever get a raise?
- 8jul2020 - it's a matter of fairness - governments intent on squeezing more contributions from multinationals
- 10jul2020 - "leveraging of america" risk of a new generation of zombie companies
Theocracy is a form of government in which a religious institution is the source from which all authority derives. An ecclesiocracy is a situation where the religious leaders assume a leading role in the state, but do not claim that they are instruments of divine revelation: for example, the prince-bishopsof the European Middle Ages, where the bishop was also the temporal ruler. Such a state may use the administrative hierarchy of the religion for its own administration, or it may have two "arms"—administrators and clergy—but with the state administrative hierarchy subordinate to the religious hierarchy. Theocracy differs from theonomy, the latter of which is government based on divine law. The papacy in the Papal States occupied a middle ground between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, since the Pope did not claim he was a prophet who received revelation from God and translated it into civil law. Religiously endorsed monarchies fall between theocracy and ecclesiocracy, according to the relative strengths of the religious and political organs. Most forms of theocracy are oligarchic in nature, involving rule of the many by the few, some of whom so anointed under claim of divine commission.
A thalassocracy (from Classical Greek θάλασσα (thalassa), meaning "sea", and κρατεῖν (kratein), meaning "power", giving Koine Greek θαλασσοκρατία (thalassokratia), "sea power") is a state with primarily maritime realms, an empire at sea (such as the Phoenician network of merchant cities) or a seaborne empire. Traditional thalassocracies seldom dominate interiors, even in their home territories: Phoenician Tyre, Sidon and Carthage or Srivijaya and Majapahit in Southeast Asia. One can distinguish this traditional sense of thalassocracy from an "empire", where the state's territories, though possibly linked principally or solely by the sea lanes, generally extend into mainland interiors: the Bruneian Empire (1368–1888) in Asia. Compare to tellurocracy "land-based hegemony". The term thalassocracy can also simply refer to naval supremacy, in either military or commercial senses of the word supremacy. The Ancient Greeks first used the word thalassocracy to describe the government of the Minoan civilization, whose power depended on its navy. Herodotus distinguishes sea-power from land-power and spoke of the need to counter the Phoenician thalassocracy by developing a Greek "empire of the sea".
- Sanfotsi ( 三佛齊; pinyin: Sānfóqí), also written as Sanfoqi, was a wealthy trading polity in Southeast Asia mentioned in Chinese sources dated from the Song dynasty circa 12th century. In 1918, George Cœdès concluded that Chinese forms of San-fo-ts'i (Sanfoqi), Fo-ts'i (Foqi), Fo-che (Foshi), Che-li-fo-che (Shilifoshi), which correspond to Arabic Sribuza and can be reconstructed as Śribhoja, are names referring to the Srivijaya empire, located in Palembang, South Sumatra, in present-day Indonesia. According to Chinese sources, Sanfotsi was an empire that controlled many territories in the strait of Malacca, eastern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. It was purportedly a large thalassocracyruled by a high-king exercising sovereignty over several states that were dependencies of Sanfotsi. Although some considered Sanfotsi to refer to Palembang proper, recent scholars say its territorial extent was more vast.
In political science, statism is the belief that the state should control either economic or social policy, or both, to some degree. While the term "statism" has been in use since the 1850s, it gained significant usage in American political discourse throughout the 1930s and 1940s. Ayn Rand[2] made frequent use of it in a series of articles in 1962. Statism can take many forms from minarchism to totalitarianism. Minarchists prefer a minimal state such as a night-watchman state to protect people from aggression, theft, breach of contract and fraud with military, police and courts.[5] Some may also include fire departments, prisons and other functions.[5] The welfare state and other moderate levels of statism also exist on the scale of statism.[6][7]Totalitarians prefer a maximum, all-encompassing state.L'étatisme, dérivé du terme État peut prendre plusieurs sens selon les contextes, il peut désigner à la fois :
- Un courant ou doctrine politique selon laquelle l'État doit intervenir systématiquement, de façon plus ou moins directe, par le biais de son monopole territorial, dans les principaux domaines sociaux et d'activité économique.
- L'exercice des pouvoirs de l'État, et l'expansion de son champ d'intervention sur la société.
- Les moyens par lesquels l'État exerce et détient un monopole plus ou moins important sur des secteurs économiques (entreprises contrôlées directement ou indirectement par l'état), sociaux et médico-sociaux, culturels et de communication (télévision publique).
titles of heads of state
- Basileus of Macedon
- Shahanshah of Persia
- Pharoah of Egypt, Lord of Asia https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Alexander-the-Great-go-to-his-grave-with-hands-hanging-out
- the Hegemon of the Hellenic League
separation of powers
- 在最高法院成立之前，上 議院集司法權及立法權於一身。很明顯， 當法官和立法者是同一個機構時，這有違 三權分立的原則。作為一個老牌的 「法治 」 國家，英國怎麼會犯下這種錯誤？ 其實，對於三權分立是否英國憲制中 的一部分、三權分立是否法治的必要條件 等問題，至今仍然存有爭議。我們現在常 說的 「三權分立」 是法國思想家孟德斯鳩 （Montesquieu）於十八世紀中提出來的 。英國的政治體制在此之前早已成形。在 此之後，它沒有經歷過革命、內戰、侵略 及解殖等重大政治動盪，因此也沒有機會 像法國、德國、美國那樣有一個推倒舊制 、建立現代化政體的機會。 往事不可追，來者猶可補。英國自發 地進行司法改革，終於在二○○九年成立 了獨立於議會的最高法院。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200716/PDF/b4_screen.pdf
- example
- In Italy the title of citizen kane (by orson welles) is Quarto Potere, which translates to the fourth power. This term refers to the power of the press and news media., and how they are able to manipulate issues. This is traditionally a European concept, where there are three powers (estates): the clergy, the nobility and the people. The fourth power is not formally recognised, although referred to. This powerful poster features Orson Welles against a backdrop of a montage of newspaper articles. https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/eclectic-london/citizen-kane-quarto-potere-1941-poster-italian
Rights
- example
- 印度最高法院前日批評政府對當地著名古蹟泰姬陵保護不力，導致這個世界文化遺產受到嚴重污染，牆身顏色變黃，部分更變成綠色及黑色，要求總理莫迪政府及北方邦地方政府在一周內回應，提出解決方案。最高法院批評當局拒絕邀請專家處理，泰姬陵的現況反映政府並沒有用心對待古蹟，強調不應考慮成本，着力解決泰姬陵受污染問題。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2018/05/03/a24-0503.pdf
- 美國最高法院前天駁回特朗普政府尋求廢除「幼年抵美暫緩遣返計劃」（DACA，又名夢想者計劃），意味可向六十五萬名年幼時非法入境人士提供法律保障。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200620/00180_025.html
- 巴西一名聯邦法官前日頒令，總統博爾索納羅需要遵守法例，在首都巴西利亞戶外活動的時候必須戴上口罩。巴西已經有超過五萬人因感染新冠病毒死亡，民眾必須在外出時戴上口罩，違者罰款一千九百巴西雷亞爾（約三千港元）。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200625/00178_027.html
- In Italy the title of citizen kane (by orson welles) is Quarto Potere, which translates to the fourth power. This term refers to the power of the press and news media., and how they are able to manipulate issues. This is traditionally a European concept, where there are three powers (estates): the clergy, the nobility and the people. The fourth power is not formally recognised, although referred to. This powerful poster features Orson Welles against a backdrop of a montage of newspaper articles. https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/eclectic-london/citizen-kane-quarto-potere-1941-poster-italian
Rights
- positive rights
- Traditions such as those ofvjean jacques rousseau
- Common in continental europe
- Allow for welfare rights - education, healthcare, right to earn a living
- Us and uk tradition
- Protect civil rights to such things as liberty, life, pursuit of happiness
bill of rights
- uk
In the United Kingdom, the Bill of Rights 1688 (received the Royal Assent on 16 December 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II in February 1689, inviting them to become joint sovereigns of England) is further accompanied by Magna Carta, the Petition of Right, the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 and the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949 as some of the basic documents of the uncodified British constitution. A separate but similar document, the Claim of Right Act 1689, applies in Scotland. The Bill of Rights 1689 was one of the models for the United States Bill of Rights of 1789, the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 and the European Convention on Human Rights of 1950.Along with the Act of Settlement 1701, the Bill of Rights is still in effect in all Commonwealth realms. Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending both of them came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015.
