Empire of China (中華帝國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Dìguó) was a short-lived attempt by statesman and general Yuan Shikai from late 1915 to early 1916 to reinstate monarchy in China, with himself as the Hongxian Emperor (洪憲皇帝; Hóngxiàn Huángdì). The attempt was ultimately a failure; it set back the Chinese republican cause by many years and fractured China into a period of conflict between various local warlords.After Yuan Shikai was installed as the second Provisional Great President of the Republic of China, he took various steps to consolidate his power and remove opposition leaders from office. To secure his own power he collaborated with various European powers as well as Japan. Around August 1915, he instructed Yang Du (楊度) et al. to canvass support for a return of a monarchy. On 11 December 1915, an assembly unanimously elected him as Emperor. Yuan ceremonially declined, but "relented" and immediately agreed when the National Assembly petitioned again that day. On 12 December, Yuan, supported by his son Yuan Keding, declared the Empire of China with himself as the "Great Emperor of the Chinese Empire" ( 中華帝國大皇帝), taking the era name Hongxian (洪憲, "Constitutional Abundance"). However, Yuan, now known as the Hongxian Emperor, delayed the accession rites until 1 January 1916. He had Manchurian clothes removed from culture and had a Han Chinese clothes revived but had put some changes to it. He wore a new Han clothes to attend a dress rehearsal. A dress rehearsal was sabotaged by his Korean concubine. Soon after, the Hongxian Emperor started handing out titles of peerage to his closest relatives and friends, as well as those whom he thought he could buy with titles. The Aisin Gioro family, then living within the Forbidden City but as foreign monarchs rather than Chinese ones, "approved" of the Hongxian Emperor's accession, and even proposed a "royal marriage" of the emperor's daughter to Puyi.
察哈爾省，簡稱察，為中華民國塞北四省之一，省會張垣（又稱張家口，當時叫張家口廳，同時張家口以叫張垣而聞名），於1948年取消察哈爾省建制，和綏遠省合併為內蒙古自治區。以察哈尔部蒙古命名。民國二年（1913年），以直隸省口北道和綏遠都統、察哈爾部、錫林郭勒盟設置察哈爾特別區。1928年改置為省.
- 察哈尔民众抗日同盟军，又称察绥抗日同盟军。是指1933年由冯玉祥、吉鸿昌、方振武等中国将领在察哈尔省组织的一支抗日部队。长城事变结束后，日本军队开始越过长城，向华北渗透，1933年春，日军派遣伪军刘桂堂、张海鹏、李守信等伪军共约1万6千多人进占察哈尔部分地区。1933年5月26日，冯玉祥在张家口正式成立以冯玉祥原部下和共产党支持者为主组成的察哈尔民众抗日同盟军，共有10万人，冯玉祥为总司令。6月22日起开始向察哈尔的伪军展开进攻，7月4日，吉鸿昌指挥同盟军攻打多伦，但多日不下，同盟军遂与多伦伪军将领李守信谈判，“借”多伦一个月，李守信答应。一个月后，伪军重占多伦。同时，因为当时全面性抗战尚未爆发，蒋介石认为该军妨害统一政令、破坏国策，更因为同盟军有中共背景，遂令何应钦指挥16个师逼近察哈尔。而中共方面一开始就有利用同盟军消耗国民政府军的企图，另一方面苏联也不信任、不支持冯玉祥，反而认为冯玉祥是故意要挑拨苏日冲突。在这种内外交迫情况下，冯玉祥被迫于8月5日通电全国解散抗日同盟军，并离开部队，同盟军大部被宋哲元軍部收编。但方振武、吉鸿昌掌握的部队不愿接受收编，转入河北昌平一带进行武装暴动，至10月失败。1933年方振武流亡国外。1934年春，逃亡并隐藏在天津的中共党员吉鸿昌，策动参加对中央苏区第五次圍剿戰爭的旧部两个师反蒋，并策划在老家河南发起反蒋暴动，因而于11月9日在天津被国民党特务逮捕，后在北平被國民政府軍事法院依法判处死刑。
- 五台山为中心的晋察冀军区，创建了第一个敌后抗日根据地。
民國十年（1921年）三月二十日，孫中山演講《五權憲法》，說：「五權憲法是兄弟所創造，古今中外各國從來沒有的。」他認為，傳統西方憲法在政府機關採取的三權分立（行政權、立法權、司法權）制度中，行政機關擁有考試權將可能濫用私人[註 2]，立法機關擁有監察權則將有國會專制的流弊（孫中山認為，西方代議民主中的國會相對於行政機關權力太大，常常形成國會獨裁或議會專制[2][3]）；因此認為應該將此兩者分離，另設考試院和監察院。此乃五權分立之由來。他說，這是「破天荒的政體」。民國十年（1921年）三月二十日，孫中山演講《五權憲法》，說：「五權憲法是兄弟[註 1]所創造，古今中外各國從來沒有的。」他認為，傳統西方憲法在政府機關採取的三權分立（行政權、立法權、司法權）制度中，行政機關擁有考試權將可能濫用私人[註 2]，立法機關擁有監察權則將有國會專制的流弊（孫中山認為，西方代議民主中的國會相對於行政機關權力太大，常常形成國會獨裁或議會專制[2][3]）；因此認為應該將此兩者分離，另設考試院和監察院。
The First Zhili–Fengtian War (First Chihli-Fengtien War; 第一次直奉戰爭) was a 1922 conflict in the Republic of China's Warlord Era between the Zhili and Fengtian cliques for control of Beijing. The war led to the defeat of the Fengtian clique and the fall of its leader, Zhang Zuolin, from the coalition Zhili-Fengtian government in Beijing. Wu Peifu was credited as the strategist behind Zhili's victory.
The Second Zhili–Fengtian War (Second Chihli-Fengtien War; 第二次直奉戰爭) of 1924 was a conflict between the Japanese-backed Fengtian clique based in Manchuria, and the more liberal Zhili clique controlling Beijing and backed by Anglo-American business interests. The war is considered the most significant in China's Warlord era, with the Beijing coup by Christian warlord Feng Yuxiang leading to the overall defeat of the Zhili clique. During the war the two cliques fought one large battle near Tianjin in October 1924, as well as a number of smaller skirmishes and sieges. Afterwards, both Feng and Zhang Zuolin, the latter being ruler of the Fengtian clique, appointed Duan Qirui as a figurehead prime minister. In south and central China, more liberal Chinese were dismayed by the Fengtian's advance and by the resulting power vacuum. A wave of protests followed. The war also distracted the northern warlords from the Soviet-backed Nationalists based in the southern province of Guangdong, allowing unhampered preparation for the Northern Expedition (1926–1928), which united China under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek.
棗宜會戰為1940年5月至6月，中國第5戰區部隊在湖北省棗陽、宜昌地區對日軍華中派遣軍第11軍進行的防御戰役，日軍方面則稱為宜昌作戰，目標是消滅宜昌周圍的第5戰區兵力。Chinese won according to english wikipedia and japanese won according to japanese and chinese wikipedia.
國民革命軍（簡稱國軍、革命軍）是中國國民黨在1924年師法蘇聯共產黨軍事制度創設之軍隊。1925年7月，國民政府在廣州成立，將所屬軍隊改編為國民革命軍[1]:2012。是中國國民黨所轄的軍隊，也是中華民國在國民革命軍北伐後到行憲前的國家武裝力量，為中華民國國軍的前身。The National Revolutionary Army (NRA), sometimes shortened to Revolutionary Army (革命軍) before 1928, and as National Army (國軍) after 1928, was the military arm of the Kuomintang (KMT, or the Chinese Nationalist Party) from 1925 until 1947 in the Republic of China. It also became the regular army of the ROC during the KMT's period of party rule beginning in 1928. It was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces after the 1947 Constitution, which instituted civilian control of the military. Originally organized with Soviet aid as a means for the KMT to unify China during the Warlord Era, the National Revolutionary Army fought major engagements in the Northern Expedition against the Chinese Beiyang Army warlords, in the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) against the Imperial Japanese Army and in the Chinese Civil War against the People's Liberation Army. During the Second Sino-Japanese War, the armed forces of the Communist Party of China were nominally incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army (while retaining separate commands), but broke away to form the People's Liberation Army shortly after the end of the war. With the promulgation of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947 and the formal end of the KMT party-state, the National Revolutionary Army was renamed the Republic of China Armed Forces, with the bulk of its forces forming the Republic of China Army, which retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949.
