ancient cases
- Akrotiri Thera (in present day greece) The most important colony of the Minoans; at the time of its destruction from the eruption of the volcano of the island (1628 BCE) the population was around 30,000 inhabitants.https://www.quora.com/What-is-an-amazing-fact-about-the-bronze-age-that-most-people-dont-know
- The Phoenicians & Greeks were more interested in trade than conquest. Alexander the Great was a mutant so to speak. They bought land from the locals & built a seaport & market. They weren't interested in micromanaging the natives' lives like the Romans. Their colonies were basically replenishing bases/ repair depots for their merchant fleets.https://www.quora.com/When-the-ancient-Greeks-built-a-colony-how-did-they-treat-the-native-peoples-in-that-area-Did-they-enslave-them-drive-them-out-let-them-settle-in-the-colony-or-treat-them-another-way
- 埃雷特里亞Eretria (/əˈriːtriə/; Greek: Ερέτρια, Eretria, literally "city of the rowers"' Ancient Greek: Ἐρέτρια) is a town in Euboea, Greece, facing the coast of Attica across the narrow South Euboean Gulf. It was an important Greek polis in the 6th/5th century BC, mentioned by many famous writers and actively involved in significant historical events.
- greek colonies
- trabzon was founded in classical antiquityin 756 BCE as Tραπεζούς (Trapezous), by Milesian traders from Sinope. It was one of a number (about ten) of Milesian emporia or trading colonies along the shores of the Black Sea. Others included Abydos and Cyzicus in the Dardanelles, and nearby Kerasous. Like most Greek colonies, the city was a small enclave of Greek life, and not an empire unto its own, in the later European sense of the word. As a colony Trapezous initially paid tribute to Sinope, but early banking (money-changing) activity is suggested occurring in the city already in the 4th century BCE, according to a silver drachma coin from Trapezus in the British Museum, London. Cyrus the Great added the city to the Achaemenid Empire, and was possibly the first ruler to consolidate the eastern Black Sea region into a single political entity (a satrapy).
medieval age
- ********By around 1300, all of Central Europe was colonised, with even less fertile areas now being tilled and economically exploited. That meant that anywhere that had anything of value was under the control of a duke, King, or some other Lord. These nobles could levy tariffs on trade and extracted rent and taxes from the land (more or less sustainably depending on when and where you look) and therefore had a vested interest in making sure nobody else is preying on these. https://www.quora.com/How-prevalent-was-the-threat-of-bandits-in-medieval-Europe-Is-it-somewhat-exaggerated-in-popular-misconceptions-or-were-there-really-bandits-lurking-all-over-to-prey-on-unwary-and-unguarded-travelers
portuguese colonialism
- The Council of Portugal, officially, the Royal and Supreme Council of Portugal (Portuguese: Real e Supremo Conselho de Portugal; Spanish: Real y Supremo Consejo de Portugal), was the ruling body and a key part of the government of the Kingdom of Portugal during the Iberian Union. The council was founded in 1582 by Philip I of Portugal following the model of the Council of Castile. It provided Portugal with a large degree of autonomy from the Portuguese House of Habsburg. Apart from administering the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves, the council administered Portugal's colonial empire. The council ceased to exist after the Portuguese Restoration War.
- narratives
- indian ocean
New Spain (Spanish: Nueva España) was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, and following additional conquests, it was made a viceroyalty(Spanish: virreinato) in 1535. The first of four viceroyalties Spain created in the Americas, it comprised Mexico, Central America, much of the Southwestern and Central United States, and Spanish Florida as well as the Philippine, Mariana and Caroline Islands.After 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony from its capital, Mexico City. New Spain lost parts of its territory to other European powers and independence, but the core area remained under Spanish control until 1821, when it achieved independence as the Mexican Empire – when the latter dissolved, it became modern Mexico and Central America. New Spain developed highly regional divisions, reflecting the impact of climate, topography, indigenous populations, and mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, and economic organization. The northern area of Mexico, a region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations, was not generally conducive to dense settlements, but the discovery of silver in Zacatecas in the 1540s drew settlement there to exploit the mines. Silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, making the viceroyalty a vital link between Spain's New World empire and its Asian empire.
- The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas 'Septentrion', from North America and the Caribbean, to the Philippine, Mariana and Caroline Islands. At its greatest extent, the Spanish crown claimed on the mainland of the Americas much of North America south of Canada, that is: all of present-day Mexico and Central America except Panama; most of present-day United States west of the Mississippi River, plus the Floridas. To the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies (1565-1901) (the Philippine Islands, the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands, parts of Taiwan, and parts of the Moluccas). To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies (Cuba, Hispaniola (comprising the modern states of Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, Jamaica, the Cayman Islands, Trinidad, and the Bay Islands). Until the 18th century, when Spain saw its claims in North America threatened by other European powers, much of what were called the Spanish borderlands consisted of territory now part of the United States. This was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. On the mainland, the administrative units included Las Californias, that is, the Baja California peninsula, still part of Mexico and divided into Baja California and Baja California Sur; Alta California (present-day Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, western Colorado, and south Wyoming); (from the 1760s) Louisiana (including the western Mississippi River basin and the Missouri River basin); Nueva Extremadura (the present-day states of Coahuila and Texas); and Santa Fe de Nuevo México (parts of Texasand New Mexico).
- The New Kingdom of León (Spanish: Nuevo Reino de León), was an administrative territory of the Spanish Empire, politically ruled by the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It was located in an area corresponding generally to the present-day northeastern Mexican state of Nuevo León. It was founded in 1582 by Spanish and Portuguese settlers when Philip II, King of Spain and its colonies, encouraged the colonization of Northern New Spain, and authorized the creation of a 'realm' which would have the name of Nuevo Reyno de León (New Kingdom of León), after the former Kingdom of León in Spain. When Mexico declared the independence from Spain, the territory of the Nuevo Reyno de León became the "Estado Libre y Soberano de Nuevo León".
- Nuevo Reino de Galicia (New Kingdom of Galicia, Galician: Reino de Nova Galicia) or simply Nueva Galicia (New Galicia, Nova Galicia) was an autonomous kingdom of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It was named after Galicia in Spain. Nueva Galicia's territory became the present-day Mexican
states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Colima, Jalisco, Nayarit and Zacatecas.
- Nueva Vizcaya (New Biscay, Basque: Bizkai Berria) was the first province in the north of New Spain to be explored and settled by the Spanish. It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango in Mexico.
- The Council of the Indies; officially, the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies (Spanish: Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, pronounced [reˈal i suˈpɾemo konˈsexo ðe ˈindjas]), was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire for the Americas and the Philippines. The crown held absolute power over the Indies and the Council of the Indies was the administrative and advisory body for those overseas realms. It was established in 1524 by Charles V of Spain to administer "the Indies," Spain's name for its territories. Such an administrative entity, on the conciliar model of the Council of Castile, was created following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in 1521, which demonstrated the importance of the Americas. Originally a section under the jurisdiction of the Council of Castile, it was subsequently established as an autonomous body with legislative, executive and judicial functions. The Council of the Indies was abolished in 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, briefly restored in 1814 by Ferdinand VII of Spain, and definitively abolished in 1834 by the regency, acting on behalf of the four-year-old Isabella II of Spain.インディアス枢機会議（インディアスすうきかいぎ、スペイン語：Consejo Real y Supremo de las Indias）は、新大陸におけるスペインの植民地（インディアス）に関係するあらゆる事柄について国王を補佐するために1524年に設立された官僚組織である。16世紀から17世紀を通じて新大陸における国王諮問機関としてもっとも重要なものであった。会議の議長および議員の任免は王室によって行われ、その他の官吏として弁護士、弁務官、世界誌学者、数学者などが携わった。植民地地域における行政・立法・司法の権限を有し、国王に代わって植民地関係業務を取り仕切った。現地機関であるアウディエンシアはインディアス枢機会議に職務を報告する義務を持ち、またアウディエンシア同士の係争や通商院との諸問題をも管轄とし、また植民地の官吏や高位聖職者の任命権も有していた。被任命者の監視はインディアス枢機会議が負っていたため、巡察吏（ビシタドール）の派遣なども執り行っていた。
- *******kiv the council of flanders********
- america
- english company trading to the east indies
- governor and company of adventurers of england trading into hudson bay (founded in 1670)
- The North Borneo Chartered Company (NBCC), also known as the British North Borneo Company(BNBC) was a British chartered company formed on 1 November 1881 to administer and exploit the resources of North Borneo (present-day Sabah in Malaysia). The territory became a protectorate of the British Empire in 1888 but the company remained involved with the territory until 1946, when administration was fully assumed by the Crown colony government. The company also temporarily administered the island of Labuan in 1890 before it became part of the Straits Settlements. The company motto was Pergo et Perago, which means "I persevere and I achieve" in Latin. Its founder and first chairman was Alfred Dent.
- artefacts/historical record
The Commonwealth of Nations (formerly the British Commonwealth), also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth operates by intergovernmental consensus of the member states, organised through the Commonwealth Secretariat and non-governmental organisations, organised through the Commonwealth Foundation. The Commonwealth dates back to the mid-20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governanceof its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the member states as "free and equal".[6] The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth, but this role does not carry any power with it. While there are over 31 republics and five monarchies who have a different monarch, the Queen is the ceremonial head of state and reigning constitutional monarch of only 16 members of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth realms. The position of the crown remains legally distinct from the position of monarch and the position of the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen has since ceased to be the head of state or have any formal position in several nations of the commonwealth including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore. Member states have no legal obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, free speech, human rights, and the rule of law. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games.
france
- Acadia (French: Acadie) was a colony of New France in northeastern North America that included parts of eastern Quebec, the Maritime provinces, and modern-day Maine to the Kennebec River. During much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, Norridgewockon the Kennebec River and Castine at the end of the Penobscot River were the southernmost settlements of Acadia.The first capital of Acadia, established in 1605, was Port-Royal. A British force from Virginia attacked and burned down the town in 1613, but it was later rebuilt nearby, where it remained the longest serving capital of French Acadia until the British Siege of Port Royalin 1710.[a] Over seventy-four years there were six colonial wars, in which English and later British interests tried to capture Acadia starting with King William's War in 1689. During these wars, along with some French troops from Quebec, some Acadians, the Wabanaki Confederacy, and French priests continuously raided New England settlements along the border in Maine. While Acadia was officially conquered in 1710 during Queen Anne's War, present-day New Brunswick and much of Maine remained contested territory. Present-day Prince Edward Island (Île Saint-Jean) and Cape Breton (Île Royale) as agreed under Article XIII of the Treaty of Utrechtremained under French control.[6] By militarily defeating the Wabanaki Confederacy and the French priests, present-day Maine fell during Father Rale's War. During King George's War, France and New France made significant attempts to regain mainland Nova Scotia. After Father Le Loutre's War, present-day New Brunswick fell to the British. Finally, during the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War), both Île Royale and Île Saint-Jean fell to the British in 1758. Today, the term Acadia is used to refer to regions of North America that are historically associated with the lands, descendants, or culture of the former French region. It particularly refers to regions of The Maritimes with French roots, language, and culture, primarily in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the Magdalen Islands and Prince Edward Island, as well as in Maine.[7] It can also be used to refer to the Acadian diaspora in southern Louisiana, a region also referred to as Acadiana. In the abstract, Acadia refers to the existence of a French culture in any of these regions. People living in Acadia, and sometimes former residents and their descendants, are called Acadians, also later known as Cajuns, the English (mis)pronunciation of 'Cadiens, after resettlement in Louisiana.
- north west company
- https://www.quora.com/Why-didn-t-more-European-countries-absorb-their-colonies-like-France-did-with-French-Guiana-and-Reunion-instead-of-giving-them-independence
Netherlands
- spanish embargo in 1598 of dutch ships, merchants, and goods in spain and portugal, spurred expansion of direct dutch trade with east indies, which culminated in the chartering of east inida company. From 1605 onward, the VOC had been making inroads in the east indies by countering or displacing the spanish military presence in several key spice islands in the moluccan archipelago, and plans were being made to form a new west india company to compete in the new world.
- united east india company/verenigde oost-indische compagnie/VOC
- The Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie; VOC) was an early megacorporation founded by a government-directed amalgamation of several rival Dutch trading companies (voorcompagnieën) in the early 17th century.[1][2] It was established on March 20, 1602 as a chartered company to trade with India and Indianised Southeast Asian countries when the Dutch government granted it a 21-year monopoly on the Dutch spice trade. It has been often labelled a trading company (i.e. a company of merchants who buy and sell goods produced by other people) or sometimes a shipping company. However, VOC was in fact a proto-conglomerate company, diversifying into multiple commercial and industrial activities such as international trade (especially intra-Asian trade), shipbuilding, and both production and trade of East Indian spices,[9] Formosan sugarcane,[10][11] and South African wine.[12][13][14] The Company was a transcontinental employer and an early pioneer of outward foreign direct investment. The Company's investment projects helped raise the commercial and industrial potential of many underdeveloped or undeveloped regions of the world in the early modern period. In the early 1600s, by widely issuing bonds and shares of stock to the general public,[a] VOC became the world's first formally-listed public company.[b] In other words, it was the first corporation to be listed on an official stock exchange.[c][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]It was influential in the rise of corporate-led globalisation in the early modern period.
germany
- usa
- The Phoenicians & Greeks were more interested in trade than conquest. Alexander the Great was a mutant so to speak. They bought land from the locals & built a seaport & market. They weren't interested in micromanaging the natives' lives like the Romans. Their colonies were basically replenishing bases/ repair depots for their merchant fleets.https://www.quora.com/When-the-ancient-Greeks-built-a-colony-how-did-they-treat-the-native-peoples-in-that-area-Did-they-enslave-them-drive-them-out-let-them-settle-in-the-colony-or-treat-them-another-way
- 埃雷特里亞Eretria (/əˈriːtriə/; Greek: Ερέτρια, Eretria, literally "city of the rowers"' Ancient Greek: Ἐρέτρια) is a town in Euboea, Greece, facing the coast of Attica across the narrow South Euboean Gulf. It was an important Greek polis in the 6th/5th century BC, mentioned by many famous writers and actively involved in significant historical events.