civil rights
- uk
The Discourse on Voluntary Servitude, or the Against-One (French: Discours de la servitude volontaire ou le Contr'un) is the most famous work of Étienne de La Boétie. The text was written probably around 1549 and published clandestinely in 1576 under the title of Le Contr'un ("The Against-One"). "One" here means 'single ruler'.The essay argues that any tyrant remains in power while his subjects grant him that, therefore delegitimizing every form of power. The original freedom of men would be indeed abandoned by society which, once corrupted by the habit, would have preferred the servitude of the courtier to the freedom of the free man, who refuses to be submissive and to obey. This relation between domain and obedience would be resumed later by anarchist thinkers.
Regulation
- uk
- kiv [1776 chronicle] caron de beaumarchais was found guilty of bribing the judge and his wife in 1774 and was deprived of some of his civil rights. After the marylebone conflagration beaumarchais returned to paris hoping to be rewarded by restoration of his rights
The International Bill of Human Rights was the name given to UN General Assembly Resolution 217 (III) and two international treaties established by the United Nations. It consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)(adopted in 1948), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966) with its two Optional Protocols and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, 1966). The two covenants entered into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of countries had ratified them.
- Although the UDHR is not legally binding, its contents have been elaborated and incorporated into subsequent international treaties, regional human rights instruments, and national constitutions and legal codes.The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general principles.[11] Its final structure took from in the second draft prepared by French jurist René Cassin, who worked on the initial draft prepared by Canadian legal scholar John Peters Humphrey.
The division of human rights into three generations was initially proposed in 1979 by the Czech jurist Karel Vasak at the International Institute of Human Rights in Strasbourg. He used the term at least as early as November 1977. Vasak's theories have primarily taken root in European law. First-generation rights, often called "blue" rights, deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally civil and political in nature, as well as strongly individualistic: They serve negatively to protect the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, freedom of speech, the right to a fair trial, (in some countries) the right to keep and bear arms, freedom of religion, freedom from discrimination, and voting rights. They were pioneered in the United States by the Bill of Rights and in France by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in the 18th century, although some of these rights and the right to due process date back to the Magna Carta of 1215 and the Rights of Englishmen, which were expressed in the English Bill of Rights in 1689.They were enshrined at the global level and given status in international law first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and later in the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In Europe, they were enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights in 1953.
region/country human rights legal instrument
- european convention on human rights
- african charter of human and peoples' rights
- american declaration of rights and duties of man
- charter of civil society for the carribean community
The Discourse on Voluntary Servitude, or the Against-One (French: Discours de la servitude volontaire ou le Contr'un) is the most famous work of Étienne de La Boétie. The text was written probably around 1549 and published clandestinely in 1576 under the title of Le Contr'un ("The Against-One"). "One" here means 'single ruler'.The essay argues that any tyrant remains in power while his subjects grant him that, therefore delegitimizing every form of power. The original freedom of men would be indeed abandoned by society which, once corrupted by the habit, would have preferred the servitude of the courtier to the freedom of the free man, who refuses to be submissive and to obey. This relation between domain and obedience would be resumed later by anarchist thinkers.
Regulation
- individual regulation
- self-regulatory authorities
- statutory body
- self regulatory body underpinned by statue
- the law
- regulatory councils
In the United States, a designated survivor (or designated successor) is an individual in the presidential line of succession, usually a member of the United States Cabinet, who is arranged to be at a physically distant, secure, and undisclosed location when the President, the Vice President, and the other officials in the line of succession are gathered at a single location, such as during State of the Union addresses and presidential inaugurations. This is intended to guarantee continuity of government in the event of a catastrophic occurrence that kills the President and many officials in the presidential line of succession, such as a mass shooting, bombing, attack or catastrophic natural disaster. If such an event occurred, killing both the President and Vice President, the surviving official highest in the line, possibly the designated survivor, would become the Acting President of the United States under the Presidential Succession Act. Only Cabinet members who are eligible to succeed to the presidency (i.e., natural-born citizens over the age of 35, who have resided in the United States for at least 14 years) can be chosen as designated survivors. The designated survivor is provided presidential-level security and transport for the duration of the event. An aide carries a nuclear football with them. However, they are not given a briefing on what to do in the event that the other successors to the presidency are killed.
bureaucracy!