- 由黄埔军校学生组成的黄埔军校军为第一军，军长蒋中正。“建国湘军”为第二军，“建国滇军”改为第三军，“建国粤军”为第四军，福军为第五军。初期国民革命军在军、师两级设党代表及政治部。1926年1月，改编湖南的“攻鄂军”为第六军，军长程潜。3月，改编广西军队为第七军，军长李宗仁。6月，湖南的唐生智参加革命，部队改编为第八军。7月誓师北伐，当时的国民革命军为八个军约十万人。蒋介石任总司令，李济深为参谋长，白崇禧任参谋次长代理参谋长，邓演达为政治部主任，郭沫若为政治部副主任。一至八军军长及党代表分别为：（一军）何应钦/缪斌；（二军）谭延闿/李富春；（三军）朱培德/朱克靖；（四军）李济深/廖乾五；（五军）李福林/李朗如；（六军）程潜/林伯渠；（七军）李宗仁/黄绍竑；（八军）唐生智/刘文岛（1926年8月前）。北伐战争时期随着战争的进展，扩编为49个军，19个独立师。
- 由黄埔军校学生组成的黄埔军校军为第一军，军长蒋中正。“建国湘军”为第二军，“建国滇军”改为第三军，“建国粤军”为第四军，福军为第五军。初期国民革命军在军、师两级设党代表及政治部。1926年1月，改编湖南的“攻鄂军”为第六军，军长程潜。3月，改编广西军队为第七军，军长李宗仁。6月，湖南的唐生智参加革命，部队改编为第八军。7月誓师北伐，当时的国民革命军为八个军约十万人。蒋介石任总司令，李济深为参谋长，白崇禧任参谋次长代理参谋长，邓演达为政治部主任，郭沫若为政治部副主任。一至八军军长及党代表分别为：（一军）何应钦/缪斌；（二军）谭延闿/李富春；（三军）朱培德/朱克靖；（四军）李济深/廖乾五；（五军）李福林/李朗如；（六军）程潜/林伯渠；（七军）李宗仁/黄绍竑；（八军）唐生智/刘文岛（1926年8月前）。北伐战争时期随着战争的进展，扩编为49个军，19个独立师。
山东军区，也称国民革命军第八路军山东军区、国民革命军第十八集团军山东军区、山东抗日根据地，为抗日战争时期中国共产党及其领导军队在华北地区的四大根据地之一，其范围从津浦路以东的山东大部地区和江苏、安徽、河南三省边界的部分地区，东至黄海、渤海，西临津浦路与冀鲁豫軍区，北抵天津与冀中抗日根据地、冀东抗日根据地，南至陇海路与华中的苏北抗日根据地相连。其军区部队主要为原山东地区游击队和原国民革命军第十八集团军第115师，为林彪统帅的老部队。抗战胜利前夕，其主力部队发展到8个师。1945年9到10月间，罗荣桓率领山东军区1、2、3、5、6、7师共计6万余人进入东北，加上黄克诚率领的从江苏淮安出发进入东北的新四军第三师3.5万余人，共同组建为东北人民自治军，即东北民主联军、东北野战军、第四野战军之前身。山东军区所辖八路军主力部队开进东北之后，山东军区转由新四军接管和进一步发展。1946年1月，中共中央军委电令，新四军军部与山东军区合并，并同时组建一支野战部队。据此，1946年1月7日，以山东军区留守山东的第4师、第8师及其它地方部队，与从皖北、苏北北上的陈毅率领的新四军江北部队，合并组建山东野战军，由新四军军长、山东军区司令员陈毅兼任野战军司令员，饶漱石任政委。1947年2月，山东野战军与粟裕率领的由江南新四军编成的华中野战军共同编组为华东野战军，陈毅任司令员兼政委，粟裕为副司令员兼第一副政委。1949年1月，按中央军委命令，华东野战军改称第三野战军。
clique
- The Zhili clique (sC: 直(隶)系军阀; tC: 直(隸)系軍閥; pinyin: Zhí (Lì) Xì Jūn Fá) was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang clique during the Republic of China's warlord era. This fragmentation followed the death of Yuan Shikai, who was the only person capable of keeping the Beiyang Army together. It was named for the general region of the clique's base of power, Zhili Province, now Hebei. Unlike other cliques, this one was formed by officers who felt discriminated against by Premier Duan Qirui in matters of appointment and promotions. They rallied around President Feng Guozhang who had to share power with Duan's dominant Anhui clique in the Beiyang government. Lacking strong bonds, they were more willing to abandon or betray one another. They advocated a softer line during the Constitutional Protection War. After Feng's natural death, leadership passed to Cao Kun. Cao was victorious in the Zhili-Anhui War(1920) though the credit belongs to his chief lieutenant, Wu Peifu, the greatest strategist in China at the time. Relations with the Fengtian clique, which gave nominal assistance against Anhui, deteriorated and Wu again brought victory during the First Zhili-Fengtian War (1922). In the next two years, the Zhili clique scored successive victories which led to Cao Kun's ascendency to the presidency via bribery. Cao's ambition brought all of his enemies against him and created dissension within the clique. Zhili may have won the Second Zhili-Fengtian War (1924) and eventually reunite all of China had it not been for Feng Yuxiang's betrayal with the Beijing coup. Cao was imprisoned and leadership passed to Wu who along with Sun Chuanfang managed to hold central China for the next two years. During the Kuomintang's Northern Expedition, they created a desperate alliance with their former Fengtian enemies but were defeated entirely. The Zhili clique was the only warlord faction to be destroyed as a result of the Northern Expedition.They were also strongly anti-Japanese. Western powers were sympathetic but provided no support with the exception of foreign private businesses who appreciated their adoption of an anti-communist and anti-union stance in 1923. Wu Peifu had initially invited the Communists to end the Communications Clique's stranglehold over the railways but found the Communists to be a greater threat and put them down with violence. 1919年に直隷派の馮国璋が病死すると、直隷派はさらに保定派（曹錕派）と洛陽派（呉佩孚派）に分かれた。彼等は馮国璋よりも権力に対して貪欲であり、他派との抗争に打ち勝って政権を握る。その政権は前後期に分ける事ができ、前期は奉天派との連立政権であり、後期は単独政権であった。直隷派・奉天派 連立政権 (1920年 - 1922年)直隷派 単独政権 (1922年 - 1924年)直隷派政権が崩壊した後、その政治力学の結果として段祺瑞の執政府政権が成立した。だが中国国民党が中国共産党との国共合作に踏み切り、国民革命を狙って1926年に広州から北伐を開始すると、政権の立役者である馮玉祥と奉天派の張作霖が対立し始めた。これを機と見た呉佩孚は、「反共・反国民党」で張作霖と結束し、中央政界への復帰を目指して北京に進攻、1926年4月に段祺瑞の政権も崩壊した。ここで呉佩孚と張作霖は再び連合して政権を確立する。だが、政策的な食い違いから両者の足並みは揃わず、さらに1926年7月、地盤である華中を北伐によって失った呉佩孚は同年末には力を失った。1928年、北伐が「北京占領」という形で完了し、北京政府が消滅した事で、直隷派は事実上消滅する。
- The Fengtian Clique (奉系軍閥) was one of several mutually hostile cliques or factions that split from the Beiyang Clique in the Republic of China's Warlord Era. It was named for Fengtian Province (now Liaoning) and operated from a territorial base comprising the three northeastern provinces that made up Manchuria. It was led by warlord Zhang Zuolin, known as the "Grand Marshall;" it was supported by Japan.[2] Between 1920 and 1921 it exercised control of Beijing jointly with the Zhili clique.[1] However, tensions soon began building between the two cliques, and the Fengtian clique clashed with the Zhili clique for control of Beijing, which caused the First Zhili-Fengtian War (1922) and the Second Zhili-Fengtian War (1924). The power of the Fengtian Clique began to decrease in the midst of the Kuomintang's Northern Expedition. While he was retreating North, Zhang Zuolin's Japanese sponsors blew up his train, killing him. After the assassination of Zhang Zuolin in 1928 by the Japanese, his son, Zhang Xueliang, took over the leadership of the clique. Zhang Xueliang then went on to pledge himself and his army to the Kuomintang government in Nanking.奉天派（ほうてんは）は、中華民国の軍閥。北洋軍閥で分派で中国東北部を基盤として日本の支援を受けていた。総帥は張作霖と息子の張学良。清朝末期、満州の馬賊だった張作霖は、軍に帰順して馬賊、匪賊討伐、帰順工作をして勢力を拡大し新建陸軍から派遣されてきた部隊と統合され指揮下に入る。辛亥革命が勃発すると清朝側だった満州総督を支持し革命派の軍指導部を殺害し中華民国建国後、袁世凱を支持し満州の軍権を手に入れ彼が亡くなる直前の1917年には、配下の総督を追放し名実ともに満州の支配者となった。権益を守りたい日本は、奉天派に軍事顧問団を置き、教育、訓練を行い、日本の陸軍士官学校への留学を斡旋し武器弾薬も支援している。三公子会議の後、安徽派と孫文の広東政権と反直三角同盟を結んだ。1928年蒋介石の北伐に負けると、張作霖は北京を脱出し、瀋陽郊外の皇姑屯で暗殺された（張作霖爆殺事件）。後を継いだ張学良は蒋介石に降伏し（易幟）、奉天派は中国東北部の防衛軍（東北軍）へと改編されたが依然として軍閥として君臨し中原大戦では蒋介石に援軍を送って勝利させ華北に進出した。しかし、満州事変によって満州から華北に追い出されそこでは、日本軍との交戦もできず共産党の討伐に駆り出され敗れ去った。税収もなく自滅が避けられなくたったことから西安事件をおこしたが総帥の張学良は逮捕され西安にいた将軍と将校たちは内紛をおこし軍は解体、兵士たちは国民党、共産党に吸収された。
- The Communications Clique (交通系) was a powerful interest group of politicians, bureaucrats, technocrats, businessmen, engineers, and labour unionists in China's Beiyang government (1912-1928). It is also known as the Cantonese Cliquebecause many of its leaders hailed from Guangdong. They were named after the Ministry of Posts and Communications which was responsible for railways, postal delivery, shipping, and telephones as well as the Bank of Communications. This ministry earned five times more revenue for the government than all the other ministries combined. The clique was founded by Tang Shaoyi but it was led by Liang Shiyi throughout most of its existence. They were instrumental in the rise of Yuan Shikai in the late Qing and early republican period. Because they were Yuan's biggest supporters of his attempt to restore the monarchy, their leaders were forced to flee the country when President Li Yuanhong ordered their arrest.In their absence, the New Communications Clique (1916-1919) was formed by Cao Rulin. President Feng Guozhang vacated these arrest warrants in early 1918, allowing Liang and Zhou Ziqi to return. Within a few months, the old clique became powerful enough to run as a quasi-political party in the National Assembly on a platform of modernization. It was a distant second compared to Duan Qirui's Anfu Club. Together with the Research Clique, they used political maneuvering to deny Cao Kun the vice-presidency, Cao ended up blaming Duan for his loss. Cao Rulin's conduct during the 1919 Paris Peace Conference caused the May Fourth Movement which led to his downfall and the collapse of this rival "new" clique. 