- dikaia was a colony of the city, and its coins are an exact copy of the designs of the mother city (silver tetradrachm of dikaia, exhibit of ancient greek coins exhibition in 2004)
- greek colonies
- massalia (marseille) greek explorer pytheas was sent from there to see where the goods purchased by the colony - tin from britain and amber from baltic sea - came from
- greek colonies of euxine sea https://www.quora.com/Are-Modern-Greeks-descended-from-a-mixture-of-Ancient-Greeks-and-Anatolians-Turks
- Durrës (in present day albania) was founded by ancient Greek colonists from Corinth and Corfu under the name of Epidamnos around the 7th century BC on the coast of the Illyrian Taulantii.
- for most of classical antiquity, southern Italy was inhabited mostly by Greek people. Greeks first began colonizing southern Italy in the eighth century BCE. One of the earliest Greek colonies in southern Italy was the city of Syracuse, located on the eastern end of the island of Sicily. This city was founded in around 734 or 733 BCE by Greek colonists from the cities of Corinth and Tenea.Syracuse quickly grew into the largest, most politically important, and most culturally influential Greek city-state in Italy. Its population in the fifth century BCE was somewhere between 250,000 and 300,000 people, making it approximately the same size as Athens itself at the time.Archimedes was born in Syracuse sometime around 287 BCE or thereabouts. He was a Greek and he wrote all his surviving treatises in the Doric dialect of the Greek language. That being said, there’s a strong argument to be made that Archimedes was not only a Greek, but also a Sicilian and an Italian, since he lived in Sicily, which is today considered part of Italy.The Roman Republic laid siege to Syracuse in around spring 213 BCE. The siege lasted until around autumn 212 BCE, when the Romans finally captured the city and sacked it. During the sack, a Roman soldier is said to have killed Archimedes.https://www.quora.com/Why-does-it-say-Archimedes-was-Greek-when-he-was-born-in-Italy [note by me - note cities with names such as laus, callipolis, neapolis, naxos, catania, leontinoi]
- trabzon was founded in classical antiquityin 756 BCE as Tραπεζούς (Trapezous), by Milesian traders from Sinope. It was one of a number (about ten) of Milesian emporia or trading colonies along the shores of the Black Sea. Others included Abydos and Cyzicus in the Dardanelles, and nearby Kerasous. Like most Greek colonies, the city was a small enclave of Greek life, and not an empire unto its own, in the later European sense of the word. As a colony Trapezous initially paid tribute to Sinope, but early banking (money-changing) activity is suggested occurring in the city already in the 4th century BCE, according to a silver drachma coin from Trapezus in the British Museum, London. Cyrus the Great added the city to the Achaemenid Empire, and was possibly the first ruler to consolidate the eastern Black Sea region into a single political entity (a satrapy).
- [話說中國 春秋巨人 readers digest] greek emigrants set up 特垃布松城邦 in 750bce, marking the start of mass migration to mediterranean and black sea
medieval age
- ********By around 1300, all of Central Europe was colonised, with even less fertile areas now being tilled and economically exploited. That meant that anywhere that had anything of value was under the control of a duke, King, or some other Lord. These nobles could levy tariffs on trade and extracted rent and taxes from the land (more or less sustainably depending on when and where you look) and therefore had a vested interest in making sure nobody else is preying on these. https://www.quora.com/How-prevalent-was-the-threat-of-bandits-in-medieval-Europe-Is-it-somewhat-exaggerated-in-popular-misconceptions-or-were-there-really-bandits-lurking-all-over-to-prey-on-unwary-and-unguarded-travelers
portuguese colonialism
- The Council of Portugal, officially, the Royal and Supreme Council of Portugal (Portuguese: Real e Supremo Conselho de Portugal; Spanish: Real y Supremo Consejo de Portugal), was the ruling body and a key part of the government of the Kingdom of Portugal during the Iberian Union. The council was founded in 1582 by Philip I of Portugal following the model of the Council of Castile. It provided Portugal with a large degree of autonomy from the Portuguese House of Habsburg. Apart from administering the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves, the council administered Portugal's colonial empire. The council ceased to exist after the Portuguese Restoration War.
- narratives
- focused on early modern overseas expansion, turned their back on the rest of the iberian peninsula and advanced the idea that portugal was a progressive sailors' and merchants' nation that sailed the ocean to communicatecwith the ourside world.
- portugal's elites preferred to stress its historical and cultural links with great britain and other overseas empires.
- indian ocean
- share of trade declined to 20pc by 1620s. A the beginning of century they had close to 50 forts, but by the end they had only nine scattered around the ocean. Their most significant losses to the dutch were malacca in 1641, colombo in 1656, and cochin in 1663. Portuguese-dutch rivalry was particularly strong, but the english also aggressively opposed the portuguese until an agreement in 1635 brought hostilities to an end.
- In the late 19th century, Portugal's dominance of Mozambique was threatened by the expansionist colonial ambitions of Great Britain and Germany. Although the borders of Mozambique had nominally been fixed by the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, Portugal lacked the capital to exert effective control or exploitation of the territory. To help overcome this, in 1891 the Portuguese government authorised three private companies by royal charter to manage portions of Mozambique: the Mozambique Company, the Zambezi Company and the Niassa Company.
- The Mozambique Company (Portuguese: Companhia de Moçambique) was a royal company operating in Portuguese Mozambique that had the concession of the lands in the Portuguese colony corresponding to the present provinces of Manica and Sofala in central Mozambique.The company was established the 11 February 1891 with a capital stock of about 5 million dollars obtained from financiers from Germany, the United Kingdom and South Africa. Isaacman and Isaacman report that the firm was capitalised at 40,000 pounds, and that British and French capital quickly predominated. The concession was granted for a period of 50 years, during which the company could not only exploit the resources and existing manpower (partly through the chibalo system of forced labour) but also grant subconcessions. The company was granted the exclusive right to collect taxes, but was itself granted a 25-year tax exemption. In return the Portuguese state would receive 7.5% of the company's profits and 10% of the sold shares. The company was also required to settle 1,000 Portuguese families and provide education and public administration in its territory.On 18 July 1942, the territory of Manica and Sofala passed to the Portuguese colonial authorities and the Mozambique Company continued to operate in the agricultural and commercial sectors.On 20 October 1961, The Mozambique Company became the Grupo Entreposto Comercial de Moçambique, which transformed itself into a holding on 6 September 1972, with the participation of capital from other companies, including Entreposto-Gestão e Participações (SGPS) SA.
- The Niassa Company or Nyassa Chartered Company (Portuguese: Companhia do Niassa) was a royal company in the Portuguese colony of Mozambique, then known as Portuguese East Africa, that had the concession of the lands that include the present provinces of Cabo Delgado and Niassa between 1891 and 1929.The Niassa Company was given a concession which covered the current provinces of Cabo Delgado and Niassa, from the Ruvuma River to the Lúrio Riverand the Indian Ocean to Lake Niassa, a territory which covered more than 160,000 square km. The terms of the concession were the same as for the Mozambique Company, except for a term of only 35 years. The official charter by the Portuguese government in March 1893.The territories total profits amounted to only 115,000 pounds in 1926, which it was able to maintain only by ever more onerous application of hut taxes and the British investors refused to extend more capital unless the concession was extended past 1929, which it was not.[3] At the time the concession ended, the company owed more than million pounds to its creditors as opposed to only 75,000 ads in assets.
- Afonso de Albuquerque, Duke of Goa (Portuguese pronunciation: [ɐˈfõsu dɨ aɫbuˈkɛɾk(ɨ)]; c. 1453 – 16 December 1515) (also spelled Aphonso or Alfonso), was a Portuguese general, a "great conqueror", a statesman, and an empire builder. Afonso advanced the three-fold Portuguese grand scheme of combating Islam, spreading Christianity, and securing the trade of spices by establishing a Portuguese Asian empire. Among his achievements, Afonso was the first European of his Renaissance to raid the Persian Gulf, and he led the first voyage by a European fleet into the Red Sea.[6] His military and administrative works are generally regarded as among the most vital to building and securing the Portuguese Empire in the Orient, the Middle East, and the spice routes of eastern Oceania. Afonso is generally considered a military genius, and "probably the greatest naval commander of the age" given his successful strategy—he attempted to close all the Indian Ocean naval passages to the Atlantic, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and to the Pacific, transforming it into a Portuguese mare clausum established over the opposition of the Ottoman Empire and its Muslim and Hindu allies. In the expansion of the Portuguese Empire, Afonso initiated a rivalry that would become known as the Ottoman–Portuguese war, which would endure for many years. Many of the Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts in which he was directly involved took place in the Indian Ocean, in the Persian Gulf regions for control of the trade routes, and on the coasts of India. It was his military brilliance in these initial campaigns against the much larger Ottoman Empire and its allies that enabled Portugal to become the first global empire in history. He had a record of engaging and defeating much larger armies and fleets. For example, his capture of Ormuz in 1507 against the Persians was accomplished with a fleet of seven ships. Other famous battles and offensives which he led include the conquest of Goa in 1510 and the capture of Malacca in 1511. He became admiral of the Indian Ocean, and was appointed head of the "fleet of the Arabian and Persian sea" in 1506. During the last five years of his life, he turned to administration, where his actions as the second governor of Portuguese India were crucial to the longevity of the Portuguese Empire. He pioneered European sea trade with China during the Ming Dynasty with envoy Rafael Perestrello, Thailand with Duarte Fernandes as envoy, and with Timor, passing through Malaysia and Indonesia in a voyage headed by António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão. He also aided diplomatic relations with Ethiopia using priest envoys João Gomes and João Sanches, and established diplomatic ties with Persia, during the Safavid dynasty. He became known as "the Great", "the Terrible", "the Caesar of the East", "the Lion of the Seas", and "the Portuguese Mars".
- https://www.quora.com/The-Portuguese-got-their-empire-first-and-had-vast-amounts-of-wealth-but-why-did-they-decline-and-the-British-take-over-the-lead-in-European-Imperial-nations
- Alphonso mango is a seasonal fruit, considered to be among the most superior varieties of the fruit in terms of sweetness, richness and flavour. The variety is named after Afonso de Albuquerque, a Portuguese general and military expert who helped establish Portuguese colonies in India. The Portuguese introduced grafting on mango trees to produce extraordinary varieties like Alphonso. The fruit was then introduced to the Konkan region in Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat and some parts of southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala.
New Spain (Spanish: Nueva España) was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, and following additional conquests, it was made a viceroyalty(Spanish: virreinato) in 1535. The first of four viceroyalties Spain created in the Americas, it comprised Mexico, Central America, much of the Southwestern and Central United States, and Spanish Florida as well as the Philippine, Mariana and Caroline Islands.After 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony from its capital, Mexico City. New Spain lost parts of its territory to other European powers and independence, but the core area remained under Spanish control until 1821, when it achieved independence as the Mexican Empire – when the latter dissolved, it became modern Mexico and Central America. New Spain developed highly regional divisions, reflecting the impact of climate, topography, indigenous populations, and mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, and economic organization. The northern area of Mexico, a region of nomadic and semi-nomadic indigenous populations, was not generally conducive to dense settlements, but the discovery of silver in Zacatecas in the 1540s drew settlement there to exploit the mines. Silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, making the viceroyalty a vital link between Spain's New World empire and its Asian empire.
- The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas 'Septentrion', from North America and the Caribbean, to the Philippine, Mariana and Caroline Islands. At its greatest extent, the Spanish crown claimed on the mainland of the Americas much of North America south of Canada, that is: all of present-day Mexico and Central America except Panama; most of present-day United States west of the Mississippi River, plus the Floridas. To the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies (1565-1901) (the Philippine Islands, the Mariana Islands, the Caroline Islands, parts of Taiwan, and parts of the Moluccas). To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies (Cuba, Hispaniola (comprising the modern states of Haiti and the Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico, Jamaica, the Cayman Islands, Trinidad, and the Bay Islands). Until the 18th century, when Spain saw its claims in North America threatened by other European powers, much of what were called the Spanish borderlands consisted of territory now part of the United States. This was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. On the mainland, the administrative units included Las Californias, that is, the Baja California peninsula, still part of Mexico and divided into Baja California and Baja California Sur; Alta California (present-day Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, western Colorado, and south Wyoming); (from the 1760s) Louisiana (including the western Mississippi River basin and the Missouri River basin); Nueva Extremadura (the present-day states of Coahuila and Texas); and Santa Fe de Nuevo México (parts of Texasand New Mexico).
- The New Kingdom of León (Spanish: Nuevo Reino de León), was an administrative territory of the Spanish Empire, politically ruled by the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It was located in an area corresponding generally to the present-day northeastern Mexican state of Nuevo León. It was founded in 1582 by Spanish and Portuguese settlers when Philip II, King of Spain and its colonies, encouraged the colonization of Northern New Spain, and authorized the creation of a 'realm' which would have the name of Nuevo Reyno de León (New Kingdom of León), after the former Kingdom of León in Spain. When Mexico declared the independence from Spain, the territory of the Nuevo Reyno de León became the "Estado Libre y Soberano de Nuevo León".
- Nuevo Reino de Galicia (New Kingdom of Galicia, Galician: Reino de Nova Galicia) or simply Nueva Galicia (New Galicia, Nova Galicia) was an autonomous kingdom of the Viceroyalty of New Spain. It was named after Galicia in Spain. Nueva Galicia's territory became the present-day Mexican
states of Aguascalientes, Guanajuato, Colima, Jalisco, Nayarit and Zacatecas.
- Nueva Vizcaya (New Biscay, Basque: Bizkai Berria) was the first province in the north of New Spain to be explored and settled by the Spanish. It consisted mostly of the area which is today the states of Chihuahua and Durango in Mexico.