- 清朝在康熙時，在內閣外另設立「南書房」，直接起草諭旨與處理機密奏議，雍正則把它改名為「軍機處」，道光則以「總理各國事務衙門」取代，特別之處是成員全是兼任，未設專官、未立衙署。一二年當屆政府是「長遠房屋策略督導委員會」，並在一三年把財政司旗下的「房屋用地供應督導小組」改為「土地供應督導委員會」，到現屆政府則成立「土地供應專責小組」。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/finance/20170914/00210_011.html
member of union/federation vs union/federation
In the United States, a designated survivor (or designated successor) is an individual in the presidential line of succession, usually a member of the United States Cabinet, who is arranged to be at a physically distant, secure, and undisclosed location when the President, the Vice President, and the other officials in the line of succession are gathered at a single location, such as during State of the Union addresses and presidential inaugurations. This is intended to guarantee continuity of government in the event of a catastrophic occurrence that kills the President and many officials in the presidential line of succession, such as a mass shooting, bombing, attack or catastrophic natural disaster. If such an event occurred, killing both the President and Vice President, the surviving official highest in the line, possibly the designated survivor, would become the Acting President of the United States under the Presidential Succession Act. Only Cabinet members who are eligible to succeed to the presidency (i.e., natural-born citizens over the age of 35, who have resided in the United States for at least 14 years) can be chosen as designated survivors. The designated survivor is provided presidential-level security and transport for the duration of the event. An aide carries a nuclear football with them. However, they are not given a briefing on what to do in the event that the other successors to the presidency are killed.
bureaucracy!
- 清朝在康熙時，在內閣外另設立「南書房」，直接起草諭旨與處理機密奏議，雍正則把它改名為「軍機處」，道光則以「總理各國事務衙門」取代，特別之處是成員全是兼任，未設專官、未立衙署。一二年當屆政府是「長遠房屋策略督導委員會」，並在一三年把財政司旗下的「房屋用地供應督導小組」改為「土地供應督導委員會」，到現屆政府則成立「土地供應專責小組」。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/finance/20170914/00210_011.html
member of union/federation vs union/federation
- ft 19jun2020 EU top court strikes down hungary civil society law
- ft 19jun2020 atlantia seeks intervention by brussels on bridge dispute
central vs local
- ******After Rome fell, Europe went into the Dark Ages, which was marked by the lack of strong central authority. Many local lords arose to power (take a look at the Holy Roman Empire, what is now Germany, for what I mean), who saw one another as rivals and potential threats. These lords had much less territory than Rome did, so they naturally had fewer men in their army.
- 澳洲新冠肺炎疫情反彈，維多利亞省周一公布，省內前一日新增一百二十七宗病例，打破疫情爆發以來的紀錄。維省同日宣布，將於明日起關閉來往毗鄰新南威爾士省的邊界，為一百年來首次；上次兩省關閉邊界，已是在一九一九年為了遏止西班牙流感傳播之時。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200707/00180_001.html
economist 3oct2020 "the missing local links" the pandemic has helped to give new prominence to mayors
民族自決
- 歷史上，從二、三百年歐美帝國主義、殖民主義興起，因屬小國、後起，它們的政治擴張之法，多是把大帝國瓦解，既用戰爭侵迫，更用民族自治，把帝國內的多民族成員變成對立，從內部分裂帝國。例子是歐洲的奧匈帝國、奧斯曼帝國、印度的蒙兀兒帝國，乃至中國。中國在一九四九年前，列強先是割地建租界，繼而建立地區勢力範圍來逐步蠶食。如俄羅斯佔新疆與黑龍江、英據西藏、日本佔東北。二次大戰的遠東戰區實際上是日本與歐美列強爭奪領土。歐美是以民族自決為宣傳，日本則反歐美民族主義，也是強調民族自決，不過背後還有大東亞共榮圈，滿洲國的統治本質與日本殖民的朝鮮、台灣無異。同樣例子，英國瓦解蒙兀兒帝國之後，所謂民族自決變成英國─印度帝國。而英印帝國瓦解，則拆出印度、巴基斯坦與孟加拉三國。最新的例子是美國瓦解蘇聯、東歐、南斯拉夫，用的都是民族自決，成功之後則是歐盟與北約東擴，把分裂獨立出來的國家再次收編。在伊朗、伊拉克、敍利亞，也是企圖分拆出新的民族自決的國家來。民族自決實際成為歐美帝國主義的政治工具，自決是它們吞併前的手段。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20190501/00184_001.html
Clientelism is the exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving an implicit or explicit quid-pro-quo. Clientalism involves an asymmetric relationship between groups of political actors described as patrons, brokers, and clients. Richard Graham has defined clientelism as a set of actions based on the principle take there, give here, with the practice allowing both clients and patrons to gain advantage from the other's support. Moreover, clientelism is typified by "exchange systems where voters trade political support for various outputs of the public decision-making process".
- eg sadat's regime
A wilayah (Arabic: ولاية wilāya; Urdu and Persian: ولایت velâyat; Turkish: vilayet) is an administrative division, usually translated as "state", "province", or occasionally as "governorate". The word comes from the Arabic "w-l-y", "to govern": a wāli—"governor"—governs a wilayah, "that which is governed". Under the Caliphate, the term referred to any constituent near-sovereign state.
The term fellow traveller (also fellow traveler) identifies a person who is intellectually sympathetic to the ideology of a political organization, and who co-operates in the organization's politics, without being a formal member of that organization. In the early history of the Soviet Union, the Bolshevik revolutionary Trotsky coined the term poputchik ('one who travels the same path') to identify the vacillating intellectual supporters of the Bolshevik régime. Likewise for the political characterisation of the Russian intelligentsiya (writers, academics, and artists) who were philosophically sympathetic to the political, social, and economic goals of the Russian Revolution of 1917, but who chose to not join the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). Moreover, during the Stalinist régime, the usage of the term poputchik disappeared from political discourse in the Soviet Union, but the Western world adopted the English term fellow traveller to identify people who sympathised with the Soviets and with Communism. In U.S. politics, during the 1940s and the 1950s, the term fellow traveler was a pejorative term for a person who was philosophically sympathetic to Communism, yet was not a formal, "card-carrying member" of the American Communist Party. In political discourse, the term fellow traveler was applied to intellectuals, academics, and politicians who lent their names and prestige to Communist front organizations.In European politics, the equivalent terms for fellow traveller are: Compagnon de route, sympathisant, and progressiste in France; Weggenosse and Sympathisant in Germany; and compagno di viaggio in Italy.同伴者（どうはんしゃ、ロシア語: Попутчикr）は、ある思想や運動に共鳴して、積極的に参加はしないが協力をする人を指すことばである 。おもに1920年代から1930年代にかけて、革命文学・プロレタリア文学・プロレタリア作家に対する同伴者文学・同伴者作家のように用いられた。同時期の日本では、プロレタリア文学運動の組織外にありながら立場・主張の近かった、野上弥生子、山本有三、広津和郎、芹沢光治良、片上伸らが同伴者作家の名でよばれた。宮本顕治には、主として広津和郎を論じた「同伴者作家」（『思想』1931年4月号掲載）という論考がある。
central vs local
- ******After Rome fell, Europe went into the Dark Ages, which was marked by the lack of strong central authority. Many local lords arose to power (take a look at the Holy Roman Empire, what is now Germany, for what I mean), who saw one another as rivals and potential threats. These lords had much less territory than Rome did, so they naturally had fewer men in their army.