交通系（こうつうけい, Communications Clique）とは、中華民国初期に存在した政治集団。旧交通系と新交通系の2種類が存在し、本項目では、その両者について記述する。旧交通系は、一般に梁士詒が最高指導者とみなされることが多い。梁以外の主な旧交通系の幹部として、周自斉、汪有齢、葉恭綽、朱啓鈐、陳振先などがあげられる。梁士詒は清末から早くも政治家として台頭していた。1907年（光緒33年）に梁は鉄路総局局長と交通銀行幇理（交通銀行の創設そのものにも関与している）に任命され、これにより鉄道・郵便部門において自己の政治勢力を拡大させ始めている。鉄道・郵便や財政金融の官僚たちを主な構成員とする政治集団であることから、一般に「交通系」と呼ばれることになった。中華民国建国後、梁士詒は袁世凱から総統府秘書長に起用され、交通銀行総理も兼任した。交通銀行は国庫の代理とされ、さらに紙幣発行の権限も得たため、梁の交通系はますます勢力を拡大させることになった。1913年（民国2年）9月、梁は袁の命により御用政党公民党を結成し、交通系の要人たちでこれを運営した。梁は公民党を率いて、国会で袁を正式な大総統に選出させるよう画策し、これに成功している。新交通系は、一般に曹汝霖が最高指導者とみなされることが多い。その他の幹部としては、陸宗輿、曽雲沛、丁士源、権量、賀賛元などがあげられる。曹汝霖は、袁世凱が死去し梁士詒が日本に亡命してから、台頭を開始する。1916年（民国5年）秋、曹は交通銀行総理に任命された。これ以後、曹は安徽派指導者である段祺瑞の下で交通総長・署理財政総長を歴任する。また翌年10月には、陸宗輿が幣制局総裁に任じられた。これにより、曹らが梁に取って代わる形で交通・財政部門を拠点に政治勢力拡大を図るようになったため、「新交通系」と称されるようになった。旧交通系が欧米諸国に拠ったのに対し、新交通系は日本を後ろ盾とする傾向が強かった。
association/institution
- 新民學會是1918年4月14日在湖南長沙成立的影響力很大的一個革命團體。毛澤東和蔡和森是此學會的發起人。新民學會召開成立會於1918年4月14日在蔡和森家中舉辦，到會者有包括毛澤東、蔡和森、肖子升、李維漢在內的14人[1]。會議通過了會章，選舉產生了幹事。根據會章，新民學會的宗旨是「革新學術，砥礪品行，改良人心風俗。」五四運動後，由於多數會員受到包括馬克思主義在內的新思想的影響，宗旨改為「改造中國與世界」。新民學會成立的重要原因是他們大多是楊昌濟的學生。毛澤東在《新民學會會務報告》中指出：「諸人大都系楊懷中先生的學生，與聞楊懷中先生的緒論，作成一種奮鬥的向上的人生觀，新民學會乃從此產生。」新民學會成立後的第一項重要活動是積極倡導留法勤工儉學。五四運動過程中新民學會組織了反帝反封建的運動。1920年下半年，新民學會有許多會員加入了中國社會主義青年團與共產主義小組。1921年中國共產黨成立之後，新民學會逐漸地停止了活動。
- 新民學會是1918年4月14日在湖南長沙成立的影響力很大的一個革命團體。毛澤東和蔡和森是此學會的發起人。新民學會召開成立會於1918年4月14日在蔡和森家中舉辦，到會者有包括毛澤東、蔡和森、肖子升、李維漢在內的14人[1]。會議通過了會章，選舉產生了幹事。根據會章，新民學會的宗旨是「革新學術，砥礪品行，改良人心風俗。」五四運動後，由於多數會員受到包括馬克思主義在內的新思想的影響，宗旨改為「改造中國與世界」。新民學會成立的重要原因是他們大多是楊昌濟的學生。毛澤東在《新民學會會務報告》中指出：「諸人大都系楊懷中先生的學生，與聞楊懷中先生的緒論，作成一種奮鬥的向上的人生觀，新民學會乃從此產生。」新民學會成立後的第一項重要活動是積極倡導留法勤工儉學。五四運動過程中新民學會組織了反帝反封建的運動。1920年下半年，新民學會有許多會員加入了中國社會主義青年團與共產主義小組。1921年中國共產黨成立之後，新民學會逐漸地停止了活動。
- 中華民國陸軍軍官學校，別稱黃埔軍校，簡稱陸軍軍官學校、陸軍官校，陸官（Republic of China Military Academy；ROCMA），是中華民國的軍校，由孫文指示籌辦，成立於1924年6月16日，第一任創校校長為國民革命軍總司令蔣中正，陸軍軍官學校創校於廣東廣州黃埔，因此世人也別稱它叫「黃埔軍校」，是第一次國共合作下的產物，因此有許多中華人民共和國開國元勳與將領都出自黃埔軍校。陸軍軍官學校同時也是中華民國國歌的發源地，因為該校第一期學生開學日由孫中山頒布之書面訓詞正是今日中華民國的國歌歌詞。陸軍軍官學校目前隸屬於中華民國國防部，而其宗旨和創校目的是為了培養中華民國陸軍軍官，陸軍官校於臺灣復校後，便改為大學與專科學制，但專科學制在2004年末屆第27期後便取消。陸軍官校創立時，校址位於廣東廣州黃埔長洲島，創立時命名為「中國國民黨陸軍軍官學校」，陸軍官校當時是中國國民黨的黨校。1927年，陸軍官校遷往中華民國首都南京市，改為隸屬國民政府，並更名為「中央陸軍軍官學校」。1937年，中國抗日戰爭爆發，陸軍官校為避過戰爭而西遷成都市。1946年，陸軍官校因應軍隊國家化改稱「中華民國陸軍軍官學校」。1949年，中華民國政府遷往臺灣，重慶陸軍官校校本部投共。1950年，陸軍官校於臺灣高雄鳳山第四軍官訓練班位址復校迄今已67–68年。陸軍官校黃埔時期的校址和南京時期的校址均被中華人民共和國列為文物保護單位，而成都时期的校址现为中国人民解放军西部战区司令部及空军机关驻地。1876年，清朝兩廣總督劉坤一倡議創立「廣東西學館」，並且以8萬兩白銀買下位於黃埔長洲島的船塢為廣東西學館館址。 1882年，廣東西學館易名「廣東實學館」。 1884年，張之洞由山西巡撫調升兩廣總督後，將廣東實學館再度易名，改為「廣東博學館」。張之洞後來於1887年8月3日創建了「廣東水陸師學堂」，恰位於廣東博學館原址。至此，廣東水陸師學堂成為了中國第一所軍官學校[3]。1912年1月1日，中華民國成立，但國民黨卻缺少建立革命軍隊經驗。1921年12月，共產國際代表馬林抵達桂林與孫中山會面，馬林建議中國國民黨和蘇聯合作為前提的會談，内容有三：改组國民黨，與社會各階層，農民及勞工大眾聯合、創辦軍官學校，建立革命軍的基礎、與謀求中國國民黨與共產黨的合作。1923年8月16日，孫中山於派遣蔣中正訪問蘇聯，向剛剛發起革命並成功推翻俄羅斯臨時政府的蘇聯學習建立革命軍隊的經驗[4]。
- people
- 關麟征 黃埔軍校第二任校長
- granddaughter is 關之琳http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20181107/PDF/b14_screen.pdf
- 胡嚴淑銘夫人（已故抗戰將領胡靖安中將遺孀）其曾外祖父 平定新疆叛亂有功，獲賜黃馬褂、封狀元巴圖魯即能文能武大 將軍稱號，世襲罔替。其父嚴奉鳴是清末秀才，直系吳佩孚部 河南信陽駐軍司令，全國軍用印書社董事長。 在抗日戰爭中與畢業於黃埔軍校二期、曾任蔣介石委 員長侍從室副主任的胡靖安將軍結為夫婦http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2019/09/13/a09-0913.pdf, obit also in scmp 13sep19
- The China Democratic League was established in 1941 and took its present name in 1944. At its formation, it was a coalition of three pro-democracy parties and three pressure groups. Its two main goals were to support China's war effort during the Second Sino-Japanese War and to provide a "Third Way" from the Nationalists and the Communists. Influential members or supporters included Zhang Dongsun, Zhang Junmai (Carson Chang), Luo Longji, Pan Guangdan, Huang Yanpei, Fei Xiaotong, Li Huang of the Young China Party, Wu Han, Chu Anping, and Wen Yiduo.
- [barnett] in oct1947, the ministry of interior announced that the democratic league has been declared illegal because of new evidence revealing collaboration with communists; Their general approach is uncritically favorable toward russia and chinese communists, damning in regard to kuomintang, and suspicious toward united states
- [barnett] head - carson chang
- young china party
company
- The Broadcasting Corporation of China (BCC; 中國廣播公司) is a broadcasting company in the Republic of China (also known as Taiwan). It was founded as the Central Broadcasting System in Nanjing in 1928.The Central Broadcasting System is considered the first Chinese-run radio station with a legitimate infrastructure. The first station in the Republic of China, however, was the 1923 Radio Corporation of China.[1] It was originally based in Harbin. However, since the Radio Corporation of China was originally owned by Radio Corporation of America, the Chinese government shut it down. CBS was originally established by the Chinese Nationalist Party. It made its first broadcast in 1928 with the call sign of XKM, and later changed to XGOA.[1] The station became the central point with multiple stations established in other major cities. The infrastructure was significant in controlling airwave communication and any spread of propaganda. The name was changed to "Broadcasting Corporation of China" in 1947. BCC was moved to Taiwan in 1949 when the Kuomintang government was defeated in the Chinese Civil War. In 2005, following the government's policy to remove political and military influences from the media,[3] BCC was privatized and sold to a holding company in the China Times Group at a price of NT$9.3 billion.[4][5]In December 2006, BCC was sold, via the KMT-owned Hua Hsia Investment Holding Company, to a group of four holding companies linked to Jaw Shaw-kong. The National Communications Commission approved the sale in June 2007.[9] Shortly after, Jaw was accused of attempting to build a media monopoly,[10] and the Executive Yuan withdrew its approval. The Fair Trade Commission fined Jaw's other media company, UFO Network, in December 2007 for not reporting the BCC acquisition.[12] The sale was eventually approved in April 2008, after Jaw's wife cut her share in the UFO Network down to 10%.[13][14] In 2016, the Ill-gotten Party Assets Settlement Committee launched an investigation into the sale of the BCC.Today, it is a privately owned company under a Government contract, and it also has the most radio network services in Taiwan.
- 盐业银行成立於1915年，總行在中華民國北京，創辦人是袁世凱異母兄袁世昌的內弟[1]、時任參政院參政的张镇芳。股本500萬元，股東多為前清勳貴，如那桐、张勋、王占元、袁乃宽、张怀芝、倪嗣冲、刘炳炎等等。同年设立上海分行，成立数年后定址北京路。1917年張勳復辟，张镇芳積極參與其中，並獲任內閣議政大臣兼度支部尚書，复辟失败后锒铛入狱。鹽業銀行由段祺瑞內閣派吳鼎昌接任經理人，1921年奉系张作霖实力的膨胀，张镇芳養子張伯駒從中奔走，张镇芳回任盐业银行董事长。1922年與中南銀行、大陸銀行及金城銀行建立四行储蓄会，合稱「北四行」。1934年四行储蓄会興建远东第一高楼國際飯店。抗战结束后其总管理处迁往上海北京路280号盐业银行大楼。中共建政後的1952年被“公私合营”，充公成為國有資產，行號消失。其香港分行則納入中銀集團，2001年併入中銀香港。