- The Council of the Indies; officially, the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies (Spanish: Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias, pronounced [reˈal i suˈpɾemo konˈsexo ðe ˈindjas]), was the most important administrative organ of the Spanish Empire for the Americas and the Philippines. The crown held absolute power over the Indies and the Council of the Indies was the administrative and advisory body for those overseas realms. It was established in 1524 by Charles V of Spain to administer "the Indies," Spain's name for its territories. Such an administrative entity, on the conciliar model of the Council of Castile, was created following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in 1521, which demonstrated the importance of the Americas. Originally a section under the jurisdiction of the Council of Castile, it was subsequently established as an autonomous body with legislative, executive and judicial functions. The Council of the Indies was abolished in 1812 by the Cádiz Cortes, briefly restored in 1814 by Ferdinand VII of Spain, and definitively abolished in 1834 by the regency, acting on behalf of the four-year-old Isabella II of Spain.インディアス枢機会議（インディアスすうきかいぎ、スペイン語：Consejo Real y Supremo de las Indias）は、新大陸におけるスペインの植民地（インディアス）に関係するあらゆる事柄について国王を補佐するために1524年に設立された官僚組織である。16世紀から17世紀を通じて新大陸における国王諮問機関としてもっとも重要なものであった。会議の議長および議員の任免は王室によって行われ、その他の官吏として弁護士、弁務官、世界誌学者、数学者などが携わった。植民地地域における行政・立法・司法の権限を有し、国王に代わって植民地関係業務を取り仕切った。現地機関であるアウディエンシアはインディアス枢機会議に職務を報告する義務を持ち、またアウディエンシア同士の係争や通商院との諸問題をも管轄とし、また植民地の官吏や高位聖職者の任命権も有していた。被任命者の監視はインディアス枢機会議が負っていたため、巡察吏（ビシタドール）の派遣なども執り行っていた。
- *******kiv the council of flanders********
- - As part of the sweeping eighteenth-century administrative and economic changes known as the Bourbon Reforms, the Spanish crown created new administrative units called intendancies. In New Spain, these units generally corresponded to the regions or provinces that had developed earlier in the Center, South, and North. In turn, many of the intendancy boundaries became Mexican state boundaries after independence.
- Include new orleans (created in 1766)
- america
- New Spain established settlements in Hispaniola 1496, Venezuela 1500, Veracruz 1520, Bogota 1530, Mexico City 1535, Buenos Aires and Asuncion 1536, Lima/Peru and Chile 1542. So by 1570 they had colonies in most of South America except Brazil, which was given to Portugal. The Spanish were looking fo gold and silver, and they traded with Turkey and Guinea pigs from South America, chocolate from Mexico and tobacco from Santo Domingo. In North America they founded Spanish Florida 1513, found Alta California 1542 and settled Pensacola 1559. https://www.quora.com/If-Colombus-discovered-the-Americas-for-Europe-in-1492-why-did-the-first-colony-Jamestown-not-get-established-until-1607-over-100-years-later-Did-Spain-really-not-establish-a-single-settlement-in-that-100-year
- In 1776, the north-western frontier areas came under the administration of the new 'Commandancy General of the Internal Provinces of the North' (Provincias Internas), designed to streamline administration and invigorate growth. The crown created two new provincial governments from the former Las Californias in 1804; the southern peninsula became Baja California, and the ill-defined northern mainland frontier area became Alta California. Once missions and protective presidios were established in an area, large land grantsencouraged settlement and establishment of California ranchos. The Spanish system of land grants was not very successful, however, because the grants were merely royal concessions—not actual land ownership. Under later Mexican rule, land grants conveyed ownership, and were more successful at promoting settlement. Rancho activities centered on cattle-raising; many grantees emulated the Dons of Spain, with cattle, horses and sheep the source of wealth. The work was usually done by Native Americans, sometimes displaced and/or relocated from their villages. Native-born descendants of the resident Spanish-heritage rancho grantees, soldiers, servants, merchants, craftsmen and others became the Californios. Many of the less-affluent men took native wives, and many daughters married later English, French and American settlers. After the Mexican War of Independence (1821) and subsequent secularization("disestablishment") of the missions (1834), Mexican land grant transactions increased the spread of the rancho system. The land grants and ranchos established mapping and land-ownership patterns that are still recognizable in present-day California and New Mexico.
- florida
- *****when you read ‘Spanish settlers' it isn't Spaniards from Spain, it's any subject from any part of the empire, and that includes natives, blacks or even Chinese in the Philippines. Those were Spanish and those were Spanish settlers and soldiers.Luisa Ábrego was a servant from Seville, she moved to Jerez de La Frontera in Cádiz and ultimately to Florida, she went to court in Mexico City later on as she actually had two relationships with two Spaniards at the same time, and while now that is morally wrong but legally permitted, back then it was also illegal. Spanish settlers included even an Irish immigrant who held the first Saint Patrick celebration in the Americas in San Agustín before any Irish sailed to Boston.In the following decades after the Spanish presence in Florida took roots Franciscans started to build missions to assimilate natives in northern Florida, just like they did in California around the same time. The Spanish population hadn't settled those areas so the missions served to assimilate natives into Spaniards. This increased the Spanish presence in northern Florida strengthening the Spanish border against Britain with the natives themselves. And even more tha that, the natives living north moved south to Spanish Florida escaping the British expansion. Something that is perfectly documented in the case of the Creek, expelled by the British from their land, they migrated to Florida where they settled north forming the Semínolas. But not just those, Appalachians also mived to northern Florida as the British expanded west.And it wasn't just the natives, when Britain started importing blacks as slaves en mass to the southern colonies, some escaped, and most of those sought refuge in Spanish Florida. To the point the Spanish founded Fuerte Mosé or in English Moosa Fort, an entire fort and town made up of escaped slaves from the 13 colonies.When Florida was ceded to the British, most natives fled to Cuba, but some stayed, all black refugees in Mosé moved to Cuba and almost all blacks in Florida left. As for the Spanish, ironically they were the group that stayed the most, natives moved to Cuba in large amounts and blacks abandonned completely British Florida for Cuba. In fact Mosé is uninhabited today unlike Saint Augustin, because all of them left.By the time Spain got Florida back the population was substantially lower and had many more settlers from the 13 colonies. In the following years the US attacked the remaining of the Semínolas in the north, and when the US got Florida most of the population was flooded with settlers from the 13 colonies.By now there may be some descendants of Semínolas in the north (although they were relocated by the US to the western states) or some Spanish descendants in Saint Augustin or Pensacola, but they would be mixed with the rest, and frankly you would have to go for very “old" families in the area with possibly Spanish surnames (if they still keep those after centuries of mixing).https://www.quora.com/I-m-curious-about-the-original-Spanish-colonists-in-Florida-What-became-of-these-European-firsts-the-Spanish-in-what-is-today-the-State-of-Florida-Did-they-simply-assimilate-or-flee-How-large-was-that-colony-s
- The Spanish East Indies were the overseas territories of the Spanish Empire in Asia and Oceania from 1565 to 1901 governed from Manila in the Spanish Philippines. The seat of government was in the Spanish Philippines and it encompassed the Marianas, Carolines, Palaos and Guam, as well as parts of Formosa (Taiwan), Sulawesi (Celebes) and the Moluccas (Maluku). The King of Spain traditionally styled himself "King of the East and West Indies".The Spanish East Indies were ruled from the Captaincy General of the Philippineswhich included present-day Philippines, Guam and the Mariana Islands, as well as Palau, part of Micronesia and for a brief period Northern Taiwan. Cebu was the first seat of government, later transferred to Manila. From 1565 to 1821 these territories, together with the Spanish West Indies, were administered through the Viceroyalty of New Spain based in Mexico City. After Mexican independence, they were ruled directly from Madrid.As a result of the Spanish–American Warin 1898, the Spanish Philippines and Guam were occupied by the United States while other smaller islands were sold to Germany in the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899. The few remaining islands were ceded to the United States when the Treaty of Washington was ratified in 1901.
- philippines
- philippines
- [wiki page on nueva ecija] Maintaining the Philippines as a colony became a challenge for the Spanish Empire. Expenses incurred in running the colony were usually paid for by a yearly subsidy (called real situado) sent from the Philippines' sister colony in Mexico. This financial support from the Spanish royal court was often insufficient, especially with expenditures in the Philippine colony growing each year. This prompted the royal fiscal assigned in Manila to devise a plan to allow the colony itself to raise revenues on its own and thus be able to supplement the Spanish subsidy. This royal fiscal was Francisco Leandro de Vianna, who first proposed creating a tobacco monopoly. De Vianna reasoned, tobacco was a product widely consumed throughout the islands, with a market of roughly one million. He projected earnings of as much as P400,000 from the venture. The first time the proposal was made, however, both King Carlos III of Spain and colonial officials didn't give the idea much importance. All that would change during the term of Governor-General Jose Basco y Vargas. Basco had plans to develop and promote Philippine agriculture, and de Vianna's proposal seemed attractive to him. After studying the proposal, Basco sent his plan to establish a large-scale tobacco production in the colony under complete ownership and management by the colonial government of Spain. What probably perked up the ears of the Spanish king about Basco's plan to make the Philippine colony financially self-sufficient, thus removing a huge financial burden from the Spanish crown. The King of Spain issued a royal decree on February 9, 1780 setting in motion Basco's plan.
- people
- François Gesseau Chouteau (7 February 1797 – 18 April 1838) was an American pioneer fur trader, businessman and community leader known as the "Founder" or "Father" of Kansas City, Missouri.François Gesseau Chouteau was born in 1797 in St. Louis, Missouri, to French parents Jean Pierre Chouteau, a prominent fur trader, and his second wife Brigitte Saucier, when the area was still under the authority of New Spain. His uncle Auguste Chouteau had founded the city of St. Louis 33 years earlier. In his youth, François learned his father’s trade, which was the basis of the early wealth of the city.Chouteau married Bérénice Thérèse Ménard, originally of Cahokia (Kaskaskia, Illinois) and also of French descent, on 12 July 1819 in St. Louis. He soon started making fur trading expeditions into the western frontier via the Missouri River. François Chouteau died at age 41, probably of a heart attack, in Westport, Kansas City, Missouri, on 18 April 1838. His funeral was held at the Old Cathedral of St. Louis in the city of that name one week later, on 25 April. He is interred at Calvary Cemetery in St. Louis. His plot, marked by a tall obelisk, includes his grave and those of his mother, Brigitte (Saucier) Chouteau, and three children who died young: Louis-Amédée, Louis-Sylvestre, and Benedict Chouteau. François Chouteau is called the "Founder of Kansas City." During his lifetime, only the city of "West Port", now part of Kansas City, had been developed. The "Town of Kansas", as Kansas City was originally named, was not chartered until 1850.
- Conquistadors (/kɒnˈkɪstədɔːrz/; from Spanish or Portugueseconquistadores "conquerors"; Spanish: [koŋkistaˈðoɾes], Portuguese: [kũkiʃtɐˈdoɾis, kõkiʃtɐˈðoɾɨʃ]) is a term used to refer to the soldiers and explorers of the Spanish Empire or the Portuguese Empire in a general sense. During the Age of Discovery, conquistadors sailed beyond Europe to the Americas, Oceania, Africa and Asia, conquering territory and opening trade routes. They colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The Spanish conquistadores, who were primarily poor nobles from the impoverished west and south of Spain, began building up an American empire in the Caribbean, using islands such as Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola as bases. The conquistadors were professional warriors, using European tactics, firearms, and cavalry. Their units (compañia, companhia) would often specialize in forms of combat that required long periods of training that were too costly for informal groups. Their armies were mostly composed of Iberian and other European soldiers. Native allied troops were largely infantry equipped with armament and armour that varied geographically. Some groups consisted of young men without military experience, Catholic clergy which helped with administrative duties, and soldiers with military training. These native forces often included African slaves and Native Americans. They not only fought in the battlefield but served as interpreters, informants, servants, teachers, physicians, and scribes. India Catalina and Malintzin were Native American women slaves who worked for the Spaniards. Castilian law prohibited foreigners and non-Catholics from settling in the New World. However, not all conquistadors were Castilian. Many foreigners Hispanicised their names and/or converted to Catholicism to serve the Castilian Crown.
- governance
- caste
- A hacienda (UK: /ˌhæsiˈɛndə/ or US: /ˌhɑːsiˈɛndə/; Spanish: [aˈθjenda] or [aˈsjenda]), in the colonies of the Spanish Empire, is an estate, similar in form to a Roman villa. Some haciendas were plantations, mines or factories. Many haciendas combined these activities. The term hacienda is imprecise, but usually refers to landed estates of significant size. Smaller holdings were termed estancias or ranchos that were owned almost exclusively by Spaniards and criollos and in rare cases by mixed-race individuals.[1] In Argentina, the term estancia is used for large estates that in Mexico would be termed haciendas. In recent decades, the term has been used in the United States to refer to an architectural style associated with the earlier estate manor houses. The hacienda system of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico, New Granada, and Peru was a system of large land holdings. A similar system existed on a smaller scale in the Philippines and Puerto Rico.
- christianity
- reference
- governance
- A cabildo (Spanish pronunciation: [kaˈβildo]) or ayuntamiento (Spanish: [aʝuntaˈmjento]) was a Spanish colonial, and early post-colonial, administrative council which governed a municipality. Cabildos were sometimes appointed, sometimes elected; but they were considered to be representative of all land-owning heads of household (vecinos). The colonial cabildo was essentially the same as the one developed in medieval Castile. The cabildo was the legal representative of the municipality—and its vecinos—before the Crown, therefore it was among the first institutions established by the conquistadorsthemselves after, or even before, taking over an area. For example, Hernán Cortés established La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz to free himself from the authority of the Governor of Cuba. The word cabildo has the same Latin root (capitulum) as the English word chapter, and in fact, is also the Spanish word for a cathedral chapter. Historically the term ayuntamientowas often preceded by the word excelentísimo(English: "most excellent") as a style of office, when referring to the council. This phrase is often abbreviated Exc.mo Ay.to The Castilian cabildo has some similarities to the ancient Roman municipium and civitas—especially in the use of plural administrative officers and its control of the surrounding countryside, the territorium—but its evolution is a uniquely medieval development.