To give an idea of the numbers - The Battle of Hastings (1066 AD) pitted 10,000 defenders against 7,000 invaders. Compare that to the Battle of Alesia (52 BC) with somewhere between 50,000 and 100,000 Romans under Julius Caesar (it’s unclear how many Gauls there were, as Roman propaganda had a tendency to overestimate the enemy numbers to make the victory seem greater).So if you want to be a military power, but you can’t field a lot of men, what do you do?You build castles; and,You develop an elite group of warriors, the knights.The rise of the knights is also closely tied to the rise of castles, because eventually, the well-armored, well-armed, and well-trained knights were the military power units of the Middle Ages. For a time, knights dominated the field of battle, but knights were ineffective against castles.It should also be pointed out that castles needed very few people to man and hold off a besieging army. Castles were status symbols, displays of wealth and power, a means to reassure the locals that their lord could protect them, and major investments. https://www.quora.com/Why-didnt-the-Romans-build-castles-Why-did-castles-emerge-as-the-thing-to-build-in-medieval-times
-In the first move of a promised battle between Gov. Gavin Newsom and local governments over California’s housing affordability crisis, the state sued the city of Huntington Beach on Friday and accused it of failing to allow enough new homebuilding to accommodate a growing population.
At Newsom’s urging, the state attorney general’s office filed a lawsuit in Orange County Superior Court against the community over a state law that requires cities and counties to set aside sufficient land for new residential development. The governor said in a statement that the suit was needed because rising housing costs threaten the economy and deepen inequality. Newsom indicated that the case, the first filed under enhanced authority given last year to the governor’s office to investigate compliance with the housing law, could be just the beginning.“Many cities are taking herculean efforts to meet this crisis head-on,” Newsom said. “But some cities are refusing to do their part to address this crisis and willfully stand in violation of California law. Those cities will be held to account.”https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-pol-ca-gavin-newsom-huntington-beach-housing-lawsuit-20190125-story.html
- 美國運輸部早前宣布取消及追討對加州高鐵項目的撥款，該州政府周二興訟控告聯邦政府無權扣留，並指摘此舉是「政治報復」，認為其指控失實，令申請臨時禁制令禁止聯邦政府向圍牆等項目注資。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190523/00180_021.html
- 美國運輸部早前宣布取消及追討對加州高鐵項目的撥款，該州政府周二興訟控告聯邦政府無權扣留，並指摘此舉是「政治報復」，認為其指控失實，令申請臨時禁制令禁止聯邦政府向圍牆等項目注資。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190523/00180_021.html
- province v city
- 美國紐約州增至逾十八萬人感染新冠肺炎，逾半病例來自紐約市。市長白思豪前天宣布，全市公立學校關閉至本學年完結為止，但州長科莫指對方沒有此法律權限。這是繼雙方上月爭拗「封城令」後，再次在抗疫政策出現分歧。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200413/00180_003.html
- 巴西總統博爾索納羅前日無懼新冠肺炎疫情，在首都巴西利亞的軍隊總部外，出席反居家令集會，他於會上抨擊州政府實施隔離措施抗疫，期間又多次咳嗽。約六百名支持者參與是次集會，並且要求關閉國會，改由軍隊介入抗疫。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200421/00180_012.html
- 澳洲新冠肺炎疫情反彈，維多利亞省周一公布，省內前一日新增一百二十七宗病例，打破疫情爆發以來的紀錄。維省同日宣布，將於明日起關閉來往毗鄰新南威爾士省的邊界，為一百年來首次；上次兩省關閉邊界，已是在一九一九年為了遏止西班牙流感傳播之時。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200707/00180_001.html
economist 3oct2020 "the missing local links" the pandemic has helped to give new prominence to mayors
民族自決
- 歷史上，從二、三百年歐美帝國主義、殖民主義興起，因屬小國、後起，它們的政治擴張之法，多是把大帝國瓦解，既用戰爭侵迫，更用民族自治，把帝國內的多民族成員變成對立，從內部分裂帝國。例子是歐洲的奧匈帝國、奧斯曼帝國、印度的蒙兀兒帝國，乃至中國。中國在一九四九年前，列強先是割地建租界，繼而建立地區勢力範圍來逐步蠶食。如俄羅斯佔新疆與黑龍江、英據西藏、日本佔東北。二次大戰的遠東戰區實際上是日本與歐美列強爭奪領土。歐美是以民族自決為宣傳，日本則反歐美民族主義，也是強調民族自決，不過背後還有大東亞共榮圈，滿洲國的統治本質與日本殖民的朝鮮、台灣無異。同樣例子，英國瓦解蒙兀兒帝國之後，所謂民族自決變成英國─印度帝國。而英印帝國瓦解，則拆出印度、巴基斯坦與孟加拉三國。最新的例子是美國瓦解蘇聯、東歐、南斯拉夫，用的都是民族自決，成功之後則是歐盟與北約東擴，把分裂獨立出來的國家再次收編。在伊朗、伊拉克、敍利亞，也是企圖分拆出新的民族自決的國家來。民族自決實際成為歐美帝國主義的政治工具，自決是它們吞併前的手段。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20190501/00184_001.html
Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows to another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that kings, popes, and the wealthy have provided to artists such as musicians, painters, and sculptors. It can also refer to the right of bestowing offices or church benefices, the business given to a store by a regular customer, and the guardianship of saints. The word "patron" derives from the Latin: patronus ("patron"), one who gives benefits to his clients (see Patronage in ancient Rome). In some countries the term is used to describe political patronage, which is the use of state resources to reward individuals for their electoral support. Some patronage systems are legal, as in the Canadian tradition of the Prime Minister to appoint senators and the heads of a number of commissions and agencies; in many cases, these appointments go to people who have supported the political party of the Prime Minister. As well, the term may refer to a type of corruption or favoritism in which a party in power rewards groups, families, ethnicities for their electoral support using illegal gifts or fraudulently awarded appointments or government contracts. Le mécénat désigne le fait d'aider et peut être par la suite de promouvoir des arts et des lettres par des commandes ou des aides financières privées, que le mécène soit une personne physique ou une personne morale, comme une entreprise. Dans une acception plus large, il peut s'appliquer également à tout domaine d'intérêt général : recherche, éducation, environnement, sport, solidarité, innovation, etc. Au cœur du mécénat se développe de plus en plus le mécénat d’entreprise qui se définit comme un soutien financier, humain ou matériel apporté sans contrepartie directe par une entreprise, mais aussi grâce à la générosité de certains milliardaires[4]. En fiscalité et en comptabilité, il est considéré comme un don. Concrètement, le mécénat bénéficie d'un régime fiscal avantageux dans la mesure où il existe une disproportion marquée entre le versement et les contreparties reçues. Le mécénat n'est cependant pas à confondre avec le parrainage car il ne demande pas — à l'inverse du parrainage — une contrepartie.