- 張伯駒（1898年－1982年2月26日），本名家騏，字伯駒，以字行。別号叢碧，春遊主人，好好先生等。中國河南項城人，是收藏家和書畫家、詩詞學家及京劇研究家。其生父為张锦芳（1872年–1942年），養父為清末直隶总督及河南都督张镇芳，表叔爲袁世凯。是民國四公子之一。张伯驹幼年过继给其伯父、民国初期河南都督张镇芳。十九岁（1916年）考入中央陆军混成模范团骑科，毕业后先后在军阀曹锟、吴佩孚、张作霖等部任职提调也就是秘书（但从未到任）。1924年，任陕西督军署参议。1926年退出军界，进入金融界。公务之余，常常写诗、填词，对戏剧和书法亦颇有研究，张伯驹曾任故宫博物院专门委员、北平市美术分会理事长、华北文法学院国文系教授等职。1935年後，兼任鹽業銀行上海分行經理，因此每週去一次上海。1941年6月，鹽業銀行襄理李祖萊勾結汪精衛政權76號特務吳四寶，在上海綁架张伯驹，勒索贖金200萬（一說200根金條）。张家請周佛海出面後，以20根金條放人。1947年6月加入中国民主同盟，曾任民盟北平市临时工作委员会委员，积极投入北大学生会组织的反迫害、反饥饿運動。1957年，张伯驹被错划为右派。因受陈毅副总理的关照，出任吉林省博物馆第一副馆长。1967年，张伯驹被打成“现行反革命”，送往吉林舒兰县插队，遭公社拒收。老两口只能靠亲友接济勉强度日。1972年，周恩来總理得悉其狀況后指示，张伯驹被聘任为中央文史研究馆馆员。1980年中央文史馆为张伯驹平反，恢复名誉。
- northwest development company
- [barnett] a highly publicised organisation under chang chih-chung's headquarters in lanchow
- 新疆省银行成立于1930年7月1日，为民国时期新疆金融业的管理机构，初期经营存放款、汇兑、买卖生金银及外币业务，代理省库拨付各地军政用款。其分支机构覆盖伊犁、塔城、阿山和喀什等九处。民国建立后，新疆处在军阀杨增新的统治之下，因政局不稳，纸币滥发无度，金银大量外流，省政府财政危机日益严重。民国19年（1930年）7月1日，在时任新疆省主席金树仁的提议下，新疆省银行创立，隶属于新疆省财政厅. 民国22年盛世才上台任新疆省督办，新疆省银行恢复正常营业。盛世才开发阿尔泰金矿，以所得金砂作为发行现洋钞票的准备金。民国28年（1939年）1月1日，新疆省银行改名为新疆商业银行，废两改元，并扩大了营业范围，陆续开办了存款、放款、汇兑、代理财政金库、发行纸币、买卖金银外币、承募公债、生产事业投资、杂项买卖、代理保险等10项金融业务。下属分支机构增加到15个，为扩大与内地通汇还在兰州设立了办事处。2月1日，新疆省银行开始发行以元为单位的新省币（等值于现大洋一元），收兑省票和喀票。自1944年9月，新疆出现了历史上空前未有的恶性通货膨胀。当局为了维持庞大的军政府开支，大量印发纸币。1948年12月，省政府令新疆商业银行改组为新疆省银行，发行新钞，不久又开始发行三千万圆、六千万圆、六亿圆、三十亿圆券，1949年5月更发行了高达六十亿圆的银行券。而六十亿圆面额的钞票在20天内共出库14次，共计480万张，总金额为2.88亿亿圆。这枚中国面额最大纸币，购买力却极其低下，在当时上海市场上仅能买到70余粒米。1949年9月25日，新疆和平解放，新疆省银行继续作为地方性银行存在。1950年10月1日，新疆省银行撤销，全部业务并入中国人民银行新疆省分行办理，全疆各地分支机构改为中国人民银行新疆省分行的分支机构。
- banking
- 北四行，是中華民國政府播臺前北方四家大型商業銀行的統稱，包括金城銀行、鹽業銀行、中南銀行和大陸銀行。上述四家銀行組成緊密的聯合體，在中國金融界影響巨大，是一種獨特的銀行集團。當時四家銀行還建造了在中國抗戰史上留下顯赫名聲的四行倉庫。南三行，是中華民國政府遷臺前南方三家大型商業銀行的統稱，包括浙江興業銀行、浙江實業銀行和上海商業儲蓄銀行。
People
- 《民國名人圖鑑》，楊家駱編，民國26年（1937年）辭典館出版。此書按四角號碼檢字法排列人名，計劃出版四冊，第一冊是0-1號碼，第二冊是2-3號碼，第三冊是4號碼，第四冊是5-9號碼及總目、索引。但是只出版了第一、二冊，每冊前面是肖像、後面是小傳。
- diplomats
- 邵毓麟
- 1936年出生於南京鼓樓醫院的邵子平，父親邵毓麟是民國時期外交官，曾任南京政府駐日本橫濱總領事和駐韓國大使。在南京度過童年與少年的邵子平，對南京大屠殺歷史印象極為深刻，痛恨侵華日軍。1988年起，在聯合國總部從事人力資源與法規工作的邵子平與一批美籍華裔熱心人士，在紐約創立了「紀念南京大屠殺受難同胞聯合會」，立志要為在南京大屠殺中的遇難同胞討回公道。尋找侵華日軍南京暴行的證據便成為他們的重要目標。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20181212/PDF/a18_screen.pdf
- 奉系是民国军阀派系，属于北洋系，先后以张作霖和其子张学良為首，并一度成为中国境内最大的军政府。20世紀初，奉系張作霖接受招安。[1]:363奉系受到日本支持。1918年，张作霖統一滿洲。后联合皖系与孙中山的广东政权组成反直三角同盟。奉系创始人张作霖在其领内所建立的政权首府位于奉天（今瀋陽），奉系因此得名。张作霖先用計趕走了皖系督軍段芝貴，在奉天省獨攬大權。
- 蔡 運升（さい うんしょう）は、中華民国、満州国の政治家。奉天派に属し、後に満州国の要人となった。字は品三、品山。
- 翟 文選（てき ぶんせん）は中華民国の政治家。北京政府、奉天派に属した。字は熙人。
- 于 琛澂（う ちんちょう）は、中華民国、満州国の軍人。北京政府、奉天派の軍人で、後に満州国に転じた。字は険洲、険舟。祖籍は山東省蓬莱県（現在の蓬莱市）。于深澂（う しんちょう）と表記する例もある。
- 张学良（1901年6月3日－2001年10月15日），字汉卿，号毅庵，乳名小六子，真正小名双喜[2]，中華民國陸軍一级上将[3]。中国奉天省（今遼寧）海城人[4]。生於台安縣桑林，人稱“少帅”，奉系军阀領袖张作霖长子，“民国四公子”之一，享嵩壽101歲。1936年12月12日，西安事變爆發。[5]:492－493張遭蔣中正、蔣經國父子軟禁長達50餘年，直到中華民國李登輝執政，張才獲得自由。由於西安事變，中華民國政府官方歷史及中華人民共和國政府官方歷史對張評價不同。台灣公共電視在張不再被軟禁後，製作一部以其口述為主之記錄片。
- http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2016/12/12/a15-1212.pdf紀念西安事變80周年研討會
- 四大家族
- 蔣, 宋, 孔，陈
- 華北政務委員會
- Feng Yuxiang (馮玉祥; Wade–Giles: Feng Yü-hsiang; IPA: [fə́ŋ ỳɕi̯ɑ́ŋ]; 6 November 1882 – 1 September 1948) was a warlord and leader in Republican China from Chaohu, Anhui. He served as Vice Premier of the Republic of China from 1928 to 1930.[1] He was also known as the Christian General for his zeal to convert his troops and the Betrayal General for his penchant to break with the establishment. In 1911, he was an officer in the ranks of Yuan Shikai's Beiyang Army but joined forces with revolutionaries against the Qing Dynasty. He rose to high rank within Wu Peifu's Zhili warlord faction but launched the Beijing coup in 1924 that knocked Zhili out of power and brought Sun Yat-sen to Beijing. He joined the Nationalist Party (KMT), supported the Northern Expedition and became blood brothers with Chiang Kai-shek, but resisted Chiang's consolidation of power in the Central Plains War, and broke with Chiang again in resisting Japanese incursions in 1933. He spent his later years supporting the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang.
- 冯玉祥将军之孙、中央军委装备发展部原副部长冯丹宇少将，近期履新海军副司令员。这是他在本轮军改后出任的第二个职务。据中国兵器工业集团微信公众号8月30日消息，8月29日，海军司令员沈金龙、副司令员冯丹宇到集团公司调研。这是冯丹宇首次以该身份亮相公开报道。冯丹宇今年55岁（1962年出生），安徽巢县人。他毕业于其父冯洪达曾任院长的大连舰艇学院，后在北海舰队某部工作；1990年底调到国防科工委，2003年任总装备部军兵种部海军局局长，2005年7月晋升为海军少将军衔。冯丹宇的父亲冯洪达，是冯玉祥与原卫生部部长李德全最小的儿子。冯洪达曾任大连舰艇学院副院长、院长。1990年1月，冯洪达任北海舰队副司令员，1993年病逝。冯丹宇的母亲余华心，是冯玉祥旧部、新中国成立后政务院机关事务管理局（现国家机关事务管理局）的首任局长余心清的女儿。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170901/PDF/a21_screen.pdf
- 馮丹龍的祖母李德全、外公余心清、外婆劉蘭華也都擔任過全國或省市政協委員。李德全是全國政協第一、二、三屆常務委員會委員，第四屆全國委員會副主 席，並為完成馮玉祥遺願而參與了1948年秋中國人民政治協商會議籌備的重要過程，下榻馬迭爾賓館和其他全國民主人士共商新中國建國大計，醞釀籌劃了第一 屆中國人民政治協商會議。余心清為全國政協第一、二、三屆委員，1949年10月1日中華人民共和國成立，作為中央人民政府典禮局長，余心清操辦了開國大典的各種慶典活動。劉蘭華是山東省政協第二、三屆委員會常務委員，並曾任山東省婦女聯合會副主席。馮丹龍的父母、多位姑姑、叔父等也都當選全國及省市政協委員http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/11/16/a34-1116.pdf
- 愛國將領馮玉祥將軍的孫女，全國政協委員、九三學社中央委員、輝瑞中國企業事務部總監馮丹龍. 馮丹龍回國之後在《大連日報》看到一則輝瑞製藥有限公司的招聘，因她有着留美MBA的簡歷，加之早年在醫院的工作經歷，使得馮丹龍成為了輝瑞中國的首號員工。至今，她那一枚小小的「0001」的標號，都時常被同事羨慕，因為她是輝瑞在中國招聘的第一個員工。進入公司後，馮丹龍表現同樣亮眼，她在2000年代表美國製藥研究及生產協會（簡稱PhRMA）到美國國會山發表演講，希望美國給予中國永 久性正常貿易關係（PNTR）地位。當時正逢中國加入世界貿易組織的關鍵時刻，大量美國投資中國的企業亦紛紛游說美國政府，促中美兩國成為貿易夥伴。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/11/16/a34-1116.pdf
- 閻錫山（1883年10月8日－1960年5月23日），字百川、伯川，漢族，山西省五臺縣人，清末舉人，中華民國北洋政府將軍府「同武上將軍」，中華民國國軍（及其前身國民革命軍）陸軍一級上將，北洋軍閥「晉系」領袖。閻錫山管轄之山西省，自1911年辛亥革命後建立以來，經歷多場內戰、抗日戰爭及國共內戰，依然屹立不倒。直至1949年4月太原戰役結束後，被解放軍佔領為止，一共歷經38年，是眾多軍閥中紀錄最長者。曾任行政院院長、國防部部長及總統府資政等職務。1949年11月20日至1950年3月1日，代行時任代總統李宗仁的職務，是中華民國行憲至今唯一一位代理總統職權、形同國家最高領導者的行政院長。閻錫山生於山西省五臺縣河邊村（今屬定襄縣）。6歲喪母、9歲入私塾讀書、16歲協助其父閻書堂（字子明）經商[1]。1901年入山西武備學堂，1904年赴日本留學，先在東京振武學校就讀。1905年，加入中國同盟會，後進入日本陸軍士官學校中國武備留學生班第六期就讀，1909年自日本陸軍士官學校畢業返國，出任山西陸軍小學教官、監督。同年應清朝行省鄉試，中舉人。号は龍池。Although Yan constantly spoke of the desirability and need for reforms, until the 1930s he remained too conservative to implement anything resembling the kind of reforms needed to successfully modernize Shanxi. Many of his attempts at reform in the 1920s had been attempted generations before, during the Tongzhi Restoration. These Qing Dynasty reformers had found their reforms inadequate solutions to the problems of their time, and under the Model Governor these reforms proved equally unsatisfactory. During the 1930s Yan became increasingly open to radical social and economic policies, including wealth redistribution via graduated taxation, state-led industrialization, opposition to the money economy, an orientation towards functional (vs. "moral") education and the large-scale assimilation of Western technology. Despite his adoption of Soviet-style economic policies and increasingly radical attempts at social reform, Yan was regarded as a "conservative" throughout his career, suggesting that the term "conservative" must be used carefully within the context of modern Chinese history.After Yan's time Shanxi became the site of Mao Zedong's "model brigade" of Dazhai: a utopian communist scheme in Xiyang County that was supposed to be the model for all other peasants in China to emulate. If the people of Dazhai were especially suited for such an experiment, it is possible that decades of Yan's socialist indoctrination may have prepared the people of Shanxi for Communist rule. After the death of Mao, the experiment was discontinued, and most peasants reverted to private farming.