- [manuscript hunter] alcaldes was municipal officer with administrative and judicial functions; aguazil was a constable or peace officer and a title used by both civil and ecclesiastical officers; corregidor was a spanish official in charge of a province or district, a local magistrate and administrator with jurisdiction over an indian polity
- visitador is an inspector appointed by king and royal council to assess and act for them in colonial lands
- caste
- In the context of the Spanish colonial caste system, a peninsular (Spanish pronunciation: [peninsuˈlar], pl. peninsulares) was a Spanish-born Spaniard residing in the New World or the Spanish East Indies. The word "peninsulars" makes reference to Peninsular Spain and was originally used in contrast to the "islanders" (isleños), viz. the native Canary Islanders (also known as guanches). In the Portuguese Colonial Brazil, white people born in the Iberian Peninsula were known as reinóis, while whites born in Brazil with both parents being reinóis were known as mazombos. Higher offices in the Americas and Philippines were held by peninsulares. Apart from the distinction of peninsulares from criollos, the castas system distinguished also mestizos (of mixed Spanish and Amerindian ancestry in the Americas, and mixed Spanish and Chinese or native Filipino in the Philippines), mulatos (of mixed Spanish and black ancestry), indios, zambos (mixed Amerindian and black ancestry) and finally negros. In some places and times, such as during the wars of independence, peninsulareswere called deprecatively godos (meaning Goths, referring to the "Visigoths", who had ruled Spain) or, in Mexico, gachupines or gauchos.[citation needed] Colonial officials at the highest levels arrived from Spain to fulfill their duty to govern Spanish colonies in Latin America and the Philippines. Often, the peninsulares possessed large quantities of land. They defended Cádiz's monopoly on trade, upsetting the criollos, who turned to contraband with British and French colonies, especially in areas away from the main ports of call for the Flota de Indias. They worked to preserve Spanish power and sometimes acted as agents of patrol. In a colonial social hierarchy, the peninsulares were nominally at the top, followed by criollos, who developed a fully entrenched powerful local aristocracy in the 17th and the 18th centuries. During the French Revolution, the peninsulares were generally conservative.
- The Criollo (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈkɾjoʎo]) is a term which, in modern times, has diverse meanings, but is most commonly associated with Latin Americans who are of full or near full Spanish descent, distinguishing them from both multi-racial Latin Americans and Latin Americans of post-colonial (and not necessarily Spanish) European immigrant origin. Historically, they were a social class in the hierarchy of the overseas colonies established by Spain beginning in the 16th century, especially in Hispanic America, comprising the locally born people of Spanish ancestry. Although Criollos were legally Spaniards, in practice, they ranked below the Iberian-born Peninsulares. Nevertheless, they had preeminence over all the other populations: Amerindians, enslaved Africans and peoples of mixed descent. According to the Casta system, a criollo could have up to 1/8 (one great-grandparent or equivalent) Amerindian ancestry without losing social place (see Limpieza de sangre). In the 18th and early 19th centuries, changes in the Spanish Empire's policies towards its colonies led to tensions between Criollos and Peninsulares. The growth of local Criollo political and economic strength in their separate colonies coupled with their global geographic distribution led them to each evolve a separate (both from each other and Spain) organic national personality and viewpoint. Criollos were the vanguard and the main supporters of the Spanish American wars of independence.[citation needed]
- A hacienda (UK: /ˌhæsiˈɛndə/ or US: /ˌhɑːsiˈɛndə/; Spanish: [aˈθjenda] or [aˈsjenda]), in the colonies of the Spanish Empire, is an estate, similar in form to a Roman villa. Some haciendas were plantations, mines or factories. Many haciendas combined these activities. The term hacienda is imprecise, but usually refers to landed estates of significant size. Smaller holdings were termed estancias or ranchos that were owned almost exclusively by Spaniards and criollos and in rare cases by mixed-race individuals.[1] In Argentina, the term estancia is used for large estates that in Mexico would be termed haciendas. In recent decades, the term has been used in the United States to refer to an architectural style associated with the earlier estate manor houses. The hacienda system of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, El Salvador, Mexico, New Granada, and Peru was a system of large land holdings. A similar system existed on a smaller scale in the Philippines and Puerto Rico.
- christianity
- [manuscript hunter] a reduction, from spanish reduccion, is a village or colony of south american indians converted and governed by the jesuits
- reference
- https://books.google.com.hk/books/about/Compilation_of_Colonial_Spanish_Terms_an.html
- Juan de Torquemada (c. 1562 – 1624) was a Franciscan friar, active as missionary in Spanish colonial Mexico and considered the "leading Franciscan chronicler of his generation."[1] Administrator, engineer, architect and ethnographer, he is most famous for his monumental work commonly known as Monarquía indiana ("Indian Monarchy"), a survey of the history and culture of the indigenous peoples of New Spain together with an account of their conversion to Christianity, first published in Spain in 1615 and republished in 1723. Monarquia Indiana was the "prime text of Mexican history, and was destined to influence all subsequent chronicles until the twentieth century."[2] It was used by later historians, the Franciscan Augustin de Vetancurt and most importantly by eighteenth-century Jesuit Francisco Javier Clavijero. No English translation of this work has ever been published.
British empire
- navies
- HMS Wellesley was a 74-gun third rate, named after the Duke of Wellington, and launched in 1815. She captured Karachi for the British, and participated in the First Opium War, which resulted in Britain gaining control of Hong Kong.
- colonial conference
- The First Colonial Conference met in London in 1887 on the occasion of Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee. It was organised at the behest of the Imperial Federation League in hopes of creating closer ties between the colonies and the United Kingdom. It was attended by more than 100 delegates, mostly unofficial observers, from both self-governing and dependent colonies. India, however, was not represented. Among other things discussed, the colonies in Australia and New Zealandagreed to pay £126,000 per annumtowards the Royal Navy to help pay for the United Kingdom's naval deployments in the Pacific. In exchange, the British government agreed not to reduce its Pacific Station without colonial consent. A proposal to lay a telegraph cablebetween Vancouver and Australia was approved. A Resolution to extend the Queen's title to "Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, Ireland, and the Colonies, and all Dependencies thereof, and Empress of India" was also adopted. The conference was only a deliberative body and resolutions passed were not binding.
- Imperial Conferences (Colonial Conferencesbefore 1907) were periodic gatherings of government leaders from the self-governing colonies and dominions of the British Empirebetween 1887 and 1937, before the establishment of regular Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers in 1944. They were held in 1887, 1894, 1897, 1902, 1907, 1911, 1921, 1923, 1926, 1930, 1932and 1937. All the conferences were held in London, the seat of the Empire, except for the 1894 and 1932 conferences which were held in Ottawa, the capital of the senior Dominion of the Crown. The 1907 conference changed the name of the meetings to Imperial Conferences and agreed that the meetings should henceforth be regular rather than taking place while overseas statesmen were visiting London for royal occasions (e.g. jubilees and coronations).
- The Coefficients was a monthly dining club founded in 1902 by the Fabian campaigners Sidney and Beatrice Webb as a forum for British socialist reformers and imperialists of the Edwardian era. The name of the dining club was a reflection of the group's focus on "efficiency".The Webbs proposed that the club's membership reflect the entire gamut of political beliefs, and "proposed to collect politicians from each of the parties". Representing the Liberal Imperialists were Sir Edward Grey and Richard Burdon Haldane; the Tories were represented by economist William Hewins and editor of the National Review Leopold Maxse; and the British military was represented by Leo Amery, an "expert on the conditions of the army", and Carlyon Bellairs, a naval officer.The Webbs came up with the idea of the dinner club as a forum for "serious discussions and to formulate or propose political policy", but shortly after its founding the members "abandoned immediate political goals" but continued to meet and discuss issues of interest. Haldane hosted the first dinner at his home in December 1902. In 1903 Bertrand Russell, who believed that the Entente cordiale policy would lead to war, resigned after Edward Grey espoused it in a speech. The group was further divided over the issue of Tariff Reformfollowing Joseph Chamberlain's resignation as Secretary of State for the Colonies and the increasing dominance of the pro-Unionist membership, which favored Chamberlain and his tariff reform policies, contributed to the club's dissolution in 1909. Amery would invite those Coefficients supporting reform to form a new club called "The Compatriots".Printed minutes of its meetings are held by the British Library of Political and Economic Science.
- The Plymouth Company was an English joint-stock company founded in 1606 by James I of England as a company of Knights, merchants, adventurers, and planters of the cities of Bristol, Exeter and town of Plymouth with the purpose of establishing settlements on the coast of North America. Between 38 and 45 degrees north latitude, within 100 miles of the seaboard [1] The merchants agreed to finance the settlers’ trip in return for repayment of their expenses plus interest out of the profits made. In 1620, after years of disuse, the company was revived and reorganized as the Plymouth Council for New England With a new charter, “New England Charter of 1620 [3]. The Plymouth Company had 40 patentees at that point, and established the Council for New England to oversee their efforts, but it stopped operating in 1624 when these former plantations were dissolved and became Royal Colonies.
- The Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628–1691) was an English settlement on the east coast of North America in the 17th century around the Massachusetts Bay, the northernmost of the several colonies later reorganized as the Province of Massachusetts Bay. The lands of the settlement were located in southern New England in Massachusetts, with initial settlements situated on two natural harbors and surrounding land, about 15.4 miles (24.8 km) apart[1]—the areas around Salem and Boston. The territory nominally administered by the colony covered much of central New England, including portions of Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, and Connecticut. Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The earlier Dutch colony of New Netherlands disputed many of these claims, arguing that they held rights to lands beyond Rhode Island up to the western side of Cape Cod, then located in Plymouth Colony. The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by the owners of the Massachusetts Bay Company, which included investors in the failed Dorchester Company that had established a short-lived settlement on Cape Ann in 1623. The colony began in 1628 and was the company's second attempt at colonization. It was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s. The population was strongly Puritan, and its governance was dominated by a small group of leaders who were strongly influenced by Puritan religious leaders. Its governors were elected, and the electorate were limited to freemen who had been examined for their religious views and formally admitted to the local church. As a consequence, the colonial leadership exhibited intolerance to other religious views, including Anglican, Quaker,[2]and Baptist theologies.
- Providence Plantation was the first permanent European American settlement in Rhode Island. It was established by a group of colonists led by Roger Williams who left Massachusetts Bay Colony in order to establish a colony with greater religious freedom. Providence Plantation became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which became the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations after the American Revolution.
- King Philip's War (sometimes called the First Indian War, Metacom's War, Metacomet's War, Pometacomet's Rebellion, or Metacom's Rebellion)[2] was an armed conflict in 1675–78 between Indian inhabitants of New England and New England colonists and their Indian allies. The war is named for Metacomet, the Wampanoag chief who adopted the name Philip because of the friendly relations between his father Massasoit and the Mayflower Pilgrims.[3] The war continued in the most northern reaches of New England until the signing of the Treaty of Casco Bay in April 1678.King Philip's War began the development of an independent American identity. The New England colonists faced their enemies without support from any outside government or military, and this gave them a group identity separate and distinct from Britain.
- Quedagh Merchant (/ˈkwiːdɑː(x)/; Armenian: Քեդահյան վաճառական Qedahyan Waćařakan), also known as the Cara Merchant and the Adventure Prize,[1]was an Indian merchant vessel, owned by a man named Coirgi, a French corruption of "Kurji", a Khoja name common in Gujarat.The ship was captured by Scottish privateer, William "Captain" Kidd on 30 January 1698. After this ship's capture, Kidd attempted a return to New York to share in the treasure with the Governor of that colony, then on to England to pay off his backers. The capture of Quedagh Merchant, as well as Rouparelle, caused scandal throughout the British empire, hurting Britain's safe trading status along the African and Indian coasts. Although Kidd felt that both of these captures were legal, and following his commission by his Lords, word spread quickly that Captain Kidd was a pirate. Kidd was later imprisoned and ultimately executed for alleged acts of piracy, as well as murder. The fate of Quedagh Merchant rested in the hands of merchants hired by Captain Kidd to guard the ship and await his arrival back into the Caribbean in three months time. During Kidd's long imprisonment in New York and later in England, New York Governor Lord Richard Bellomont attempted to extract a confession for the location of the ship, which was left anchored in a lagoon along Santa Catalina. When word reached New York that the merchants had sold off most of the goods, burned the ship, and sailed to Holland, Lord Bellomont sent a ship to verify that it had indeed been burned. The exact location of the remains of Quedagh Merchant were a mystery, until they were discovered off the coast of Catalina Island, Dominican Republic, in December 2007.
- [richard panchyk] a tall beacon was erected at the top of centry hill (now beacon hill) in 1634. It consisted of a tall pole rising from a stone and wood foundation. One of its early uses was to warn of possible attacks by local native americans. The beacon fell during a storm in 1789. In 1790, it was replaced by a 60 foot high cement covered brick column designed by charles bulfinch. The new monument was topped with a large gilded wooden eagle.
- The Connecticut Western Reserve was a portion of land claimed by the Colony of Connecticut and later by the state of Connecticut in what is now mostly the northeastern region of Ohio. The Reserve had been granted to the Colony under the terms of its charter by King Charles II.Connecticut relinquished claim to some of its western lands to the United States in 1786 following the American Revolutionary War and preceding the 1787 establishment of the Northwest Territory. Despite ceding sovereignty to the United States, Connecticut retained ownership of the eastern portion of its cession, south of Lake Erie. It sold much of this "Western Reserve" to a group of speculators who operated as the Connecticut Land Company; they sold it in portions for development by new settlers.Prior to the arrival of European colonizers, the land surrounding the southern shore of Lake Erie was inhabited by the Erie people.
- 扬斯敦 Youngstown was named for New York native John Young, who surveyed the area in 1796 and settled there soon afterward.[9] On February 9, 1797, Young purchased the township of 15,560 acres (6,300 ha) from the Western Reserve Land Company for $16,085.[10] The 1797 establishment of Youngstown was officially recorded on August 19, 1802.
- british east india company (258 years of existence)
- background
- dutch independence from spain gave them power to send ships to modern day eastern indonesia, the heart of what was loosely called the east indies. The voyages were successes and suggested that long journeys around the cape of good hope in southern africa were more economical than slow overland routes through the middle east (then known as levant). The english already had a levant company, which bought spices, silks and other goods from their contacts in the middle east, but there was concern among london merchants that the dutch would corner the spice market. They therefore pledged money to established a new company to rival dutch efforts and asked queen elizabeth for a charter granting them the privilege of exclusive trade to the east indies. A charter was issued to the governor and company of merchants of london trading into the east indies on 31dec1600.