- Le mot « mécénat » se réfère au personnage de Caius Cilnius Mæcenas, protecteur des arts et des lettres dans la Rome antique. Il s'est progressivement élargi pour désigner dans le langage courant une personne physique ou morale qui soutient par son influence ou par des moyens financiers un projet culturel ou un artiste. Au cours de l'histoire le mécénat a connu une importance variable et fut marqué par des personnalités : on parle ainsi du mécénat des princesses médiévales comme Mahaut d'Artois ou Isabeau de Bavière dont les commandes faisaient vivre plusieurs artistes. L'âge d'or du mécénat surgit avec la Renaissance italienne. Les Arti à Florence, qui protègent leurs corporations marchandes, financent également les beaux-arts et leurs artistes en commanditant des œuvres pour les édifices religieux (particulièrement l'Arte di Calimala). Les Médicis, notamment Laurent le Magnifique, sont connus pour répandre leurs bienfaits envers les artistes dont ils permettront ainsi la renommée; amateur éclairé, Laurent de Médicis prit sous sa protection de nombreux artistes comme Michel-Ange, Andrea del Verrocchio, les architectes Giuliano da Maiano et Giuliano da Sangallo ou des humanistes ou savants comme Pic de la Mirandole. À Ferrare, Hercule Ier d'Este eut un rôle comparable. Le banquier siennois Agostino Chigi soutint financièrement des artistes et des écrivains tels que Le Pérugin, Giovanni da Udine, Giulio Romano, Baldassarre Peruzzi, Sebastiano del Piombo, Le Sodoma, Raphaël et L'Arétin. À la même époque, le cardinal et ministre Georges d'Amboise, grand mécène, fut l'un des principaux introducteurs de la Renaissance en France. Le roi François Ier ainsi que le connétable de France, Anne de Montmorency, furent aussi de grands mécènes. Le roi se servit du mécénat afin de montrer sa puissance. On peut citer l'exemple du château de Fontainebleau qui accueillit de nombreux artistes italiens et français, et Léonard de Vinci que François Ier ramena d'Italie en 1516 et installa à Amboise, au Clos Lucé. L'empereur Rodolphe II fut également un grand mécène, confirmant en 1595 les privilèges de la corporation des peintres et acquérant de nombreux tableaux du Titien, d'Albrecht Dürer ou des Brueghel qu'il installe au Château de Prague. L'Italien Giuseppe Arcimboldo le peignit en vertumne et reçut le titre de comte palatin.
- Political patronage, also known as "Padrino System" also a slang call as balimbing (starfruit), in the Philippines, has been the source of many controversies and corruption. It has been an open secret that one cannot join the political arena of the Philippines without mastery of the Padrino System. From the lowest Barangay official, to the President of the Republic, it is expected that one gains political debts and dispenses political favor to advance one's career or gain influence, if not wealth. - economist 22dec18 "the new medicis"
Clientelism is the exchange of goods and services for political support, often involving an implicit or explicit quid-pro-quo. Clientalism involves an asymmetric relationship between groups of political actors described as patrons, brokers, and clients. Richard Graham has defined clientelism as a set of actions based on the principle take there, give here, with the practice allowing both clients and patrons to gain advantage from the other's support. Moreover, clientelism is typified by "exchange systems where voters trade political support for various outputs of the public decision-making process".
- eg sadat's regime
A wilayah (Arabic: ولاية wilāya; Urdu and Persian: ولایت velâyat; Turkish: vilayet) is an administrative division, usually translated as "state", "province", or occasionally as "governorate". The word comes from the Arabic "w-l-y", "to govern": a wāli—"governor"—governs a wilayah, "that which is governed". Under the Caliphate, the term referred to any constituent near-sovereign state.
- In Arabic, wilayah is used to refer to the states of the United States, and the United States of America as a whole is called al-Wilāyāt al-Muttaḥidah al-Amrīkīyah, literally meaning "the American United States".
- For Morocco, which is divided into provinces and wilāyas, the translation "province" would cause the distinction to cease.
- For Sudan, the term state, and for Mauritania, the term region is used.
- In the ethnically-diverse Xinjiang region of northwest China, the seven undifferentiated prefectures proper (Chinese: 地区; pinyin: dìqū; that is, not prefecture-level cities, autonomous prefectures, etc.) are translated into the minority Uygur language as Vilayiti (ۋىلايىتى). For the other, more numerous types of administrative divisions in Xinjiang, however, Uygur uses Russian loanwords like oblasti or rayoni, in common with other Xinjiang languages like Kazakh.
- The self-proclaimed Islamic State (formerly of Iraq and Syria; Daesh, ISIS, IS or ISIL) organizes its territory under first-level administrative divisions called wilayat. As of March 2015, it governs 20 vilayat: 10 in Iraq, 9 in Syria, and one, Al-Furat Wilayat ("EuphratesProvince") that straddles both sides of the former border. Other than for internal governance, the Islamic State claims territory all over the world and cooperates with Islamic terror organizations while fashioning them wilayat of the ISIS center. For example, Boko Haramcalls itself "Wilāyat Gharb Ifrīqīyyah", meaning "The Islamic State's West Africa Province".
- wilayad of hind established in pashmir wenwei 12may19
- In Kenya, the term wilaya is a Swahili term which refers to the administrative districts into which provinces are divided.
- In Malay, Indonesian, and Tausug, wilayah or wilāya is a general word meaning "territory", "area" or "region".
- In Philippines, the term Wilāya sin Lupa' Sūg refers to the province of Sulu, Philippines.