- [barnett] in jun1914, he was made a general with the speical title "tung wu"; in the autumn of 1918, he was officially designated "model governor" of china by cpg in peking. From may to sept 1930, the norther forces that fought against chiang "elected" him as president of china by an "enlaraged committee of the kuomintang". He launched an extensive industrial program in 1932 under a provincial 10-year plan
- Mingpao monthly oct11 issue
Chen was instrumental in backing Sun Yat-sen's Constitutional Protection Movement. He also restored Sun to power after the Guangdong-Guangxi War. Chen disagreed with Sun about the direction that reform should take—Sun wanted to unite the country by force and institute change through a centralized government based on a one-party system, while Chen advocated multiparty federalism with Guangdong becoming the model province and the peaceful unification of China. Sun became suspicious that the federalist movement was being exploited by the warlords to justify their military fiefdoms. 清末に広東法政学堂を卒業後、1909年に広東省咨議局議員に当選し、広東省自治に携わった。一方で同年に中国同盟会に参加したと言われ、1911年の黄花崗起義及び辛亥革命に参加した。辛亥革命後は胡漢民らと広東省統治に関わったが第二革命で袁世凱と対立したため香港に逃れた。1914年に孫文が結成した中華革命党には参加せず、黄興を支持する欧事研究会に加わっている。1917年の護法戦争の際に孫文らと共に広東に戻り、広東政府に参加。当時広東を支配していた広西派軍閥との角逐の末、1920年11月に広東省を掌握。孫文の広東省における勢力基盤を軍事面から援助した。1922年6月、第二次護法戦争の際、孫文と陳炯明は意見の相違から、陳は孫文の北伐に反対し、聯省自治（zh）を主張した。さらにこの時、孫と陳の調停を懸命に図っていた鄧鏗が暗殺され、ついに両者の決裂は不可避となる。1922年6月16日、陳の部下の葉挙が出兵し総統府を攻撃、合わせて孫文の住居を砲撃したため、孫文は中山艦に乗り、広東省から離れた（六・一六事変（zh））。1923年1月、陳は、孫文と雲南派、新広西派連合を糾合した軍隊に敗れ、東江に退却した。1925年国民革命軍の2度にわたる攻撃を受け、香港に逃亡し、中国致公党を結成し、総理に任命された。その後、継続して中国の統一と富強化に奔走したが、1933年香港で病没した。
- 王仁峰（1886—1967），安徽省舒城县人，中国近代民主革命家，著名影视明星王祖贤的曾祖父。1907年，考入南京两江优级师范理化科。此间，受孙中山民主革命的影响，由革命党人凌焦庵、郑赞丞介绍，加入中国同盟会。
- 王祖賢（曾孫女）http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20181107/PDF/b14_screen.pdf
- 张灵甫（1903年8月20日－1947年5月16日），名锺麟，字灵甫，后以字行。陕西西安人，黄埔军校第四期毕业[3]:2848。前中华民国国民革命军将领，曾经4次参与围剿中国工农红军，参与对日抗战中的淞沪会战、南昌会战、常德会战及第二次国共内战等大小战役。1947年5月，在山东孟良崮战役中[4]:376。其指挥的号称全副美式装备“王牌模范师”整编七十四师被中国人民解放军华东野战军歼灭，张灵甫阵亡（或有言自杀殉国）。曾任号称“王牌师”及“抗日铁军”的整编第七十四师师长，被蒋介石誉为“模范军人”，获颁赠“抗日铁军”、“飞虎旗”及“第一武功状”称誉。在抗日战争中因为一腿重伤又名“跛腿将军”。grandson include 张正甫
- http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20160923/00178_005.html 抗日名將張靈甫位於陝西西安長安區的陵墓，周二早上遭人用紅色油漆噴上「殺妻惡棍，人民罪人」八個大字。據破壞者王姓男子稱，他現時在加拿大生活，回國希望透過此行動，引起大家對歷史的反思和討論。
- 长子：张居礼 长女：张清芳 幼子：张道宇 长孙：张建 平孙：张正甫
- hkej 8apr19 shum article on 孟良崮战役
- After returning to China in 1926, Wu began a career in government service, first as a tax collector in Hankow (today part of Wuhan) for Hsia Tou-yin, a local warlord. In 1931, he married Edith Huang, daughter of Gene T. Huang. They eventually had four children: Eileen Wu, Edith Wu, H.K. Wu and Sherman Wu.[1] In 1932, he became mayor of Hankow. When the Yangtze River appeared ready to flood in 1936, Wu oversaw the construction of a huge dike system which saved the city. With the fall of Hankow to Japanese forces in October 1938 during the Second Sino-Japanese War, Wu and his family fled to Chungking. In 1939, Chiang Kai-shek appointed him as mayor of Chungking, a position he held until 1942. He served as vice minister of Foreign Affairs from 1943-1945, interacting with Zhou Enlai as part of the united front against the Japanese. After the end of World War II in 1945, K.C. Wu became mayor of Shanghai, serving in that role until the Chinese Communists conquered the city in 1949.[2] While mayor of Shanghai, Wu met the Chicago Tribune's Robert McCormick and his wife Maryland. As the situation in Shanghai became less stable, Wu sent his two daughters to live with the McCormicks in Illinois.
- Following the relocation of the Nationalist government to Taipei, Wu served as Governor of Taiwan from 1949 to 1953. Wu attempted to bring a greater degree of self-governance to the Taiwanese people, allowing for the election of certain local officials by popular vote. Wu also brought critics of Chen Yi into the government, and attempted to cut back on police brutality. Wu was opposed by many conservative members of the Nationalist government, including Chiang Ching-kuo and Chen Cheng. His liberal democratic ideas and critical moment of invasion of Communists do not go hand to hand. Wu's conflict with the younger Chiang worsened. Wu submitted his resignation to the elder Chiang but it was rejected. In April 1952, an alleged assassination targeting Wu was suspected. In April 1953, he (successfully) resigned from his position as governor and on 24 May 1953 he hastily left Taiwan on a "lecture tour". Wu's family left for the United States, except one son who was not permitted to leave by the Chiangs. In 1954, a wave of accusations appeared in Taiwan alleging Wu's corruption. At the same time, the Chiangs moved to dismiss Wu's associates from government. They also formally expelled Wu from the Kuomintang.[5] Following his son's departure from Taiwan, Wu began to speak out against what he saw were serious problems with the Kuomintang government. That same year, Wu wrote an article in Look magazine entitled "Your Money is Building a Police State in Taiwan".[4]The war of words between Wu and Chiang's regime escalated further, including a resolution against him by the ROC's National Assembly. Later in 1954, a war of words also erupted between Wu and Hu Shih, who was also in the United States at the time. At that time, the United States was attempting to forge an alliance with the Taiwan Central Government in order to secure a strong military chain to keep communism at bay. Thus, the idea of fighting the police state was low on the United States agenda. Following a lack of American response to his writings, K.C. Wu lived in the United States where he served as professor of Chinese history at Armstrong Atlantic State University in Savannah, Georgia. During his time in the United States, he wrote various works, including a detailed analysis on Chinese culture in the context of mythology and early history in his book The Chinese Heritage.
- 1978年12月より中国が改革開放路線を開始すると、呉国楨は親交のあった杜建時、そして周恩来の妻鄧穎超の招聘もあって、中華人民共和国建国35周年の機会に帰国準備を進めた。しかし帰国は果たせることなく、1984年6月6日、ジョージア州サバンナで病没した。享年82（満80歳）。
- Appeared on time magazine's cover as formosa's wu
- http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/supplement/columnist/%E9%99%B6%E5%82%91/art/20170609/20049131 胡蘭成先生在「今生今世」中有一章，講李士群之死，開局即見文章高手、史家妙筆：「李士群自從毒死吳四寶，我就對他心灰意冷了。汪先生卻越來越寵 他，因為他是個有為的人。現世的力量本身總有一種美。南京政府裏他與周佛海陳公博三人，太平天國裏的東王西王北王。他在蘇州，像董卓的兵入長安，每晚部下 將領到他家裏聚議，都是關於白天的劫掠，他弄到這樣天怒人怨，總有一天要遭雷霆之劫，後來他果然碰着了對頭熊劍東。」
- 顧維鈞
- V. K. Wellington Koo (29 January 1888 – 14 November 1985), whose Chinese name is variously romanized as Koo Vi Kyuin, Ku Wei-chün, and Gu Weijun, was a Chinese diplomat from the Republic of China.顧維鈞（外文名：Vi Kyuin "Wellington" Koo[註 1]，1888年1月29日－1985年11月14日），字少川，江苏省嘉定县（今上海市嘉定区）人，中華民國外交家。哥伦比亚大学毕业，1912年任袁世凱總統英文秘書，歷任中華民國北洋政府國務總理，國民政府駐法國、英國大使，駐聯合國首席代表、駐美大使，海牙國際法院副院長。被譽為中国现代史上最卓越的外交家之一[註 2]。1985年病逝於美國紐約。
- 祖父は郷紳の出身で、江蘇省嘉定県（現 上海市嘉定区）の官職にあったが、太平天国の時期に暴徒によって拷問の上、殺害され、財産を奪われた。顧の誕生後、父・顧溶は官営の招商局所属の汽船の会計係となり、生活は安定した。1899年にキリスト教衛理公会経営の上海英華学院に入学、初めて英語を学習した。1900年には病気のため、実家の近くにある育才学校に転校。1901年キリスト教聖公会経営の上海聖約翰書院に入学した。
- In 1908, Koo married his first wife, Chang Jun-e (張潤娥; pinyin: Zhāng Rùn'é). They divorced prior to 1912. Koo's second wife, Tang Pao-yueh "May" (唐寶玥; pinyin: Táng Bǎoyuè; c. 1895–1918), was the youngest daughter of the former Chinese prime minister Tang Shaoyi and a first cousin of the painter and actress Mai-Mai Sze.[4][5][6] Their marriage took place soon after Koo's return to China in 1912. She died in an influenza epidemic in 1918.[7] They had two children: a son, Teh-chang Koo (1916–1998),[8] and a daughter, Patricia Koo (b. 1918). Koo's third wife was Oei Hui-lan (黃蕙蘭; pinyin: Huáng Huìlán; 1899–1992).[9][10][11] She married Koo in Brussels,Belgium in 1921.[12][10] (She was reportedly previously the wife of Count Wittingham or of Count Hoey Stoker.)[13][14][15] Much admired for her adaptations of traditional Manchu fashion, which she wore with lace trousers and jade necklaces,[12] Oei Hui-lan was one of the 42 acknowledged children of the Peranakan Chinese sugar magnate Oei Tiong Ham.[16] She wrote two memoirs: Hui-Lan Koo (Mrs. Wellington Koo): An Autobiography (written with Mary Van Rensselaer Thayer, Dial Press, 1945)[17][18] and No Feast Lasts Forever (written with Isabella Taves, Quadrangle/The New York Times, 1975).[19] Koo had two sons with her: Yu-chang Koo (1922–1975, also Wellington Koo, Jr.) and Fu-chang Koo (1923–1977, a.k.a. Freeman Koo). On 3 September 1959, Koo married his fourth wife Yen Yu-yun (1905–2017),[22] the widow of Clarence Kuangson Young.[23][24] He had three stepdaughters from this marriage: Genevieve (wife of American photographer and film directorGordon Parks), Shirley and Frances Loretta Young.