- in 1698 a rival company was formed called the english company or the new company to distinguish it from the london company or the old company. When the two companies merged in 1709 they became the united company of merchants of england trading to the east indies. It was usually called the east india company. In official correspondence it was also called the honorable east india company or even just the honorable company, and, by the turn of 19th c, it was sometimes personified as john company or the company bahadur.
- based in london (headquarters in leadenhall street) and run by 24 directors
- a joint-stock company working on behalf of several hundred investors. Early subscribers were merchants, some also involved in the levant company, others were gentry and aristocrats; later in the century foreigners, especially the dutch, invested in company; by 18th c large numbers of women were also investing
- royal charter - monopoly of trade; whole entire and only trade and traffic to all islands, ports, havens, cities, towns, places; first charter gave 1st four voyages an exemption from paying export duties and gave the privilege of exporting silver provided a proportion was coined at the mint; the charter could be renewed after 15 years
- asian private trade could not be stopped, was permitted after 1662 so long as it did not compete with company's business or involve goods, such as cotton textiles and pepper; some of those restrictions were eased in 1679; was oncecagain restricted in 1780s as part of an effort to root out corruption
- a new charter was granted when king charles II came to the throne, the most important new provision being the right "to make peace or war with any prince or people, that are not christians, in any places of their trade, as shall be most for the advantage and benefit of the said governor and company, and of their trade"
- lawes or standing orders of east india company (1621) - governor and his deputy were responsible for convening the general court of adventurers
- minted coins in its name, established law courts and prisons, sponsored scientific expeditions, prosecuted wars and signed treaties, and accounted for about 14 percent of all imports to britain during much of the 18th c
- during early years (before 1757), able to govern its settlements as if it were a government with many of the attributes of a sovereign state. eg it could sign treaties with asian states, build forts, and imprison and even execute criminals
- after 1833 the company ceased operating as atrading company and focused only on its role as state. Real power lay not with company's directors but an arm of british government known as the board of control
- was criticised for not acting in national interest. eg importing in 17th c cotton cloth from india and silk from persia to the detriment of wool industry; restricting (at least for a while) export of british- manufactured cotton cloth to india
- voyages
- first - 1601 led by james lancaster (1554/5 - 1618) on the red dragon to sumatra and then to bantam in java, where lancaster established a factory, or warehouse; captured a portuguese ship; returned in 1603
- second - 1604 by henry middleton (d 1613) to bantam and moluccas (maluku islands)
- 1608 to surat (for cotton goods from gujarat, then known as cambay or cambaia)
- tenth - 1612 by thomas best (1570-1639) on the dragon and hosiander to surat; conflict with portuguese fleet forced best to travel on to indonesia. Factory established in surat in 1613.
- 1615 - nicholas downton held off and damaged another portuguese fleet near surat. Company was therefore allowed to establish a factory, although the mughal emperor did not condescend to enter into a treaty with the company
- factories
- by 1610s the two main factories were bantam in western java, dealing principally in pepper, and surat jn western indis, dealing mainly in textiles but also in indigo and saltpeter. Men in charge were at first called chiefs but after 1618 as presidents.
- overtime the northrrn area of operations, or presidency, included ahmedabad, ajmer, agra, burhanpur, and persia; while the southern presidency was responsible for trade in java, sumatra, the spice island further east, and masulipatnam on east coast of india.
- company attempted to establish trade at towns in what are today japan, thailand and malaysia but abandoned efforts by early 1620s for financial reasons.
- ships
- known as east indiamen
- financial
- like VOC, the company established what has been called a triangular trade. First it acquired spanish silver from european bullion markets in london, amsterdam and cadiz. The silver had been mined in mexico and peru and the company bought bars and coins, usually in the form of reales, sometimes called pieces of eight or, in 18thc, spanish dollars. Asians preferred coins minted in seville and mexico city to those minted to a lesser standard in potosi and lima.
- company's fortunes were at a relative low between the 1620s and 1657, which included the turbulent years of english civil wars (1642-51). Oliver Cromwell confirmed the commpany's charter, which was reconfirmed by charles II during the early years of restoration, and the company entered a period of growth that would last until 1684. Thereafter the company would not see imports rise to 1680s levels until the 1740s.
- getting money back to england - in late 17th century, one way was to buy company bills of exchange
- until 1640s, company concentrated on spice trading. Faced with dutch competition (control over spice islands), focus was shifted to textile (principal commodity until the 2nd half of 18th c). It then found greater profits in the sale of indian opium to china and chinese tea to europe.
- disposing goods - by middle of 17th century the most common way was by candle auction which was held 4times a year to avoid glutting the market
- british state
- company also regularly gave, sometimes under dures, large sums of money to both the king and parliament, who were often strapped for cash
- company seemed to be working against the national interest by shipping nation's wealth out of england in order to buy luxury foreign goods that were then sold at a premium in london to the benefit of a few stockbrokers. To strengthen the nation, exporting gold and silver became illegal in 1615, although the company was given an exception.
- provided british monarchies (charles I, charles II, James II) with gifts, funds, loans in order to get charter renewed and ward of demands for a rival company
- under leadership of josiah child, cultivated the stuart monarchy. Their parliamentary enemies, many of them whigs, redoubled their efforts to push aside the company in favour of a new trade to east indies. They received backing from levant company, which continued to resent the company's successes and its inability, by the terms of company's charter, to send ships around the cape of good hope to the red sea. This was the period when the wool and silk weaving industries began to agitate against the company's calico trade.
- in 1693 the company had difficulty in securing a charter in 1693. Apart from bribes, the company's another tactic was to pay a tax on its stock a day late, thus automatically annulling its charter.
- indian territories offset the loss of american colonies by offering employment to large numbers of british, notably scots and irish, and by providing a market for goods manufactured in britain.
- wars fought in india, especially against tipu sultan (1750-99) in 1799, gave officers experience that would prove helpful in campaigns against napoleonic france.
- in 1850s company decided to formally abandon its long standing and once lucrative practice of awarding jobs to young men based on patronage. Instead, it introduced competitive civilbservice examinations that would become the norm for entry into modrrn bureaucracies.
- india
- company developed a colonial administration that was hierarchical, racist, and toward the end, suffused with a christian evangelical perspective.
- company's british employees came to believe that they had conquered india because they were part of a superior civilisation and that they had a moral obligation to govern peoples who were incapable of ruling themselves in any way other than in a despotic and violent manner.
- administrators rely upon a large army to suppress oppression. The british govt in 1858 inherited the repressive state established by the company and continued, in modified form, until at least the time of india and pakistan's independence in 1947.
- establishment of settlements in madras on the southeast coast of india --> developed the export-oriented textile industry in 17th and 18th c. The portuguese and dutch vigorously opposed the company's efforts to buy and sell goods, and the company fought other europeans to expand and defend its settlements and networks of trade.
- prominence of surat began to decline in 1630s, partly as a result of a famine that decimated western india. The company thus turned attention south to new settlement at bombay, but especially to the eastern, or coromandel, coast of india and finally to bengal.
- portuguese had given the island of bombay to the english king charles II (1630-85) in 1661 as part of political settlement leading to his marriage with the portuguese princess, catherine of braganza. Unwilling to spend funds to manage it, charles allowed the company in 1668 to take over its operation. By mid-1680s bombay's importance increased as tensions with mughal grandees in surat rose. The company's trade was under pressure from the dutch, portuguese, and unlicensed english traders, known as interlopers, so the company decided to pursue agressive polices that included seizing ships off india's western coast.
- knowing that surat was not necessarily the safest location for its headquarters (mughal's greatest regional enemy, marathas, had sacked the city in 1664 and 1670), the company decided in 1687 to transfer its presidency headquarters from mughal-dominated surat to bombay.
- trade with southeastern coast or coromandel was first established at masulipatam (machilipathnam) in 1611. The port was part of golconda, an independent muslim kingdom that succumbed to mughal pressure in 1687 after years of conflict.
- beginning in 1628 the company established its pepper headquarters at bantam to the east of batavia. The factors at bantam oversaw the shipment of cloves, many of which were bought a makassar, having been smuggled out of dutch-controlled spice islands. The dutch finally forced the company to leave bantam in 1682, compelling the company to conduct its diminishing pepper trade from bencoolen (bengkulu) in southern sumatra.
- madras (chennai) became a company settlement in 1639 and became a center for export of textiles. Hierarchal administration was rounded out with an attorney general, a scavenger, and a secretary for extraordinary services all paid a gratuity in local currency of pagodas.
- began trading in calcutta (kolkata), bengal since early 1650s and surged around the turn of century. A factory was built on houghly (hugli) river. First anglo-mughal war (1686-90) was launched to force the mughals to treat the company as a sovereign power and thereby grant it trading privileges and a fortified settlement in bengal. In feb 1690, mughal emperor Aurangzeb issued a farman (imperial order) that allowed the english to resume their trading, but a cost. Foundation for establishment of calcutta laid but there was vehement opposition in England.
- army
- first european regiment formed in bombay in 1668
- war
- Sir Josiah Child, 1st Baronet, MP, (c.1630/31 – 22 June 1699) was an English merchant and politician. He was an economist proponent of mercantilism and governor of the East India Company. His most contoversial action was a war against the mughal emperor in india and the king of siam. Child lost the war with Aurangzeb, 6th Mughul Emperor, that took place between 1688 and 1690. Aurangzeb, however, did not take any punitive action against the company and restored its trading privileges. "For a massive indemnity and promises of better conduct in the future, he [Aurangzeb] graciously agreed to the restoration of their [East India Trading Company's] trading privileges and the withdrawal of his troops".
- Kiv what is bigwig company.
- A nabob /ˈneɪbɒb/ is a conspicuously wealthy man deriving his fortune in the east, especially in India during the 18th century with the privately held East India Company.Nabob is an Anglo-Indian term that came to English from Urdu, possibly from Hindustani nawāb/navāb,[2] borrowedinto English during British colonial rule in India.[3] It is possible this was via the intermediate Portuguese nababo, the Portuguese having preceded the British in India.[citation needed] The word entered colloquial usage in England from 1612. Native Europeans used nabob to refer to those who returned from India after having made a fortune there.The term was used by William Safire in a speech written for United States Vice Pres. Spiro Agnew in 1970, which received heavy media coverage. Agnew, increasingly identified with his attacks on critics of the Nixon administration, described these opponents as "nattering nabobs of negativism".In late 19th century San Francisco, rapid urbanization led to an exclusive enclave of the rich and famous on the west coast who built large mansions in the Nob Hill neighborhood. This included prominent tycoons such as Leland Stanford, founder of Stanford University and other members of The Big Four who were known as nabobs, which was shortened to nob, giving the area its eventual name.
- impact
- asians and arabs conducted most of the regional trade in the indian ocean. Company's trade in cotton textiles spurred economic growth especially on the northwestern and southeastern coast of india. import of silver helped sustain india's imperial and royal states, caused inflation, increased land revenues for nobility, raised troops for emperor's army.
- in england, sale of cheap indian cotton cloth -- > people wear less wool. Combination of cheap west indian sugar and cheap tea --> broad economic and industrial change
- cotton textile trade being the bread and butter of company (focused on bengal) by second half of 17th c underpinned the company's 18th c transformation into a land-based state.
- monopoly over the production and sale of parna and benares opium, considered finest in the world - vital link in shipment of drug to china. Also led to opium war
- conducted wars against asian states and enforced contracts with weavers and others that were anything but fair
- seized monopolies over lucrative commodities such as opium and salt, encouraged or permitted crippling land revenue assessments, discouraged investment in industrial manufacturing, and transformed its territories into captive markets for british manufactured goods. By 2nd half of 18th c the outlines of a colonial economy had been drawn.
- sir thomas roe (1581-1644) company's ambassador to mughal courtbbetween 1615 and 1619
- John Bradby Blake (4 November 1745 – 16 November 1773) was an English botanist. Working in China, he selected seeds of local plants to Britain for propagation. He was born in Westminster, London, son of John Blake and wife Mary. John Blake, formerly a captain of the East India Company, was from the 1760s manager of a business transporting fresh fish to a market in Westminster. John Bradby Blake was educated at Westminster School; in 1766 he travelled to Canton (present-day Guangzhou) in China as a supercargo of the East India Company. He devoted his spare time in Canton to natural science. His plan was to procure the seeds of all the vegetables found in China which were used in medicine, food, or in any other way, and to send to Europe these seeds and the plants producing them. His idea was that they might be propagated in Great Britain and Ireland, or in the British colonies. Blake's scheme was successful. Cochinchina rice was grown in Jamaica and South Carolina; the tallow-tree prospered in Jamaica, Carolina, and in other American colonies; and many of the plants he sent to Britain were raised in several botanical gardens near London. He also sent to England some specimens of fossils and ores. He fell ill, and died in Canton on 16 November 1773, aged 28. He was unmarried. A proposal for Blake's membership of the Royal Society, made in February 1774, was withdrawn when news of his death became known.
- Ft 10mar18
- hkej 12nov18 shum article
- reference materials
- a biographical index of east india company maritime service officers 1600-1834 by anthony farrington and published by the british library in 1999
- catalogue of east india company ships' journals and logs 1600-1834 by anthony farrington
- english company trading to the east indies
- the war between uk and france squeezed the treasury and made the king and parliament look for additional sources of income. The east india company then proposed a loan to government at 4pc interest. The company's opponent offered a loan of larger sum at 8pc interest. The govt accepted the latter and a general society was established in order to raise the funds. Subscribers to that society were allowed to form a new joint-stock company with a new charter (a few merchants opted to trade independently) and as a result, the english company trading to east indies was formed in september 1698.
- the old east india company was given three years to wind up its affairs and was allowed to subscribe to the new company. It then invested 315000 pounds in shares of new company and as it owned part of the new company, it could not be abolished. For four years the two companies operated in competition with one and another.