- Traditionally the provinces of the Ottoman Empire were known as eyâlets, but beginning in 1864, they were gradually restructured as smaller vilâyets—the Turkish pronunciation of the Arabic word wilāyah. Most were subdivided into sanjaks. The current provinces of Turkey are called il in Turkish.
- The Persian word for province (velâyat) is still used in several similar forms in Central Asian countries
- In Urdu, the term Vilayat is used to refer to any foreign country. As an adjective Vilayati is used to indicate an imported article or good. In Bengali, the term is bilat and bilati (archaic bilaiti), referring exclusively to Britain and British-made. The British slang term blightyderives from this word, via the fact that the foreign British were referred to using this word during the time of the British Raj.
The term fellow traveller (also fellow traveler) identifies a person who is intellectually sympathetic to the ideology of a political organization, and who co-operates in the organization's politics, without being a formal member of that organization. In the early history of the Soviet Union, the Bolshevik revolutionary Trotsky coined the term poputchik ('one who travels the same path') to identify the vacillating intellectual supporters of the Bolshevik régime. Likewise for the political characterisation of the Russian intelligentsiya (writers, academics, and artists) who were philosophically sympathetic to the political, social, and economic goals of the Russian Revolution of 1917, but who chose to not join the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). Moreover, during the Stalinist régime, the usage of the term poputchik disappeared from political discourse in the Soviet Union, but the Western world adopted the English term fellow traveller to identify people who sympathised with the Soviets and with Communism. In U.S. politics, during the 1940s and the 1950s, the term fellow traveler was a pejorative term for a person who was philosophically sympathetic to Communism, yet was not a formal, "card-carrying member" of the American Communist Party. In political discourse, the term fellow traveler was applied to intellectuals, academics, and politicians who lent their names and prestige to Communist front organizations.In European politics, the equivalent terms for fellow traveller are: Compagnon de route, sympathisant, and progressiste in France; Weggenosse and Sympathisant in Germany; and compagno di viaggio in Italy.同伴者（どうはんしゃ、ロシア語: Попутчикr）は、ある思想や運動に共鳴して、積極的に参加はしないが協力をする人を指すことばである 。おもに1920年代から1930年代にかけて、革命文学・プロレタリア文学・プロレタリア作家に対する同伴者文学・同伴者作家のように用いられた。同時期の日本では、プロレタリア文学運動の組織外にありながら立場・主張の近かった、野上弥生子、山本有三、広津和郎、芹沢光治良、片上伸らが同伴者作家の名でよばれた。宮本顕治には、主として広津和郎を論じた「同伴者作家」（『思想』1931年4月号掲載）という論考がある。
Hoi polloi (Ancient Greek: οἱ πολλοί, hoi polloi, "the many") is an expression from Greek that means the many or, in the strictest sense, the majority. In English, it has been corrupted by being given a negative connotation to signify deprecation of the working class, commoners, the masses or common people in a derogatory or (more often today) ironic sense. Synonyms for hoi polloi, which also express the same or similar distaste for the common people felt by those who believe themselves to be superior, include "the great unwashed", "the plebeians" or "plebs", "the rabble", "the masses","the dregs of society", "riffraff", "the herd", "the canaille", "the proles" (proletariat), "sheeple", and "peons". The phrase probably became known to English scholars through Pericles' Funeral Oration, as mentioned in Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War. Pericles uses it in a positive way when praising the Athenian democracy, contrasting it with hoi oligoi, "the few" (Greek: οἱ ὀλίγοι, see also oligarchy).
cultural capital
- Pierre Felix Bourdieu (French: [buʁdjø]; 1 August 1930 – 23 January 2002) was a French sociologist, anthropologist,[3] philosopher, and public intellectual. Bourdieu's work was primarily concerned with the dynamics of power in society, and especially the diverse and subtle ways in which power is transferred and social order maintained within and across generations. In conscious opposition to the idealist tradition of much of Western philosophy, his work often emphasized the corporeal nature of social life and stressed the role of practice and embodiment in social dynamics. Building upon the theories of Martin Heidegger, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Edmund Husserl, Georges Canguilhem, Karl Marx, Gaston Bachelard, Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Erwin Panofsky, and Marcel Mauss(among others), his research pioneered novel investigative frameworks and methods, and introduced such influential concepts as cultural, social, and symbolic forms of capital (as opposed to traditional economic forms of capital), the cultural reproduction, the habitus, the field or location, and symbolic violence. Another notable influence on Bourdieu was Blaise Pascal, after whom Bourdieu titled his Pascalian Meditations. Bourdieu's major contributions to the sociology of education, the theory of sociology, and sociology of aesthetics have achieved wide influence in several related academic fields (e.g. anthropology, media and cultural studies, education), popular culture, and the arts. Bourdieu's best known book is Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (1979). The book was judged the sixth most important sociological work of the twentieth century by the International Sociological Association.[5] In it, Bourdieu argues that judgments of taste are related to social position, or more precisely, are themselves acts of social positioning. His argument is put forward by an original combination of social theory and data from quantitative surveys, photographs and interviews, in an attempt to reconcile difficulties such as how to understand the subject within objective structures. In the process, he tried to reconcile the influences of both external social structures and subjective experience on the individual (see structure and agency).
separation of church and state
religion diversity
- german practice of auslauf during reformation - to enable people of different faiths to live in the same towns and villages; bautzen is the earliest example of simultankirche
- tauferversteck - a prominent stop on virtually all menonite discovery tours is emblematic of two features of survival of anabaptists of emmental: secrecy to protect pastors and leaders; clandestine networks of support that sustained the brethen for decades and centuries
- edict of nantes incorporated three principles - integration, parity and privilege
removal of religious buildings/monuments
- 據境外媒體上周五報道，內蒙古哲里木盟一座藏傳佛教寺廟，周一遭通遼市政府及科爾沁左翼中旗政府強拆，數百名前來抗議阻止的牧民被警方以辣椒水驅散，有人眼睛受傷。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191215/00178_007.html
revolution, state opposition activities
- mobilisation
cultural capital
- Pierre Felix Bourdieu (French: [buʁdjø]; 1 August 1930 – 23 January 2002) was a French sociologist, anthropologist,[3] philosopher, and public intellectual. Bourdieu's work was primarily concerned with the dynamics of power in society, and especially the diverse and subtle ways in which power is transferred and social order maintained within and across generations. In conscious opposition to the idealist tradition of much of Western philosophy, his work often emphasized the corporeal nature of social life and stressed the role of practice and embodiment in social dynamics. Building upon the theories of Martin Heidegger, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Edmund Husserl, Georges Canguilhem, Karl Marx, Gaston Bachelard, Max Weber, Émile Durkheim, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Erwin Panofsky, and Marcel Mauss(among others), his research pioneered novel investigative frameworks and methods, and introduced such influential concepts as cultural, social, and symbolic forms of capital (as opposed to traditional economic forms of capital), the cultural reproduction, the habitus, the field or location, and symbolic violence. Another notable influence on Bourdieu was Blaise Pascal, after whom Bourdieu titled his Pascalian Meditations. Bourdieu's major contributions to the sociology of education, the theory of sociology, and sociology of aesthetics have achieved wide influence in several related academic fields (e.g. anthropology, media and cultural studies, education), popular culture, and the arts. Bourdieu's best known book is Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (1979). The book was judged the sixth most important sociological work of the twentieth century by the International Sociological Association.[5] In it, Bourdieu argues that judgments of taste are related to social position, or more precisely, are themselves acts of social positioning. His argument is put forward by an original combination of social theory and data from quantitative surveys, photographs and interviews, in an attempt to reconcile difficulties such as how to understand the subject within objective structures. In the process, he tried to reconcile the influences of both external social structures and subjective experience on the individual (see structure and agency).