- china daily 21jul17
- 嚴幼韻
- 一九○五年生於天津的嚴幼韻，祖籍浙江寧波，祖父嚴信厚是清末直隸總督李鴻章的重要幕僚，父親嚴子均則以實業起家而成上海巨富。嚴幼韻一九二七年轉入復旦大學讀商科，在校期間以綽號「愛的花」而聞名校園內外。復旦大學教授、《顧維鈞傳》作者金光耀認為，嚴幼韻的經歷足以配起「中國新時期女性代表人物」的稱號。嚴幼韻的兩任丈夫都是民國著名的外交家。一九二九年，嚴幼韻與復旦大學教授楊光泩結婚。一九三八年，楊光泩出任中國駐菲律賓馬尼拉公使銜總領事，太平洋戰爭爆發後，日軍佔領馬尼拉。一九四二年四月，楊光泩和七名中國外交官慘遭日軍殺害。一九四五年，嚴幼韻與三名女兒移居美國，成為二戰結束後聯合國首批禮賓官，也是聯合國首批女外交官之一。至五八年，嚴幼韻與著名外交家顧維鈞結婚，後半生定居在紐約。顧的第三任妻子曾暗指，嚴是她與前夫之間的「第三者」。顧維鈞有「中華民國第一外交官」之稱，一九四五年曾參與聯合國憲章起草，並代表中華民國在憲章上簽名。http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20170527/00178_003.html, singtao a17, hkej a20, http://www.hkcd.com.hk/pdf/201705/0527/HA12527CCXX.pdf, http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170527/PDF/a20_screen.pdf, http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/international/art/20170527/20035065 出身上海官宦巨富之家的嚴幼韻，其祖父嚴信厚是清末名臣李鴻章的幕僚，父親嚴子均在全國經營工商實業。她自幼便在家中濃厚文化氛圍中成長；其兩位姐姐嚴彩韻、嚴蓮韻也是上海名媛，並稱「嚴氏三姐妹」。嚴是復旦大學首批畢業女學生，後與青年外交官楊光泩結婚，並隨丈夫展開外交官夫人生活。兩人育有3女，次女楊雪蘭曾任美國通用汽車全球副總裁。嚴幼韻名人朋友圈廣闊，其中民國巨子宋子文的夫人是其閨蜜；她也與商人董浩雲及兒子董建華、上海銀行前老總朱如堂夫婦、詩人徐志摩的元配夫人張幼儀等有來往。嚴晚年喜歡參加社交活動，去年10月，多達200多名親友及社會名流一同出席其111歲生日會，座上客包括百歲美籍華人建築師貝聿銘、世界鋼琴大師郎朗等。http://hk.apple.nextmedia.com/international/art/20170527/20035067嚴幼韻次女楊雪蘭曾在受訪時這樣形容母親。這位舊上海十里洋場交際界一代名媛，曾是第一個自己開車進校園上學的美女大學生，每天更要換一身旗袍展現曲線美。其摩登新派作風，很快便成復旦以至整個上海灘的亮點——大量男生們都很愛慕她，甚至每天到校門迎接她駕車上學。不過很多人初時不知她的芳名，遂按她的車牌號碼稱她為「84號小姐」；此後有男生順着英文「Eighty Four」的發音，給這位「女神」起了別名「愛的福」。嚴幼韻天生麗質，更是勤奮好學的高材生，在轉校復旦後短短兩年內，就修畢了一般需四年完成的135個學分。1929年畢業後，嚴與年輕外交才俊楊光泩結婚，兩家都家世顯赫，上千賓客在大飯店舉行的婚禮上觥籌交錯，投射出舊上海繁華的縮影。
- 容應萸教授分享：//今天早上醒來，不知為甚麼就把這本《一百零九個春天》拿出來翻看。之後過不了一個小時，就收到消息，說是她－－著名外交家顧維鈞遺孀，民國才女嚴幼韻－－昨天(5月25日)在紐約家中去世，享年112歲。去年10月，她還在111歲生日晚宴及舞會中，穿著旗袍和高跟鞋翩翩起舞 (照片為證)。說起來，她和我家有一點點淵源。她的女婿唐騮千是唐星海(炳源）的兒子。唐星海的妻子名叫溫金美，是留美幼童溫秉忠和倪秀珍的女兒。倪秀珍是宋家三姊妹母親的妹妹。溫秉忠的父親是中華基督教會牧師，也是香江六老之一的溫清溪。溫秉忠是在第一任太太關月屏去世之後和倪秀珍結婚的。他的留美幼童時代和我的祖父在同一個美國人家庭寄宿，據說他還是我祖父和祖母關月英(=關月屏的妹妹)的媒人。寫到這裡，已經複雜到頭暈眼花。還要多加一句，唐英年的父親唐翔千是唐騮千的堂兄，其祖父唐君遠即為唐星海的堂弟。https://www.facebook.com/SimonIRBasilica/photos/pcb.425387171168972/425387117835644/?type=3
- 林徽因（1904年6月10日－1955年4月1日），女，汉族，福建闽县（今福州）人，出生于浙江杭州。原名林徽音，其名出自“《诗·大雅·思齐》：大姒嗣徽音，则百斯男”。后因常被人误认为当时一作家“林微音”，故改名“徽因”。中国著名建筑师、诗人、作家。人民英雄纪念碑和中华人民共和国国徽深化方案的设计者之一、建筑师梁思成的第一任妻子。
- http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20161124/00180_012.html明年一月卸任的美國總統奧巴馬，周二最後一次在白宮以總統身份，頒授總統自由勳章予廿一名有傑出貢獻的美國人越戰紀念碑的設計者、中國知名女建築師林徽因姨甥林瓔，則是唯一一名華裔得獎者。
- 張幼儀
- 一九五三年，三十八歲的她在香港邂逅一位中醫師蘇先生，兩情相悅，中醫師向她求婚。她沒有立即答應，她認為她是一個寡婦，理應聽兒子的話。她寫信徵求遠在美國兒子的意見。據說，當土木工程師的兒子給她覆了信，大意是「孀居逾三十年，生我撫我，鞠我育我」，又稱「母如得人，兒請父事。」張幼儀在兒子的鼓勵下，與蘇醫生成親http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/06/21/b07-0621.pdf
- 狼牙山五壮士是1941年秋抗日战争时期在河北易县狼牙山为抵抗侵华日军跳崖的五名八路军战士：班长、共产党员马宝玉、副班长、共产党员葛振林、战士胡德林、战士胡福才、战士宋学义。
- http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20160923/00178_023.html 「狼牙山五壯士」後人控告《炎黃春秋》前主編洪振快侵害名譽一案，北京第二中級人民法院上月終審判決，洪要繳付訴訟費及公開賠禮道歉。洪昨日在微信發表聲 明，指判決違背法治、背離事實，聲言不會道歉。又決定發起向公眾籌款，每人捐款上限為一千元人民幣，所籌款項僅用於支付強制執行費用。
- kiv
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20161115/PDF/b17_screen.pdf謝鶴年
滿洲國
- 1942年的偽滿洲國電影《迎春花 》，是當年配合日本侵華的宣傳電影. 《迎春花》是 「滿洲映畫協會」（簡稱滿映）在 1942年出品的所謂 「國策電影」，片長73分鐘。表現 手法方面，電影的起承轉合自然流暢，故事脈絡清晰 。片中影像頗具史料價值，偽滿首都新京（今長春市 ）的市容清晰可見，片末還呈現了俄羅斯人在哈爾濱 教堂內禮拜和在外巡遊的景象，以及該市的冰雕，難 得一見。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20180320/PDF/b17_screen.pdf
local administration
- [barnett]in 1939 (during sino-japanese war), steps were taken to convert the pao-chia system (since 1st millennium ad) into one of partial self government. Innovations were introduced that made all local govt, up to and including the hsiang, elective and representative
- There are approximately 50 guilds in pahsien oragnised on a hsien-wide basis. Many of them have teahouse headquarters near the hsien govt. However, trade and craft guilds, which play important parts in urban centers in china, are almost completely absent in hsiehmahsiang. There is one guild, to which the local pig butchers belong, but it is politically inactive.
- the only political party in the hsiang is kuomintang
- suiyuan
- [barnett] in 1948, though the present chairman/governor of suiyuan is general tung ch'i-wu, the proince has been the domain of general fu tso-yi ever since fu moved to kalgan, soon after the war to become pacification commander. With a few exceptions, the top officials are military men, many come from fu's own province of shansi, while others are from hopeh, honan, shantung and hunan. After the end of sino-japanese war, t'ai p'ing, or great peace is a phrase frequently used by local people to describe suiyuan province.
- tibet
- [barentt] the oligarchy at lhasa controls the region in its immediate environs and to a lesser extent over all of tibet. In places distant from lhasa, a strong degree of localism still prevails, and local government is a mixture of secular feudal leadership and ecclesiastical rule.
labour
- [barnett] The rights and duties of labor unions in nationalist china are defined by labor union act of 16jun1947 (first labor union act in 1929 and had been revised 5 times). In shanghai, all unions must come under an officially sponsored general labor union, which was supervised by shanghai social affairs bureau (supervised by ministry of social affairs in nanking). Since coming to power in 1927, kuomintang has generally followed a policy of surveillance, supervision and control of labor. It has fostered development of govt sponsored and govt supervised unionism. In 1948, postal and telephone workers' unions have a fairly high degree of independence becos their workers are both skilled and literate. Rickshaw pullers and texike workers unions are led by men appointed directly by kuomintang headquarters and often owe allegiance to party rather than union members. At the very bottom - particularly among the so-called pootung proletariat, made up of coolies, wharf workers, construction workers and the like, were led by tu yueh-sheng.
arts
- 《時局圖》，又稱為《時局全圖》、《東亞時局形勢圖》，是中國近代史上一幅著名的時事漫畫。當時中國瀕臨被列強瓜分的地步，作者特繪製該圖以警國人。一般的說法認為《時局圖》的作者是興中會會員謝纘泰（1872年－1939年）。其題詞作者，則有三種不同說法：一是不知姓名的廣東人[1]；二是作者謝纘泰自己[2]；三是晚清政治家黃遵憲（1848年－1905年）。《時局圖》最早刊於1898年7月的香港報紙《輔仁文社社刊》[5]，並於1903年在蔡元培主編的上海報紙《俄事警聞》轉載，但漫畫則改名叫《瓜分中國圖》[6]。 https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%97%B6%E5%B1%80%E5%9B%BE.jpg
- [barnett] The rights and duties of labor unions in nationalist china are defined by labor union act of 16jun1947 (first labor union act in 1929 and had been revised 5 times). In shanghai, all unions must come under an officially sponsored general labor union, which was supervised by shanghai social affairs bureau (supervised by ministry of social affairs in nanking). Since coming to power in 1927, kuomintang has generally followed a policy of surveillance, supervision and control of labor. It has fostered development of govt sponsored and govt supervised unionism. In 1948, postal and telephone workers' unions have a fairly high degree of independence becos their workers are both skilled and literate. Rickshaw pullers and texike workers unions are led by men appointed directly by kuomintang headquarters and often owe allegiance to party rather than union members. At the very bottom - particularly among the so-called pootung proletariat, made up of coolies, wharf workers, construction workers and the like, were led by tu yueh-sheng.