- in july 1702 an agreement called an "indenture tripartite" between queen anne and the two companies began a process that eventually led to their union on 22apr1709 as united company of merchants of england trading to east indies. The company changed its flag to reflect the recent union of england and scotland. The old flag displayed the english cross of st george in the canton, or upper left quadrant, together with red and white stripes. The new flag kept the stripes but replaced the cross with the british union jack. It also changed its coat of arms and motto. The old motto, "deus indicat, deo ducente nil nocent,", or "god shows the way. with god leading they do no harm" was changed to acknowledge the emerging importance of parliament in the affairs of the company: "auspicio regis et senatus angliae" or "under the sign (or auspices) of the king and parlianent of england"
- charter
- the 1698 cgarter gave the company the right to establish courts and raise forces to defend its settlements, but it also reserved the "sovereign right, power and dominion" over the company's forts, places and plantations.
- charter renewed in 1853, but not for the customary twenty-year period and only because it replaced its patronage system for entry into its civil service with competitive examinations. The rebellion in india in 1857 resulted in the company's remaining powers being transferred to parliament under the government of india act of august 2, 1858.
- legal instruments
- regulating act was passed in 1773, establishing a governor general who was to live in calcutta and to whom governors of madras and bombay woul report, and created a supreme court of four judges. Warren hastings, then governor of bengal, was promoted to be first governor-general in 1774. The act marked the beginning of a slow erosion if company's powers and independence, and an increasing govt interest in affairs of india. It also saw the blending of interests of companynand british state.
- pm william pitt who came to power in 1784 passed inida act, increasing authority of governor general over his council in calcutta. The board of control in london was established, consisting of one of the secretaries of state, the chancellor of exchequer, and four other members of privy council.
- financial
- grave financial position since 1770s when company found it was having difficulty auctioning all its stock.
- bengal council began issuing large no of bills. Instead of borrowing money from indian bankers, the council chose to raise money from eurooeans who wanted to remit part or all of their fortune.
- investigations into bengal affairs in 1769 did not realise as the appointed parties all died when shipnwas lost at sea in indian ocean.
- after 1858 (company stripped of powers), the government of india continued to pay expensive dividend. In 1873 the british parliament passed a law to reimburse the proprietors by the end of apr1874 and lose the company's books shortly afterward. Company ceased to exist on 1june1874.
- atlantic ocean
- company govern st helena (housed napoleon bonaparte during exile from 1815 to 1821) but lost monopoly and control of island in 1833
- india
- peasants sell produce at markets and, at regular periods throughout the year, pay a high proportion of their income to middlemen called zamindars, who, after taking a cut, would pay the company through its representatives
- in 1717, the mughal emperor , farrukhsiyar (1685-1719) issued an imperial order, or farman, that allowed the company to operate within the empire without paying custom duties. Imports remained relatively stable from 1720 to 1760. After 1726 the value of goods from both bombay and madras declined, while those from china incresed, especially after 1746. The shift in trade made calcutta the most important presidency town and helps explain why, when the town was lost to a local ruler in 1756, its recovery became a priority.
- company's position in india was affected with outbreak of war in europe. The war of austrian succession and seven years war saw britain and france join opposing alliances, with conflict spilling over into the southeastern coast of india. The 3 carnatic wars (1744-48, 1751-54, 1756-63) began with french succcess (began with capturevof madras in 1746, city returned to british in 1748).
- in apr1756, ruler of bengal alivardi khan (1671-1756) died and was succeeded by his grandson siraj-ud-daula (became the nawab). He introduced changes in court and military, demanded cash from influential bankers, forced the dutch and french to pay large sums, and launched an attack on calcutta on 18jun1756. Calcutta fell quickly but was recaptured by the company in early 1757. Siraj-ud-daula was eventually killed and mir jafar succeeded. He was forced by the british to abdicate (after refusing their demands) in favor of his son-in-law mir kasim. He was also killed and at the subsequent treaty of allahabad on 12aug1765, shah alam granted the company the diwani for the provinces of bengal, bihar and orissa from generation to generation, for ever and ever. In return, the emperor received an annual payment from the nawab of bengal, a sum that was guaranteed by the company. The diwani was the legal instrument by which the company gained responsibility over the province's finances. In the past the nawab of bengalbhad been subordinate to delhi-based mughal emperor. By the third decade of 18th c, it was clear that the nawab of bengal had become independent in all but name. Once the british gained control over the diwani, robert clive instituted a policy of dual governance that lasted until 1772. The nawab was stripped of any remaining authorityband lived on a stipend given by the company.
- company stopped importing silver and instead relied on land revenues for money it needed to purchase goods and pay its army and administration. Bimetallism (introduction of gold mohur coins alongside silver rupees, exacerbated the drain of silver) in 1766 resulted in scarcity of silver currency.
- in madras the company's administration was known for its corruption. In early 1770s, company lent large sums of money (secured against the revenues from tracts of land that were under the control of raja of tanjore, the ruler of a nearby state) to nawab of arcot and the carnatic, muhammad ali khan. In 1773 muhammad ali persuaded the madras administration to annex tanjore to nawab's teritories. This was opposed bu lord george picot (1719-1777). Lord george was imprisoned in aug1776 (coup supported by calcutta-based governor general warren hastings (1732-1818).
- those company servants that return to britain and were suddenly cery rich were termed "nabobs", a corruption of arabic and urdu title "nawab". Life expectancy for british in bengal was poor, with at least 57 pc of all civil servants dying before they could return home. Situation was worse among te european recruits to the army.
- ***bengal council opposed a war hastings had championed in early 1774 against rohillas in northern india. Thevafghan rohillas had established a state on western border of awadh following decline of mughal authority. The wazir of awadh asked for company's help to attack its neighbour. Hastings' opponents criticised him for helping awadh to annex rohillas and argued the war had been unjustified.
- in may1787 the house of commons voted to impeach hastings. The rohilla charge was defeated but other charges, including those focusing on benares, the begums, contracts and presents/bribes were upheld
- background note - Awadh, usually spelled Oudh or Oude by the british, had been one of the largest and wealthiest states to emerge from the dissolution of mughal empire at the beginning of 18th c. It was governed by a shia dynasty and was based in lucknow.
- note Hastings' dealing with raja of benares, chait singh by the end of 1770s. There were also "eunuchs" in begums' palaces.
- hastings is sometimes depicted as representing an era when the company's british servants were sympathetic to and had an appreciation for customs and culture of indians. He reformed the civil and criminal courts so that cases were tried with an ear to hindu and muslim legal traditions. Many british men married or lived with indian women. Some adopted indian dress and living arrangements, and, in the arts, a syncretic style of painting arose that would come to br known as company style painting. Hastings jimself arranged for translation into english of a number of classical indian works.
- in 1786, charles cornwallis arrived innindia as governor general. He embarked on legal reforms, separating the previously joined roles of judfe and revenue collectors, and fought a war in southern india with ruler of mysore. He is best known for his 1793 bengal revenue reform known as the permanent settlement. The core assumptions of permanent settlement were that revenue could never be guaranteed, let alone increased, until zamindars were given security over land, which could be best achieved by making zamindars land holders or owners of land and by fixing forever the revenue they paid. The new regulation turned zamindars collectors of revenue into land holders and made the peasantry their tenants. The idea was frst raised to hastings by philip francis but was defeated in the council. In practice, the permanent settlement caused agricultural ans social turmoil, with reverbations lasting well into the 20thc. Regulations in 1799, 1812, 1816 reinforced the zamindars' powers of eviction and gave them greater control over the terms that they set with tenants. This stability encouraged many zamindars to become absentee landholders, often living in calcutta. The resulting subinfeudation was that tenants were forced to pay higher and higher rents. Absentee landlords were disproportionately hindu, whereas their tenants, especially in eastern bengal, were largely muslims, and they formed part of the increasingly influential and visible elite bhadralok community.
- thomas munro, the governor of madras, chose to fix contracts directly with the cultivator, a system that was termed the ryotwari (raiyatwari) settlement.
- company monopoly ended in 1813, administrators attracted to the doctrine of laissez-faire. Economy was in a slump by 1820s and famine had returned to parts of india by late 1830s
- thomas babington macaulay (1800-59) became legal member of council in calcutta. He questioned whether the company should fund colleges that taught in arabic and sanskrit as well as english or only english. He suggested that the few indians who could be educated in english would become a class of interpreters between british govt and those being governed. He succeeded in redirecting funds to english-medium institutions. By the end of decade the government changed its position again and began to support education in both english and indian languages.
- sweeping currency reform in 1835 - creation of a uniform coinage for company's indian territories. The newly created coin replaced the name of former mughal emperor Shah Alam with a portrait and name of king william iv and on the reverse, the value of coin was written in english and persian, all set within a wreath of laurel.
- though colonial state had been established, there was still a mughal emperor Muin ud din akbar II (until 1837) and the poet-emperor bahadur shah II.
- railways introduced in 1853
- rebellion in may 1857
- malaysia
- first settlement on penang island in 1786
- to preempt their european army , the french, from controlling dutch proccessions and so sized malacca (melaka) from the dutch in 1795. A treaty in 1824 with dutch exchanged malacca with bencoolen (bengkulu), their pepper port on island of sumatra. Both penang and malacca were strategically important in the shipping route for bengal-china trade
- thomas stanford raffles, a company officer, founded singapore in 1819.
- penang, malacca and singapore were joined administratively in 1826, called collectively as strait settlements and became company's fourth presidency
- settlements became principal destination for indian convict and indentured labor. At least 15000 to 20000 convicts were sent to settlements between 1790 to 1860, mostly to singapore. Laborers from madras presidency usually went to sugar plantations in penang and province wellesley. Between 1844 and 1910 approximately 250000 indians went just to malaya (whic include the strait settlements as indentured laborers
- three prominent indian communities included the chitty malacca (or melaka), who were descendants of south indian hindu merchants who first came to malacca in 15thc and subsequently intermarried with malays. They were also called indian peranakan (a malay word for "born of" and suggesting mixed parentage. Indian muslim traders settling in malacca were knownas jawi peranakans. The chettiars, hindu tamils, arrived much later anf genrrally did not marry otside of their caste. They quickly developed into an important merchant and banking community
- many chinese came as traders, many married malyd and became the most famous of the peranakan communities. They were also called thevstrait chinese and were influential in affairs of settlements. In 1840s tin was discovered, prompting many more southern chinese to travel on indentures to the mines.
- china
- company's monopoly of trade to china ended in 1833, efforts by chinese officials in 1839 to prevent opium trade (most notably in zexu)
- opium
- in mid 1760s the company gained easy access to india's inland opium fields. The best opium came from districtsvaround patna and benares in northern india. The company also imported from malwa in western india.
- in dec1799 the receiver general of chinese board of revenue, who was known to company as hoppo (hubu), isseued an edict at canton prohibiting sale of opium. This was followed by smuggling activities.
- triangular trade
- silver from new world --> purchase indian cotton textiles --> bartered for pepper in southeast asia / shipped back to england. Some of those bolts of fabric, called guinea cloth, were re-exported to parts of west africa, where they were traded for slaves, many of whom were transported to sugar plantations on british controlled islands in west indies
- growth in consumption of sugar in britain during 18thc matched with growth of tea. To first create and then meet the growing demand for sugar, plantation owners established industrial processes in barbados, jamaica, and other sugar islands that anticipated industrialisation in britain. There was close control over labor and time (slave/cheap labour, machinery, large scale production) to reduce cost to consumers and attract more buyers. It was cheaper to drink a cup of tea than to drink a mug of local beer. To make tea so affordable, the company found an answer in opium. The cotton trade to china was company's main source of revenue until 1823. Opium, however, was typically more stable and, ultimately, profitable commodity since it was addictive and was only grown in india (some opium from the ottoman empire did make it to china, but it was considered of inferior quality). The company therefore made it a priority to control the production and sale of opium. In 1773 it asserted a monopoly over all sales of opium and in 1797 it established control over all aspects of its growth and production. About a third of the opium went to SE asia, almost all of remainder went directly to china.
- army
- by late 18thc british army regiments were sent to india on 22 tours of duty and so became a permanent fixture in india, fighting alongside the company's army.
- at first the company allowed europeans, not just british men, and even indians to become officers, but reforms in 1785 and concern about loyalty meant that by the end of 18thc almost all officers were british and none was indian. But indians known as sepoys (a corruption of the persian sipahi) was recruited.
- three presidency armies- bengal, madras, bombay. Bengal was the most prestigious. About a third of sepoys in bengal army were recruited from the state of awadh. This connection was crucial for the spread of the rebellion in 1857, since the company's actions in awadh had ripple effects in the bengal army.
- in some states suchbas marathas and sikhs adapted to changing military circumstances and adopted tactics and weapons that resulted in battles that might have been won by either side. The sikhs, went to great lengths to train their troops along european lines and even paid their infantry more than the company
- had a navy, the bombay of marine, but it was small and mostly directed against piracy.
- wars
- beginning in 1740s the company fought at least one major war every decade.
- against tipu sultan
- haider ali (1722-82) (muslim ruler) reformed the state's revenue and tax structures and used his wealth to fight two wars with the company in 1767-69 and 1780-84. Haider Ali's son, Tipu Sultan (1750-99), sought to increase the prosperity of his father's kingdom by introducing a range of currency, agricultural and military initiatives. War broke out in 1790 when governor general Lord Cornwallis determined that a growing and bitter dispute between tipu and raja of travancore endangered the company's position in south india. Cornwallis allied with marathas and nizam of hyderabad (triple alliance). The treaty of seringapatam in 1792 forced tipu to pay a huge indemnity, lose half of his territory, and surrender two of his sons to be kept as company hostages.
- an enfeebled mysore was still considered a threat by company hawks in india, especially in context of ongoing war with france. Richard wellesley (1760- 1842) determined that he would pursue a forward policy and force indian states into subsidiary alliances (gave company control over external affairs of indian states; impose a resident, or a company ambassador, who would keep a close eye on developments in the court; garrison company troops in the state and at state's expense). The states of arcot, awadh, and hyderabad were high on wellesley's list, but mysore posed a pressing problem since wellesley and his truculent military officers believed tipu was seeking an alliance with napoleon. Company's fourth mysore war ended on 4may1799, when tipu was killed. Wellesley annexed large portions of mysore and installed as ruler of rump state a descendent of hindu ruler that haider ali had pushed aside in 1761.