separation of church and state
- usa
- economist 2mar19 "cross roads" a supreme court case could make holes in the wall between church and state
- 慶祝日皇德仁即位巡遊的「祝賀御列之儀」舉行過後，祈求國泰民安及五穀豐收的「大嘗祭」傳統感恩儀式亦將舉行。其中核心儀式「大嘗宮之儀」於周四晚至周五凌晨在皇居內東御苑的大嘗宮徹夜舉行，全國各地同日亦舉行祭典。惟這場耗費公帑的儀式，因帶有濃厚宗教色彩而受批評。非公開的大嘗祭耗資逾廿七億日圓（約兩億港元），被視為日皇最重要的繼承儀式，但因被指使用公帑有違「政教分離」原則，甚至等同推廣歷史上被用作殖民主義和侵略的根基國教而引發巨大爭議。雖有人為此提訟，但最終被最高法院以儀式屬社會傳統為由駁回。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191115/00180_010.html
Cuius regio, eius religio (Ecclesiastical Latin: [ˈkujus ˈredʒi.o ˈejus reˈlidʒi.o]) is a Latin phrase which literally means "whose realm, his religion" - meaning that the religion of the ruler was to dictate the religion of those ruled. This legal principle marked a major development in the collective (if not individual) freedom of religion within Western civilization. (Before tolerance of individual religious divergences became accepted, most statesmen and political theorists took it for granted that religious diversity weakened a state[1] - and particularly weakened ecclesiastically-transmitted control and monitoring in a state.[2]) The principle of "cuius regio" was a compromise in the conflict between this paradigm of statecraft and the emerging trend toward religious pluralism (co-existence within a single territory) developing throughout the German-speaking lands of the Holy Roman Empire. It permitted assortative migration of adherents to just two theocracies, Roman Catholic and Lutheran, eliding other confessions. At the Peace of Augsburg of 1555, which ended a period of armed conflict between Roman Catholic and Protestant forces within the Holy Roman Empire, the rulers of the German-speaking states and the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, agreed to accept this principle.
religion diversity
- mechanism
- secrecy
- dissimulation
- casuistry
- private education
- indifference
- connivance
- toleration
- ad hoc tolerance
- after edict of nantes, jewish enclave flourish in coming decades, becoming a focal point of jewish culture and commerce in france, and with construction of a public synagogue in 1619, metz became a visibly triconfessional city.
- tauferversteck - a prominent stop on virtually all menonite discovery tours is emblematic of two features of survival of anabaptists of emmental: secrecy to protect pastors and leaders; clandestine networks of support that sustained the brethen for decades and centuries
- edict of nantes incorporated three principles - integration, parity and privilege
removal of religious buildings/monuments
- 據境外媒體上周五報道，內蒙古哲里木盟一座藏傳佛教寺廟，周一遭通遼市政府及科爾沁左翼中旗政府強拆，數百名前來抗議阻止的牧民被警方以辣椒水驅散，有人眼睛受傷。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191215/00178_007.html
"Bread and circuses" (or bread and games; from Latin: panem et circenses) is a metonymic phrase critiquing superficial appeasement. It is attributed to Juvenal, a Roman poet active in the late first and early second century AD — and is used commonly in cultural, particularly political, contexts. In a political context, the phrase means to generate public approval, not by excellence in public service or public policy, but by diversion, distraction or by satisfying the most immediate or base requirements of a populace[1] — by offering a palliative: for example food (bread) or entertainment (circuses). Juvenal, who originated the phrase, used it to decry the selfishness of common people and their neglect of wider concerns.[2][3][4] The phrase implies a population's erosion or ignorance of civic duty as a priority.This phrase originates from Rome in Satire X of the Roman satirical poet Juvenal (c. AD 100). In context, the Latin panem et circenses (bread and circuses) identifies the only remaining interest of a Roman populace which no longer cares for its historical birthright of political involvement. Here Juvenal displays his contempt for the declining heroism of contemporary Romans, using a range of different themes including lust for power and desire for old age to illustrate his argument.[6] Roman politicians passed laws in 140 BC to keep the votes of poorer citizens, by introducing a grain dole: giving out cheap food and entertainment, "bread and circuses", became the most effective way to rise to power.Juvenal here makes reference to the Roman practice of providing free wheat to Roman citizens as well as costly circus games and other forms of entertainment as a means of gaining political power. The Annona (grain dole) was begun under the instigation of the popularis politician Gaius Sempronius Gracchus in 123 BC; it remained an object of political contention until it was taken under the control of the autocratic Roman emperors.