- china federation of labour was created in april1948 in nanking
- lu ting-yi was a leading chinese communist labor leader
- in jun1948, 6th plenary session of all-china labor congress was held in harbin (communist held territory). It was asserted at the meeting that the congress was the direct lineal descendant of china association of labor (a nationwide labor welfare society that became defunct for all practical purposes when its leader (after disagreeing with central govt labor policies following the war) fled china and then eventually made his way back to communist territory.
arts
- 《時局圖》，又稱為《時局全圖》、《東亞時局形勢圖》，是中國近代史上一幅著名的時事漫畫。當時中國瀕臨被列強瓜分的地步，作者特繪製該圖以警國人。一般的說法認為《時局圖》的作者是興中會會員謝纘泰（1872年－1939年）。其題詞作者，則有三種不同說法：一是不知姓名的廣東人[1]；二是作者謝纘泰自己[2]；三是晚清政治家黃遵憲（1848年－1905年）。《時局圖》最早刊於1898年7月的香港報紙《輔仁文社社刊》[5]，並於1903年在蔡元培主編的上海報紙《俄事警聞》轉載，但漫畫則改名叫《瓜分中國圖》[6]。 https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E6%97%B6%E5%B1%80%E5%9B%BE.jpg
- note the spelling german (cernan?) sausage
Christianity
- catholicism
- [barnett] a belgian priest in kweisui claimed that cahtolics in suiyuan province number bw 80000 and 100000. The church owns a considerable amount of land, and carried on an extensive agricultural program made possible, in part at least, by indemnities received from the chinese govt after the boxer rebellion. Its strenght is primarily in the countryside
- protestants
- [barnett] protestant church has fewer members than catholics in suiyuan, with main support in towans and cities.
- jesuits
- The Xikai Catholic Church, also called the French Church, is a noted Catholic church in Tianjin. It is the largest church in the city which was built by French Jesuit Missionaries in 1917. The building covers an area of 1,585 square meters and measures 45 meters tall. http://on.china.cn/2sP3RmB
islam
- [barnett] relations between muslims and han chinese a serious problem for centuries and remain so today. The chinese muslim belt runs thru ninghsia, kansu, and chinghai. Muslims are politically the most agressive and militant group in the region, and they are dominant in two of the four provinces under general chang chih-chung's authority. Ethnically, most chinese muslims are a racial mixture, combining chinese blood with taht of various muslim groups that migrated to china centuries ago from the "west", from various parts of the region between arabia and afghanistan. Some of china's muslims are scattered over east and southwest china; these are mainly descendents of arab traders who reached china by sea. The major concentration, however, is in the muslim belt in the northwest, and these people trace their blood ties to groups that migrated via central asiatic routes. In most secular matters the cultural assimilation by the chiense has been almost complete for majority of muslims in the northwest. Groups within the northwest muslim belt - salars (came originally from samarkind sometime about 12thc and settled in the region of yellow river bend near provincial border of kansu and chinghai); tunghsiang or east country muslims (in kansu, speak mongolian and are probably of mongol stock); muslim group in hochow (region in south kansu, hochow is sometimes called by westerners the mecca of chinese islam, they trace their ancestry, at least partially, to arab mercenaries who served under the chinese t'ang dynasty and are said to have come overland to china sometime around 8thc). During recent decades, until just a few years ago, politics in kansu itself were dominated by hochow muslims e.g leadership in chinghai and ninghsia provinces is still provided by hochow muslims. Two prominent hochow muslim leaders - general ma pu-fang (rules chinghai, father ma ch'i, uncle ma ling, son general ma chi-yuan; trademark of authoritarian muslim govt in chinghai: worn fly sweaters, green tree saplings and stocky horses) and general ma hung-k'eui, though they are related, they do not maintain very close relations with each other. Organisation of chinese muslim pilgrims to mecca is largely on a regional basis. There are several regional centers of religious importance - e.g sining in chinghai, chinchihsien in ninghsia, and hochow in kansu - where ranking muslim leaders are located. Hochow is a center that many muslims all over northwest china consider home, and which they periodically revisit. Ma is the most prevalent surname among the chinese muslims. Ma speaks tibetan, and had succes in establishing and maintaining control in tibetan regions.
- chinghai muslim govt - as part of its sanitation program, the provincial govt periodically announces daily quotas of dead flies that must be handed in to the authorities by everyone, regardless of age, sex or occupation. Highwasy in chinghai are lined with geen willow and poplar saplings. There was an intensive program of tree planting and reforestation, arbor fortnight, irrigation projects, introduction of hospitals and medical facilities, attempt to install sewage system in sining, industrialisation programme, new schools tonreduce illiteracy, special system of k'unlun schools (every level from kindergarten through middle school, free food and clothing, private schoolnsystem supported financially by local muslims educational promotion committee and strong moral and financial support from the governor). Govt supported mainly by a commercialnand industrial monopoly rather than by high taxes. Provincial expenditures were met by taxes and loans extended by huang chung industrial company (est in 1947 (theoretically privately owned but actually a semigovernmental organ controlled by ma and a group of supporters, profits from export of wools, hides, furs obtained prncipaaly from tibetan and mongol regions of the province and import of tea, cloth and other manufactured articles). Many usual marks of an authoritarian regime - eg police registration and use of travel passes are present
- ninghsia muslim govt - ruler is ma hung-k'uei, a 240 pound, roly-poly man who looks more chinese than muslim. Father ma fu-hsiang (military leader in northwest under ch'ing dynasty and early chinese republic. His brother was the previous (also the third since est of province) governor. Many features of ninghsia admin are similar to those in chinghai, but in ninghsia, the good is not quite as good and the bad is considerably worse. The emphasis in chinghai is upon reconstruction, while in ninghsia it is upon law, order and control. The monopoly commercial and industrial company (a joint private-govt organisation) called fu ning company function similarly to huang chung company in chinghai but taxes, including land tax, in ninghsia seems to be much more burdensome. Within the past year (1947) and a half, every city and large town in ninghsia has undergone a complete face lifting with grey bricks. Most public works projects by govt are undertaken by unpaid, forced labour (true to a certain extent in chinghai). An official pass is required for any travel or movement, in fact there is almost no freedeom of movement, or very little movement at all. Every ten to fifteen households are organised into reporting units.
- in suiyuan province muslim is a minority (about 20000) second only to mongols, concentrated mainly in cities of paotow and kweisui. They are intermingled with han chinese majority, it is difficult to identify them unless they are wearing distinctive skull caps.
Jews
- 國民政府當時應立法院長孫科的要求，考慮收容猶太人。根據計畫，收容的理由包括，行動符合國民黨的政策，幫助少數民族，其次因為猶太人擁有相當可觀的資金和專業技能，國府因此優先待遇專業人士，希望可以幫助建設中國。更重要的是，希望得到獲得英美的好感，因為英國在東亞工作的金融家很多是猶太人，而且希望增加美國對中國的同情。而當時在上海租界，已經有不少猶太人避難。有關的計劃被認為相當大膽，將從歐洲和上海的猶太人，通過海路運往緬甸，然後再經陸路抵達雲南的定居地。歐洲的路線可要經過地中海、蘇彞士運河、印度洋、孟加拉灣，才可以上岸。上岸後要經過的滇緬公路也是天險之一。http://glos.world/article/?p=11354
history
- [barnett] when the old regime toppled in 1911, there was really nothing to move into the vacuum. China literally fell apart and for almost two decades the central government in peking controlled only small portions of the country, while great areas were ruled by warlords. Under tge leadership first of sun yat sen and subsequently of chiang kai shek, and with support of the small chinese communist party (founded in 1921), the nationalists proceeded in late 1920s to overthrow china's weak central government and were ablevto bring some of the local warlords under control and to establish a new national govt in nanking in 1927-8. In 1927, the nationalist-communist alliance (which had been formed in 1923) split apart.During the 8 year sino japanese conflict, the process of social disintegration led to the collapse of nationalist regime. Much of china, including the major urban areas which had been the main sources of nationalists' strength, fell into japanese hands. Nationalistscwere forced into backward, isolated, interior regions.
- may fourth
- 陸宗輿在「五四運動」後六年，就刊行了《五十自述記》（一九二五年），可惜這部小書流傳不廣。作者幾經艱辛才找到原書，筆者便提議將這小冊附錄在《五四百年回首--這才是陸宗輿》，以下一段陸氏的自辯值得一談。曰賣國曰親日，已久為曹陸專有之名詞，清夜思之，即一己亦莫知所謂。質言之殆以借款即為賣國，借日款即為親日之說乎，顧前此之借鉅款者正有其人，而社會上對英美法德等之借款，其觀念似大不同。以理論言之，則以國家大權利，而換得外人之金錢者曰賣國。顧海關鹽課，為國家莫大之稅權，此兩大權者，今皆在某國之手如握我咽喉。今雖以全國民氣，竟有無法應付之勢，全國之人皆知感絕大之苦痛，然從未聞對於抵押海關鹽課之人有若何之評判？而曹陸所借之款，不但押品皆空，而本息均尚無着，日本方面且莫不痛恨西原貸款之失敗，謂被欺於陸曹。此中日兩國之人見解之不同，亦一奇事也。引文中說以「國家大權利」，「換得些人之金錢」，實指一九一三年袁世凱以鹽稅、海關稅作抵押，向英法德俄日五國銀行團借的「善後大借款」。陸氏沒有指名道姓，或許是為了他在前文還在說袁世凱表揚他用計「欺」日的事。再說稅權「在某國之手如握我咽喉」，實指「中國海關總稅務司」，這機關的前身是「大清皇家海關總稅務司」，某國即英國。中國海關由太平天國敗亡後成立，到中華人民共和國成立而廢撤消。英國逾九十年從中國海關掠奪的財富，恐怕跟佔領香港個半世紀不遑多讓！http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/05/11/b06-0511.pdf
- 曹汝霖、陸宗輿和章宗祥在「五四運動」之後，都離開了政界。由民元（一九一二年）到民八（一九一九年），三人在北洋政府任職，經歷袁世凱、黎元洪、馮國璋、徐世昌四位大總統和長期擔任實權國務總理的段祺瑞，其間有袁世凱發皇帝夢和張勳復辟。陸宗輿在《自述》中提到「西原貸款」，這筆貸款以經辦人西原龜三（一八七三至一九五四年）命名。西原是時任日本首相（正式官名是內閣總理大臣）寺內正毅（一八五二至一九一九年）的好友，如果用二十一世紀的法理標準，寺內派西原辦這事，實有名不正、言不順之失。西原貸款總計共一兆四千五百萬日圓，正如陸宗輿所說：「曹陸所借之款，不但押品皆空，而本息均尚無着，日本方面且莫不痛恨西原貸款之失敗，謂被欺於陸曹。」後來北洋政府由不同派系輪替，到一九二八年國民革命軍北伐完結，為北洋時代畫上句號。新政府以「北京政府所借的外債，概不負責償還」，日方這筆西原貸款可謂血本無歸！陸宗輿又謂：「中日兩國之人見解之不同，亦一奇事也。」證諸史實，倒該是寺內正毅與西原龜三「賣日」呢！http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/05/18/a19-0518.pdf
- [barnett] drastic redistribution of wealth and income in shanghai partly due to inflation and partly govt policy. A small upper stratum has accumulated great wealth, working class has improved its economic condition tremendously, the middle class has been virtually wiped out as an economic class. Key groups that have profited most are cotton mill owners, stockbrokers, a few corrupt officials and army officers, and some real estate dealers.