- against marathas
- fought in 1803-4 and 1817-18 against marathas, an alliance of powerful hindu military families. During 2nd half of 17thc, under leadership of shivaji and his successors, marathas had challenged the supremacy of mughal emperor, aurangzeb, in western india. By 1740s real control shifted to prime minister known as peshwa who was based at pune. New maratha state were dominated by commanders (known by title or family names, such as gaikwad, sindia (or scindia/sindhia), holkar, bhonsle came to controlnbaroda, gwalior, indore and nagpur) and their families.
- on last day of 1802, the peshwa (baji rao II, 1775-1851) signed treaty of bassein, a classic example od subsidiary alliance. The peshwa was compelled to sign because hw was military weak and needed company troops to defeat his maratha rivals. The company then confronted forces of daulat rao sindia and raghuji bhonsle II. Third important maratha ruler jaswant rao holkar remained neutral. [note that governor general's younger brother arthur wellesley, later known as duke of wellington as a result of victory over napoleon, fought in the war]. Company's success resulted in subsidiary alliances with marathas. Company also acquired territories around agra and delhi as well as lands annexed from awadh.
- company's directors disliked wellesley's efforts to establish a college in calcutta. Instead, they ooeed east india collefe at haileybury in 1806 and a military seminary at addiscombe in surrey in 1809.
- wellesley was recalled in 1805 and his successor cornwallis wished to establish peace with marathas but died shortly after arriving in india. Hostility ensued until war broke out again in 1817. Apart from sikh kingdom, the rest of india was divided between company controlled presidencies and provinces (british india) and around six hundred indian states (princely india). Every state was bound to the company by a treaty, terms of which helped comoany categorise as tributary, subsidiary or protected
- against sikhs
- after ranjit singh's death in 1839 the sikh state entered a period of crisis - tension between court and army/commanders, rapid death of three of ranjit's successors
- first sikh war broke out in dec1845 --> a diminished state - comoany reconised dalip singh as ruler, kashmir was established as a company controlled state, while extensive tracts in punjab were annexed to company territory.
- second sikh war 1848-49 was fought in south and west of sikh state. Resulting in complete annexation of punjab and installation of a body of administrators
- afghan-company war 1838-42 led to installation of company's preferred candidate on afghan throne
- by late 1830s the company became increasingly alarmed by expansion of russian empire into central asia, russian influence over iran, and russian efforts to influence ruler of afghanistan, dost mohammad. To couter russian and iranian encroahment, the governor general, lord auckland, decided to establish his own pupet in afghanistan. In 1838 he joined forces with sikh leader ranjit singh and former ruler of afghanistanshah shujs and sent a large army into afghanistan to depose dost mohammad and install shah shuja. In oct1838 lord auckland issued simla manifesto spelling ou reasons for invasion.
- general charles napier, in an un provoked move, annexed sind to company territory in 1843.
- burma
- two wars - first one lasted two months and rangoon was captured. Treaty of yandabo in 1826 forced the burmese to pay an indemnity, cede arakan and tennasserim, and forgo any claim to assam, which was subsequently annexed to india. After the second war in 1852, the burmese lost the province of pegu (british renamed as lower burma). In 1885, upper burma was forcibly annexed to british indian empire.
- missionaries
- during the 17th and 18th c, the company truedvto keep chaplains and missionaries at arm's length. Its 1698 charter stipulated that it had to employ chaplains appointed by archbishop of canterbury or bishop of london. Missionaries could also slip in by sailing on danish or dutch ships.
- british baptist missionaries (including carey) entered bengal after 1790s.
- charter of 1833 removed all restrictions on missionaries
- charles grant (an evangelical anglican who had spent more than 20 years in bengal working on revenue and trade matters) allied with william wilberforce (instrumental in bringing anout the end of british slave trade in 1807) in preparing a pious clause to be inserted in revised chapter of 1793 requiring the company to send out and pay for missionaries.
- in 1805 reverend claudius buchanan (1766-1815) published a book to pressure parliament and the company into sending bishops to india and thus create what would effectively be an anglican church of india. Charles Stuart, a former bengal army officer who was known as "hindoo stuart" because of his affection for hinduism, was outraged and proceeded to rebut it point by point.
- point of interest - in july 1806 a mutiny broke out among troops of madras amry at vellore, southern india. The mutiny was suppressed within hours but more than 100 british officers and men had been killed. In 1807, a grostesque pamphlet was distributed in bengal, written in persian and targeted muslims: "we are come to convert you from a distant country." The governor general, scared that bengali muslims would assume that the company had endorsed the pamphlet, ordered the destruction of all undistributed copies.
- by 1813, grant, wilberforce et al were able to persuade members of parliament to establish an anglican indian church and to insert the pious clause into the new charter. The clause stipulated that britain had a duty to promote the interests and happiness of indians that the company had to pay for facilities (schools and churches, in order to introduce useful knowledge as well as religious and moral improvement. Missionaries still had to obtain a licence from the company to work in india, a restriction that was only lifed 20 years later.
- hindu, muslim, local traditions
- the company began to take a more active role as a patron of hindu and muslim traditions and places of worship. Its new subjects and soldiers expected it to assume the roles that were common to its indian predecessors and rivals. Many indian states routinely gave grants of land to religious institutions, and the company began that role by disbursing grants, underwriting religious festivals, funding religious schools and even collect a hindu pilgrimage tax at the famous jagannath temple
- indentured labor system
- underpin many british colonial economies from west indies to south africa to ceylon.
- governor and company of adventurers of england trading into hudson bay (founded in 1670)
- royal african company of england (founded in 1672)
- The Royal African Company (RAC) was an English mercantile (trading) company set up by the Stuart family and City of London merchants to trade along the west coast of Africa. It was led by the Duke of York, who was the brother of Charles II and later took the throne as James II. Its original purpose was to exploit the gold fields up the Gambia River, which were identified by Prince Rupert during the Interregnum. It was established after Charles II gained the English throne in the Restoration of 1660. However, it was soon engaged in the slave trade, as well as with other commodities. It mainly traded with the Gold Coast, which is now Ghana.Originally known as the Company of Royal Adventurers Trading to Africa, by its charterissued in 1660 it was granted a monopoly over English trade with West Africa. With the help of the army and navy, it established forts on the West African coast that served as staging and trading stations and was responsible for seizing any English ships that attempted to operate in violation of the company's monopoly. In the prize court, the King received half of the proceeds and the company half.In 1672, the original Company re-emerged, re-structured and with a new charter from the king, as the new Royal African Company. Its new charter was broader than the old one and included the right to set up forts and factories, maintain troops and exercise martial law in West Africa, in pursuit of trade in gold, silver and slaves. At the end of 1678, the licence to the Gambia Adventurers expired and its Gambian trade was merged into the company.
- The Royal Niger Company was a mercantile company chartered by the British government in the nineteenth century. It was formed in 1879 as the United African Company and renamed to National African Company in 1881 and to Royal Niger Company in 1886. In 1929 the company became part of the United Africa Company,[1] which came under the control of Unilever in the 1930s and continued to exist as a subsidiary of Unilever until 1987, when it was absorbed into the parent company.The company existed for a comparatively short time (1879–1900) but was instrumental in the formation of Colonial Nigeria, as it enabled the British Empire to establish control over the lower Niger against the German competition led by Bismarck during the 1890s. In 1900, the company-controlled territories became the Southern Nigeria Protectorate, which was in turn united with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria in 1914 (which eventually gained independence within the same borders as the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1960).
- Edward Colston (2 November 1636 – 11 October 1721) was a Bristol-born English philanthropist, merchant, slave trader, and Member of Parliament. Much of his wealth was acquired through the trade and exploitation of slaves. He endowed schools and almshouses and his name is commemorated in several Bristol landmarks, streets, three schools and the Colston bun. He was apprenticed to the Mercers Company for eight years and by 1672 was shipping goods from London. He built up a lucrative business, trading with Spain, Portugal, Italy and Africa. In 1680, Colston became a member of the Royal African Company, which had held the monopoly in Britain on trading in gold, ivory and slaves from 1662. Colston rose rapidly on to the board of the company and became its deputy governor, its most senior executive position, in 1689.His parents had resettled in Bristol and in 1682 he made a loan to the Corporation, the following year becoming a member of the Society of Merchant Venturers and a burgess of the City. In 1684 he inherited his brother's mercantile business in Small Street, and was a partner in a sugar refinery in St. Peter's Churchyard, shipping sugar produced by slaves from St. Kitts. But he was never resident in Bristol, carrying on his London business from Mortlake in Surrey until he retired in 1708.
- A statue of a slave trader which was torn down during an anti-racism protest in Bristol was "an affront", the city's mayor has said. Mayor Marvin Rees said he felt no "sense of loss" after the controversial bronze statue of Edward Colston was pulled down and thrown into the harbour by protesters on Sunday. But Prime Minister Boris Johnson described it as a "criminal act".https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-bristol-52962356
- The Gold Coast was a British colony on the Gulf of Guinea in west Africa from 1867 to its independence as the nation of Ghana in 1957.The first Europeans to arrive at the coast were the Portuguese in 1471. They encountered a variety of African kingdoms, some of which controlled substantial deposits of gold in the soil. The kingdoms had a tradition of enslaving captives taken in warfare. Some were sold to Arab traders from North Africa and transported to Islamic Mediterranean civilizations. In 1482, the Portuguese came to the continent for increased trade. They built the Castle of Elmina, the first European settlement on the Gold Coast. From here they acquired slaves and gold in trade for European goods, such as metal knives, beads, mirrors, rum, and guns. News of the successful trading spread quickly, and British, Dutch, Danish, Prussian and Swedish traders arrived as well. The European traders built several forts along the coastline. The Gold Coast had long been a name for the region used by Europeans because of the large gold resources found in the area. The slave trade was the principal exchange and major part of the economy for many years. In this period, European nations began to explore and colonize the Americas. Soon the Portuguese and Spanish began to export African slaves to the Caribbean, and North and South America. The Dutch and British also entered the slave trade, at first supplying markets in the Caribbean and on the Caribbean coast of South America. The Royal Trading Company was established by the Crown in 1752 to lead its trading in Africa. It was replaced by the African Company of Merchants, which led the British trading efforts into the early 19th century. In 1821 the British government withdrew their charter and seized privately held lands along the coast. In 1867 the government formed the British Gold Coast colony, after having taken over the remaining interests of other European countries. They purchased and incorporated the Danish Gold Coast in 1850 and the Dutch Gold Coast, including Fort Elmina, in 1872. Britain steadily expanded its colony through the invasion and subjection of local kingdoms as well, particularly the Ashanti and Fante confederacies. The Ashanti people had controlled much of the territory of Ghana before the Europeans arrived and were often in conflict with them. In the 21st century they continue to constitute the largest ethnic community in Ghana. Four wars, the Anglo-Ashanti Wars, were fought between the Ashanti (Asante) and the British, who were sometimes allied with the Fante.
- The Transvaal Colony (Afrikaans pronunciation: [ˈtransfɑːl]) was the name used to refer to the Transvaal region during the period of direct British rule and military occupation between the end of the Second Boer War in 1902 when the South African Republic was dissolved, and the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. The borders of the Transvaal Colony[2] was larger than the defeated South African Republic (which had existed from 1856 to 1902).[3] In 1910 the entire territory became the Transvaal Province of the Union of South Africa.Both the Boer republics, the South African Republic (ZAR) and the Orange Free State were defeated in the Anglo-Boer War and surrendered to the UK. In 1902, with peace following the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging, the new Transvaal colony was faced with intertwined economic and political issues that need to be resolved. The economic issues faced included the restoration of the mining industry to pre-war levels, then growing it further with the need for extra labour, the restoration of the Boers to their lands and increasing the agricultural output of those farms. The political issue faced depended on what side of politics you stood on. The existing British administrators under Alfred Milner wished to anglicise the population through two main means. One by increasing the English speaking population of the Transvaal and secondly teach the Boer children in English with very little Dutch used, followed by self-rule. The Transvaal Boers political objectives was the restoration of self-rule in the colony and the political environment to be dominated by the Boer.
The British administrators set out to place most Boer farmers back on their land by March 1903 with nineteen million pounds spent on war damages, grants and loans.[4]:266 The administrators reformed the state agricultural departments to modernise farming in the colony which resulted in a maize and beef surplus by 1908.[4]:271 They also attempted to solve the poor white problem by settling them as tenant farmers on state land but lack of capital and labour caused the scheme to fail.[4]:269 An attempt was made to place English settlers on farmland so as to anglicise the Transvaal and increase the English speaking population but this failed too as the policy attracted too few settlers.[4]:269By the end of 1901, gold mining finally resumed on the Rand around Johannesburg, having virtually stopped since 1899. Backed by the mining magnates and the British administrators, there was a need to restart the industry but labour was required. Just prior to the war, white miners wages were high and magnates weren’t keen to increase the wages and since black miners wages had been reduced before the war and not increased, so black labour weren't interested in working the mines.[4]:267 Unskilled white labour was ruled out as their wages would be too high for the work done, so the mining magnates and their Chamber of Mines in 1903, sought alternative labour in the form of cheap Chinese workers.[4]:267 The legislation to import Chinese labour was introduced to the Transvaal Legislative Council on 28 December 1903 by George Farrar and was debated for 30 hours and successfully voted on after its three readings on 30 December 1903, coming into law in February 1904.[6]:36 Having been rubber-stamped by the British and mining appointed Transvaal Legislative Council it outlined extremely restrictive employment contracts for the Chinese workers and the idea had been sold via a fear campaign aimed at white miners about the need for this labour or face the possibility of loss of mining and their jobs.[4]:267 By 1906, the gold mines of the Witwatersrand were in full production and by 1907, South African gold mines represented thirty-two percent of the worlds gold output.[4]:268 By 1910, Chinese labour ended on the Witwatersrand and the restrictive job reservation laws preventing Chinese miners doing certain jobs was replicated for Black miners.