referendum
- 2nd voting on the same issue
- https://simonshen.blog/2018/12/18/如果是機制一部份：英國脫歐二次公投？/
unconstitutional
- 美國總統特朗普上任以來，處理非法移民手法惹來爭議。五名美國記者周三控告美國政府，指控邊境執法人員早前盤問、檢查相機及電腦行為，違反美國憲法第一修正案。海關及邊防局（CBP）不予置評，國土安全部暫未回應。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191122/00180_019.html
- 在台灣實施八十五年的通姦罪，日前有法官認為通姦罪涉嫌違憲，聲請台灣的司法院釋憲。台灣的司法院院長許宗力，昨日主持大法官會議，指因上述法例違反《憲法》的平等原則，宣布即日起失效。有五名犯通姦罪犯人當晚獲釋。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200530/00178_003.html
- 美國總統特朗普上任以來，處理非法移民手法惹來爭議。五名美國記者周三控告美國政府，指控邊境執法人員早前盤問、檢查相機及電腦行為，違反美國憲法第一修正案。海關及邊防局（CBP）不予置評，國土安全部暫未回應。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20191122/00180_019.html
- 在台灣實施八十五年的通姦罪，日前有法官認為通姦罪涉嫌違憲，聲請台灣的司法院釋憲。台灣的司法院院長許宗力，昨日主持大法官會議，指因上述法例違反《憲法》的平等原則，宣布即日起失效。有五名犯通姦罪犯人當晚獲釋。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20200530/00178_003.html
Sharecropping is a form of agriculture in which a landowner allows a tenant to use the land in return for a share of the crops produced on their portion of land. Sharecropping has a long history and there are a wide range of different situations and types of agreements that have used a form of the system. Some are governed by tradition, and others by law. Legal contract systems such as the Italian mezzadria, the French métayage, the Spanish mediero, the Slavic połowcy,издoльщина or the Islamic system of muqasat, occur widely.Sharecropping became widespread in the South as a response to economic upheaval caused by the end of slavery during and after Reconstruction. Sharecropping was a way for poor farmers, both white and black, to earn a living from land owned by someone else. The landowner provided land, housing, tools and seed, and perhaps a mule, and a local merchant provided food and supplies on credit. At harvest time, the sharecropper received a share of the crop (from one-third to one-half, with the landowner taking the rest). The cropper used his share to pay off his debt to the merchant. The system started with blacks when large plantations were subdivided. By the 1880s, white farmers also became sharecroppers. The system was distinct from that of the tenant farmer, who rented the land, provided his own tools and mule, and received half the crop. Landowners provided more supervision to sharecroppers, and less or none to tenant farmers. Sharecropping in the United States probably originated in the Natchez District, roughly centered in Adams County, Mississippi with its county seat, Natchez.. In the summer of 1865, President Andrew Johnson, as one of the first acts of Reconstruction, instead ordered all land under federal control be returned to its previous owners. This meant that plantation and land owners in the South regained their land but lacked a labor force. The solution was sharecropping, which enabled the government to match labor with demand and begin the process of economically rebuilding the nation via labor contracts.In Reconstruction-era United States, sharecropping was one of few options for penniless freedmen to support themselves and their families. Other solutions included the crop-lien system (where the farmer was extended credit for seed and other supplies by the merchant), a rent labor system (where the former slave rents his land but keeps his entire crop), and the wage system (worker earns a fixed wage, but keeps none of their crop). Sharecropping was by far the most economically efficient, as it provided incentives for workers to produce a bigger harvest. It was a stage beyond simple hired labor because the sharecropper had an annual contract. During Reconstruction, the federal Freedmen's Bureau ordered the arrangements[27] and wrote and enforced the contracts.Typically, a sharecropping agreement would specify which party was expected to cover certain expenses, like seed, fertilizer, weed control, irrigation district assessments, and fuel. Sometimes the sharecropper covered those costs, but they expected a larger share of the crop in return. The agreement would also indicate whether the sharecropper would use his own equipment to raise the crops, or use the landlord's equipment. The agreement would also indicate whether the landlord would pick up his or her share of the crop in the field or whether the sharecropper would deliver it (and where it would be delivered.)Cooperative farming exists in many forms throughout the United States, Canada, and the rest of the world. Various arrangements can be made through collective bargaining or purchasing to get the best deals on seeds, supplies, and equipment. For example, members of a farmers' cooperative who cannot afford heavy equipment of their own can lease them for nominal fees from the cooperative. Farmers' cooperatives can also allow groups of small farmers and dairymen to manage pricing and prevent undercutting by competitors.The theory of share tenancy was long dominated by Alfred Marshall's famous footnote in Book VI, Chapter X.14 of Principles[39] where he illustrated the inefficiency of agricultural share-contracting. Steven N.S. Cheung (1969),[40] challenged this view, showing that with sufficient competition and in the absence of transaction costs, share tenancy will be equivalent to competitive labor markets and therefore efficient. He also showed that in the presence of transaction costs, share-contracting may be preferred to either wage contracts or rent contracts—due to the mitigation of labor shirking and the provision of risk sharing. Joseph Stiglitz (1974, 1988), suggested that if share tenancy is only a labor contract, then it is only pairwise-efficient and that land-to-the-tiller reform would improve social efficiency by removing the necessity for labor contracts in the first place.
佃農是指租用他人田地，從事農業生產的農民。在內戰前後，中國共產黨也推行過類似臺灣的改革，但在1950年代由國家強行合併為人民公社。佃農的身份徹底消失。 但作為公社成員不是自耕農，所以常只想分到公社的好處，又不主動努力貢獻。 中共實行改革開放政策以後，農民承租國有土地的制度開始實行，稱為家庭聯產承包責任制。由於大陸只有土地國有的地權制度，事實上農戶定位類似國家的佃農，但不同真正的佃農，即需要上交的作物較少，政府也不可以輕易驅逐農民。但因為對於土地用途的限制，很多農民仍然不滿意，直到2006年農業稅徹底取消連類似佃農地位[13]。
- Elijah Eugene Cummings (January 18, 1951 – October 17, 2019) was an American politician and civil rights advocate who served in the United States House of Representatives for Maryland's 7th congressional district from 1996 until his death in 2019. His parents are sharecroppers.
- mobilisation
- case of situationist international [knabb]
- its new method of agitation were influential in leading up to the may 1968 revolt in france. SI itself was dissolved in 1972, but its theses and tactics have been taken up by radical currents in dozens of countries all over the world.
- conference
- apr1959 munich
- sep1960 london secret address in east end
- 5th conference in goteborg in 1961
- 63 men and 7 women from 16 different countries were members at one time or another. Most were from western europe;three were from usa, two from algeria, one each from congo, hungary, israel, rumania, tunisia and venezuela.
- si gives critical support to extreme wing of zenggakuren in japan, rebels in congo and spanish underground
- literature, reference
- french journal internationale situationniste
- SI anthology at bureau of public secrets website www.bopsecrets.org
- https://www.cddc.vt.edu/sionline/
A manifesto is a published declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an individual, group, political party or government. A manifesto usually accepts a previously published opinion or public consensus or promotes a new idea with prescriptive notions for carrying out changes the author believes should be made. It often is political or artistic in nature, but may present an individual's life stance. Manifestos relating to religious belief are generally referred to as creeds.
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