- in tientsin, population constantly grew due to influx of refugees (from 1.68 m to 1.8 m in 1947, became the most thickly populated city in china. City suffered from inflation, food shortage (food supplies cut off, communjsts captured tsanghsien, an important grain-collecting center south of tientsin, grain supplies from inner mongolia began to fall off because of the military forces there. United states china relief mission is the deus ex macina that promises to save the situation in a 4-month food rationing plan - to supplement food supplies in tientsin and prevent disorders and food crisis in shanghai;
- in shanghai, roughly 10000 of estimated 85000 textile workers in shanghai lost over ten days of work due to curtailed production. Unofficial estimate of unemployed persons vary from 100000 to 300000. Enormous no of wretched refugees flooded the city, it was estimated that influx of these refugees into shanghai amounted to 6000 daily, total no in city vary from half a million to a million. shanghai labour force is the largest in china - totalled 800,000, of which 547,000 are unionized, city had 503 different unions
- currency - on 19aug1948 issuance the gold yuan was announced, to be backed by 100pc reserve made up of gold, silver, foreign exchange, bonds and securities, and government owned properties. All currency in private hands was called in for conversion to the new notes. The job of defending the gold yuan and enforcing new control in shanghai fell to russian educated chiang ching-kuo, head of shanghai economic supervisory office
- 1946 constitution
- passed on 25dec1946 (in force one year later), declared by central committee of CPC as bogus constitution
- [barnett] delegates included uighurs from sinkiang wearing muslim skull caps and high leather boots, mongols in long native gowns with sash belts, tibetans in orange lamaist robes. Many of them could not understand mandarin. The glamour girl of the assembly was a beautiful manchu descendant of the imperial family, who was given the unofficial title of miss assembly andvwas greeted with whistling and cheering whenever she appeared on the stage.
- beginning of constitutional govt
- the assembly was overwhelmingly kuomintang in its composition, and minority groups were admitted on sufferance as a matter of kuomintang policy. A pre-election deal made bw top kuomintang execs and leaders of young china and democratic socialist parties backfired
- the assembly is not a legislative body; all legislative functions are assigned to legislative yuan; assembly is to meet once every six years, except for extraordinary sessions, and has the right and duty to carry out four specific powers: 1) election of president and vice president of china, 2) recall of these two exec officers, 3) amendment of constitution, 4) ratification of constitutional amendments proposed by legislative yuan
- [barnett] political matrimony of kuomintang and govt were to have been divorced - this involves, among other things, end of govt subsidies to the party. It is interesting to note, hiwever, that in pahsien the party headquarters, which is locared in onw wing of hsien govt bldg, is still subsidised by the hsien treasury.
- communists taking over
- reform program - mass education movement
- [barnett]liang shu-ming, a leader of democratic league, attempted to develop a peace movement by advocating making peking an open city and founded the peiping society for the protection of public monuments. Another peace advocate was chang tung-sun, a yenching university professor of philosophy (also a leader of democratic league). Peace agreement bw general fu tso-yi and communists (wef 22jan1949) - all public organisations and government bodies were to maintain the status quo and carry on pending overall settlement by joint administrative office. The personnel of these organisations were guaranteed safety. The surrender was made to look like the establishment of a coalition for the transitional period.Communists made their first move toward actually taking over the city on1feb. The kuomintang central news agency and north china daily news were converted into the new china news agency and the people's daily (under the editorship of fan ch'ang-chiang (yangtze river fan), a well known communist journalist who is often given credit for starting feature writing in china in his pre-communist days) respectively. Central broadcasting station was transformed into new china broadcasting station. The chairman of joint administrative office as well as the control commission and the people's govt is yeh chien-ying.A monster victory parade (first big demonstration) was held on 3 feb. Thousands of people assembled in the square south of chien men, front gate of tatar city. Professional dancers wearing opera costumes and heavy make-up performed the communist theme- dance, the yangko, or rice transplanting dance (a folk dance that combines elements of big apple, the charleston, and the shag). Infantry men, motorized troops, armored cars, tanks, artillery, and cavalry (part of the equipment was american and part japanese) poured in. Two large communist information centers were set up, and in them, eager political workers from red army political department answered questions about the communists and their policies. Communists introduced innovations in economic field - a municipal cooperative system is in the process of organisation with the announced purpose of eliminating the skinning of people by middlemen. A state-owned commercial company (peiping trade company) has been set up. It has several purchasing branches and 55 sales agents or outlets for selling daily necessities such as flour, coal, vegetable oil and salt at fixed prices slightly below the prevailing open market quotations. Communists pay wages with coarse grains such as millet (whereas nationalists gave out wheat flour in wage payments).Even though the kailan mining administration is a sino-british concern, it has been given every encouragement by the communists, because it is the main coal producer in north china.
usa
- 上世紀三十年代，自動式打火機傳入中國，最有名的品牌要算美國製造的「Ronson」，「朗臣」是其譯名。當年擁有一部「朗臣」是身份的象徵；人們會給「冒牌」的、「雜嘜」的（知名度低的「嘜頭」，「嘜」取自「Trademark」（商標）中「mark」的發音）或「易死火」的一個戲稱--「Roundson/Round臣」（「臣」讀「臣4-2」）。如有公司業務不濟，亦即步入「Round」的處境，此時這間公司可被視為「Round Round公司」。用上疊詞「Round Round」，筆者認為這令讀時顯得較易上口；又或可能是受「新新公司」這家在上世紀初聞名全國的上海百貨公司的名稱所影響（齊名的還有最後遷港營業的「先施」和「永安」）。久而久之，人們也把「Round咗」說成「Round臣」或「Round Round公司」了。9http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/03/17/a24-0317.pdf
russia
- Russians were perhaps the only Europeans who volunteered to fight for the creation of Greater East Asia led by Japan. However, in that, they were pursuing their own goals, too. The Bolsheviks’ victory in the Russian Civil War forced hundreds of thousands of Russians to flee the country. However, they, as well as their children, did not stop hoping that, one day, they would return to their homeland and overthrow the Soviet regime they hated so much. If, in their struggle against the USSR, many Russian emigres in Europe sided with Hitler, those who had settled in the Far East chose the Japanese Empire as their ally. The Japanese had started forging ties with White Army emigres living in Manchuria in northeast China in the 1920s. When in 1931 the Kwantung Army occupied that region, a significant part of its Russian inhabitants supported the Japanese in the fight against the Chinese troops.A puppet state, Manchukuo, was set up on the territory of Manchuria and Inner Mongolia, headed by the last Chinese emperor, Puyi. However, real power there belonged to the Japanese advisers and the leadership of the Kwantung Army. The Japanese and Russians there found common ground in their hatred of communism. They needed each other in the upcoming “liberation” war against the Soviet Union. Under the official ideology of Manchukuo, Russians were one of the five ‘indigenous’ peoples of the state and enjoyed equal rights with the Japanese, Chinese, Mongols and Koreans living here.The ‘Russian samurai’, as General Genzo Yanagita called White Army emigres who collaborated with the Japanese, received both military and ideological training. On the whole, their attitude towards the idea of creating Greater East Asia under Japan was neutral, bordering on positive, although they were far less enthusiastic about the plan to seize all Russian lands up to the Urals, which, however, they had to carefully hide.https://www.rbth.com/history/332269-russian-samurai-fought-for-japan
france
- 赤光社
- [mayfourth exhibition at central library apr19] address - 39 波安特街 (now 梅特里克街) ,科隆貝萊/ 科隆贝市 Colombelles, normandy
- 6月7日,由中共旅欧支部、
中国共产主义青年团旅欧执行委员会和中国国民党驻法总支部联合发起的赤光社 [book by 陳一然 鄧小平的青少年時代]
germany
- germans in china
- germans in china
- paul kuhlo http://kiautschou.de/html/3_10_2_c.html
- http://koki.o.oo7.jp/Paul_Kuhlo.htm ???
- involved in seige of tsingtao https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=cZfpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT23&lpg=PT23&dq=paul+kuhlo&source=bl&ots=2nFgUfVx8k&sig=GuFDghx1I0lJDQ19pCYVxB5m_hU&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi1yd64ioTcAhXS7WEKHb58DtUQ6AEIbzAJ#v=onepage&q=paul%20kuhlo&f=false
- according to koller zurich (auction catalogue jun18), he studied sinology in berlin, and was a war prisoner in japan (after defeat of germany in 1914) until 1920
mongols
- [barnett] In all of china, all mongols are organised into approximately 130 banners, each traditionally ruled by a hereditary prince, or wang. In normal times, most of these banners are grouped into 13 leagues, each under a chief elected by the banners themselves, but formally appointed by the cpg. Four of the banners are called "special banners" and have a status equal to that of the leagues. Alashan is one fo these. In 1948 there are about 80000 mongols in suiyuan province (it is est that the mongol population in all of inner mongolia to be about one-fifth of the total population there. The suiyuan mongols fall into 4 separate gruops, the ulan chap (ulan-chab) league in the north, ikh chao (yeke juu) league in the ordos desert region, the tumet banner in central part of the province, and the four eastern banners (originally the four western chahar banners). The chinese claim that the last two groups have been almost completely assimilated by the chinese population. Mongols in banners are not taxed or conscripted by the provincial govt, they are represented in the provincial govt. A large percentage of mongols are concentrated in western manchuria, inner mongolian provinces of jehol and chahar, and parts of suiyuan. In chinghai, the mongols are an extremely small group, far removed from the major conflict areas in china and under the strict control of general ma pu-fang's chinghai administration. The mongols in sinkiang are also a small group. Some of the mongols in suiyuan supported the central govt. One group of banners reamined loyal throughout the sino-japanese war and set up headquarters at djassek in ordos desert instead of joining teh wang and his puppet govt. This group (about250000 and strongly anti communist) is organised under a mongolian self-govt political committee with headquarters in kungmiao (40 miles south of paotow). Communist efforts are partially successful among the ikh chao mongols in southern ordos.
japan
- 明華糖倉，始建於1923年，原本乃日商在華建立最大製糖工廠；如今糖倉經楊浦區「重現風貌、重塑功能，重賦價值」的修繕改造，成為歷史與時尚交相輝映的網紅新地標；就在啓幕當日所見，委內瑞拉玻利瓦爾共和國、德國、日本、斯洛伐克、印尼、土耳其等駐滬總領事館代表、外國機構參展藝術家代表，共同在獨具中國特色的竹簡之上留言，附有各式各樣的祝福字句；據報道得知，美國賓夕法尼亞大學上海校友會與上海楊浦濱江投資開發有限公司、上海藝術品博物館簽署戰略合作備忘錄，勢將圍繞工業設計、建築景觀設計和文旅產業發展等，加強彼此間的資訊交流、資源分享，以共同發展和長期合作為目標，建立全方位合作關係；作為中國近代工業發源地，楊浦濱江留下眾多工業遺存精神價值，僅濱江南段規劃保留歷史建築就有24處、66幢、26.2萬平方米，都為如今的發展提供有鮮明特質的空間載體與文化靈魂http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/09/19/b07-0919.pdftaiwan
- [barnett] chiang has entrusted the adminstration of taiwan to one of his closest personal followers, general ch'en ch'eng, who was sent to the island at the end of 1948 to prepare a base to which chiang could retire. Reportedly, wei tao-ming, the governor of taiwan, was not even informed that ch'en was coming, but in january 1949, ch'en took over wei's job. Ch'en, like chiang himself, is a native of chekiang and a graduate of paoting military academy.
shanxi
- [barnett] the mountainous terrain of shanxi tends to isolate the province, making it possible for yen hsi-shan to establish a provincial regime that has long maintained a high degree of political independence. There have been extended periods during the past 37 years when the inclusion of shanxi within china has been more nominal than real.
No comments:
Post a Comment