- The British South Africa Company (BSAC or BSACo) was chartered in 1889 following the amalgamation of Cecil Rhodes' Central Search Association and the London-based Exploring Company Ltd, which had originally competed to capitalize on the expected mineral wealth of Mashonaland but united because of common economic interests and to secure British government backing. The company received a Royal Charter modelled on that of the British East India Company. Its first directors included The 2nd Duke of Abercorn, Rhodes himself and the South African financier Alfred Beit. Rhodes hoped BSAC would promote colonisation and economic exploitation across much of south-central Africa, as part of the "Scramble for Africa". However, his main focus was south of the Zambezi, in Mashonaland and the coastal areas to its east, from which he believed the Portuguese could be removed by payment or force, and in the Transvaal, which he hoped would return to British control.It has been suggested that Rhodes' ambition was to create a zone of British commercial and political influence from "Cape to Cairo", but this was far beyond the resources of any commercial company to achieve and would not have given investors the financial returns they expected. The BSAC was created in the expectation that the gold fields of Mashonaland would provide funds for the development of other areas of Central Africa, including the mineral wealth of Katanga. When the expected wealth of Mashonaland did not materialise and Katanga was acquired by the Congo Free State, the company had little money left for significant development after building railways, particularly in areas north of the Zambezi. BSAC regarded its lands north of the Zambezi as territory to be held as cheaply as possible for future, rather than immediate, exploitation.As part of administering Southern Rhodesia until 1923 and Northern Rhodesia until 1924, the BSAC formed what were originally paramilitary forces, but which later included more normal police functions. In addition to the administration of Southern and Northern Rhodesia, the BSAC claimed extensive landholdings and mineral rights in both the Rhodesias and, although its land claims in Southern Rhodesia were nullified in 1918, its land rights in Northern Rhodesia and its mineral rights in Southern Rhodesia had to be bought out in 1924 and 1933 respectively, and its mineral rights in Northern Rhodesia lasted until 1964. The BSAC also created the Rhodesian railway system and owned the railways there until 1947.
- company emblem resembles that of ceylon
- The South Sea Company (officially The Governor and Company of the merchants of Great Britain, trading to the South Seas and other parts of America, and for the encouragement of fishing) was a British joint-stock company founded in 1711, created as a public-private partnership to consolidate and reduce the cost of national debt. The company was also granted a monopoly to trade with South America and nearby islands, hence its name. (The modern use of the term "South Seas" to refer to the entire South Pacific was unknown in England at the time.) When the company was created, Britain was involved in the War of the Spanish Succession and Spain controlled South America. There was no realistic prospect that trade would take place and the company never realised any significant profit from its monopoly. Company stock rose greatly in value as it expanded its operations dealing in government debt, peaking in 1720 before collapsing to little above its original flotation price; the economic bubble became known as the South Sea Bubble. The Bubble Act 1720 (6 Geo I, c 18), which forbade the creation of joint-stock companies without royal charter, was promoted by the South Sea company itself before its collapse. In Great Britain, a considerable number of people were ruined by the share collapse, and the national economy greatly reduced as a result. The founders of the scheme engaged in insider trading, using their advance knowledge of when national debt was to be consolidated to make large profits from purchasing debt in advance. Huge bribes were given to politicians to support the Acts of Parliament necessary for the scheme. Company money was used to deal in its own shares, and selected individuals purchasing shares were given loans backed by those same shares to spend on purchasing more shares. The expectation of profits from trade with South America was used to encourage the public to purchase shares, but the bubble prices reached far beyond the profits of the slave trade. A parliamentary enquiry was held after the crash to discover its causes. A number of politicians were disgraced, and people found to have profited unlawfully from the company had assets confiscated proportionate to their gains (most had already been rich men and remained comfortably rich). The company was restructured and continued to operate for more than a century after the Bubble. The headquarters were in Threadneedle Street at the centre of the financial district in London. At the time of these events the Bank of England also was a private company dealing in national debt, and the crash of its rival consolidated its position as banker to the British government.
- The South Australian Company (9 October 1835 – 17 March 1949), also referred to as the South Australia Company, was formed in London on 9 October 1835, after lobbying by the South Australian Association. The founding board, headed by George Fife Angas, consisted of wealthy British merchants in order to develop a new settlement in South Australia; its purpose was to build a new colony by meeting an essential financial obligation of the South Australia Act 1834. The South Australian Company ended business in its own right on 17 March 1949 when it was liquidated by Elders Trustee & Executor Company Ltd, which had been managing its Australian affairs since the death of the last Colonial Manager, Arthur Muller in 1936.
- Gawler is the oldest country town on the Australian mainland in the state of South Australia, and is named after the second Governor (British Vice-Regal representative) of the colony of South Australia, George Gawler.South Australia was established as a commercial venture by the South Australia Company through the sale of land to free settlers at £1 per acre (£2/9/5d per hectare). Gawler was established through a 4,000-acre (1,600 ha) "special survey" applied for by Henry Dundas Murray and John Reid and a syndicate of ten other colonists.
- Simon John Birmingham, Minister for Trade, Tourism and Investment in the Morrison Government since 2018, grew up in this town
- The New Zealand Company was a 19th-century English company that played a key role in the colonisation of New Zealand. The company was formed to carry out the principles of systematic colonisation devised by Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who envisaged the creation of a new-model English society in the southern hemisphere. Under Wakefield’s model, the colony would attract capitalists who would then have a ready supply of labour—migrant labourers who could not initially afford to be property owners, but who would have the expectation of one day buying land with their savings. The New Zealand Company established settlements at Wellington, Nelson, Wanganui and Dunedin and also became involved in the settling of New Plymouth and Christchurch. It reached the peak of efficiency about 1841, encountered financial problems from 1843 from which it never recovered, and wound up in 1858.
- https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_Company_ships
- note the ship arrow
- The company was founded along similar lines as the British East India Company. German businessman and diplomat Baron von Overbeck, along with the heads of a British trading company in Shanghai and London, Alfred Dent and Edward Dent, together met with the thalassocratic rulers of the northern Borneo area to obtain a concession for their colonial interests. The governor of Labuan, a British colonial island off Brunei, accompanied the negotiations. On 29 December 1877, they met Abdul Momin, Sultan of Brunei. The Sultan agreed to make the concession for 15,000 Spanish dollars. However, since it turned out that the Sultan of Brunei had already ceded some areas to the Sultan of Sulu, further negotiations were needed. With the assistance of William Clark Cowie, a Scottish adventurer and friend of Sultan Jamal-ul Azam of Sulu, the Sultan signed a concession treaty on 22 January 1878 and received 5,000 Spanish dollars. Following the successful concessions, Overbeck and the Dent brothers became the rulers of an area in northern Borneo. Overbeck withdrew in 1879 after failing to attract the interest of his country, leaving Alfred Dent to manage the territory. Dent then planned to register a company to represent the British but since a considerably delay seemed likely, he decided to found a provisional company first. In 1881, the British North Borneo Provisional Association Limited was founded with registered capital of £300,000. The directors were Dent himself together with Rutherford Alcock, Richard Biddulph Martin, Admiral Richard Mayne and William Henry Read. The charter contract for a company with a capital of two million pounds was sealed on 1 November 1881. The provisional company was thus dissolved and the following year, a chartered company was established with a first settlement on Gaya Island. The settlement however was burnt down during a raid by a local leader named Mat Salleh and was never re-established. Due to such resistance, establishing law and order as well as recruiting Sikh policemen from northern India became one of the company's earlies priorities, along with expanding trade; instituting a government, courts, and penal system; building a railway line from Jesselton to Tenom; and encouraging the harvesting and barter trade of local crops, as well as establishment of plantations. The company also faced some resistance to its economic modernisations and tax policies.
- With the founding of the company, the administrative divisions of North Borneo introduced by Overbeck were maintained by the establishment of the West Coast Residency and the East Coast Residency. The seat of the two residents was in Sandakan, where the governor was based. Each residency, in turn, was divided into several provinces managed by a district officer. Over time, the number of residencies increased to five: Tawau Residency (also known as East Coast Residency), Sandakan Residency, West Coast Residency, Kudat Residency, and Interior Residency. The provinces were initially named after the members of the board: Alcock, Cunlife, Dewhurst, Keppel, Dent, Martin, Elphinstone, Myburgh and Mayne. The senior residents occupied Sandakan and the West Coast, while the other three residents with the second class residencies occupied Interior, East Coast and Kudat. The residents of Sandakan and West Coast were members of the Legislative Council, the Legislative Assembly of the Company.
- sir edward michelborne (1562-1609) persuaded king james I to grant him permission to trade to asia
- richard penkevell - discovery of a northern passage to china, cathay, and other parts of east indies
- sir william courteen (1568-1636) and after his death his son. Venture began in 1635 and lasted about 15 years. King charles I gave sir william and his association, formerly known as the adventurers to goa and other parts, to create a trade to places in india that were not already controlled by the company. During the civil war, it was decided that the comoany would handle the port to port india trade while the association would be responsible for trade frpm madagascar. In 1650 a number of association merchants joined the company in issuing a new united joint-stock, which further reduced the threat to the company.
- The Courteen association, later called the Assada company was an English trading company founded in 1635 in an attempt to break the monopoly of the East India Company in trade with India. The company had a troubled beginning, it was badly managed, lost ships at sea and suffered a collapse in 1636, after which Courteen fled to the continent where he died.During the English civil war the Crown gave its support to the Courteen association and badly treated the East India merchants, causing them to generally support Parliament. In 1649 the Courteen Association changed its name to the Assada company.The enmity between the two trading organisations continued until a settlement was ordered by Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector and the two merged in 1657.
- Sir William Courten or Curteen (1572–1636) was a wealthy 17th century merchant, operating from London. He financed the colonisation of Barbados, but lost his investment and interest in the islands to the Earl of Carlisle.Sir William Courten was the son of William Courten, by his wife Margaret Casiere, and was born in London in 1572. A younger brother, born in 1581, was named Peter. Their father was son of a tailor of Menin and a protestant. After enduring persecution at the hands of the Spaniards, he escaped to England in 1568;[1] his wife, a daughter Margaret, and her husband Michael Boudean accompanied him. The refugees at first set up a manufactory of French hoods in Abchurch Lane, London, but afterwards removed to Pudding Lane, where they traded in silk and linen. The son-in-law, Boudean, soon died, leaving a son Peter, and the daughter married a second husband, John Money, an English merchant. The father and mother apparently lived till the close of Elizabeth's reign.William's operations were not confined to his London business: he built ships and traded to Guinea, Portugal, Spain, and the West Indies. His fleet at one time numbered twenty vessels, with nearly five thousand sailors on board. About 1624 one of his ships discovered an uninhabited island, to which Courten gave the name of Barbadoes. It seems that his agents in Zeeland had suggested to him the expedition. With a view to profiting to the fullest extent by his discovery, he petitioned in 1625 for the grant of all unknown land in the south part of the world, which he called 'Terra Australis Incognita'. In the same year he sent out a few colonists to the islands, and on 25 February 1627-8 received letters-patent formally legalising the colonisation. The grant was addressed to 'the Earl of Pembroke in trust for Sir William Courten'. Courten, in accordance with the deed, began colonisation on a large scale. He sent two ships with 1850 persons on board to Barbadoes, under Captain Powel, who, on his arrival, was nominated governor by Courten and the Earl of Pembroke; but the speculation proved disastrous. Three years later James Hay, 1st Earl of Carlisle, disputed this grant, claiming, under deeds dated 2 July 1627 and 7 April 1628, to be owner of all the Caribbee islands lying between ten and twenty degrees of latitude, (Barbados itself situated at thirteen degrees). In 1629 Carlisle sent two ships, with Henry Hawley as his representative, to take possession of the island.[3] On their arrival they imprisoned Captain Powel, and established Lord Carlisle's authority. The islands remained in Carlisle's hands till 1646, when the lease of them was transferred to Lord Willoughby of Parham. Courten claimed to have lost £44,000 by these transactions, and left his descendants to claim compensation. In many of his speculations Sir Paul Pindar was associated with Courten, and they lent money freely to James I and Charles I. Their joint loans ultimately amounted to £200,000. Failure to obtain any consideration for these heavy loans was the subject of much subsequent litigation.Losses of ships and merchandise sustained at the hands of the Dutch in the East Indies, after the Amboyna massacre, combined with the injustice he suffered in Barbadoes injured Courten's credit at the opening of Charles I's reign. In 1631 the death of his brother Peter, his agent at Middelburg, increased his difficulties. Sir Peter died unmarried, and left his nephew Peter Boudean, who was then settled in Holland, a legacy of £10,000. Boudean had quarrelled with his uncle William, and used every unscrupulous means to injure him. To satisfy his claim on the estate of Sir Peter, Boudean now seized the whole property of the firm of Courten & Money in Holland. The death of Money in 1632 further complicated matters. Courten was one of Money's executors, and Peter Boudean, his stepson, was the other. But the latter declined to administer the estate. Courten at once took action at law to recover his share of the estates of his brother and his partner; the proceedings dragged on long after his death. In spite, however, of these troubles, Courten was still enormously wealthy. In 1628 he paid Charles I £5,000 and received lands in Whittlewood Forest, Northamptonshire. In 1633 he owned land in England, chiefly in Northamptonshire, which produced £6,500. a year, besides possessing a capital of £128,000. His love of maritime enterprise was still vigorous. In the last years of his life he again opened up trade with the East Indies when in 1635 King Charles I granted a trading licence to him under the name of the Courteen association permitting it also to trade with the east at any location in which the East India Company had no presence.
- artefacts/historical record
- james mill (1773-1836), a powerful figure in the company's london administration and the father of john stuart mill (1806-73), who also worked for the company, published a history of british india and argued that indian civilisation had never advanced over thousands of years (like conversing with chaldeans and babylonians of time of cyrus; with the persians and eygptians of the time of alexander).
- philip's mercantile chart of commercial routes to the east (1906)
- samuel foote wrote a play "nabob" (1772) - themes: caricature of nabob, foiling of oriental schemes, old and natural order reestablished
- the first british novel set in india was written by a woman but published anonymously in 1789. Plot is whether sophia goldborne (just arrived in calcutta) will find a husband
- the first british novel set in india was written by a woman but published anonymously in 1789. Plot is whether sophia goldborne (just arrived in calcutta) will find a husband
- john osbourne's the entertainer (1957) exploits the death of music hall as an emblem for disintegration of british empire, with it the late victorian values that it reflected in its heyday.
- The original music for the play was composed by John Addison. Melodies by Thomas Hastings ("Rock of Ages"), Arthur Sullivan ("Onward Christian Soldiers" and "The Absent-Minded Beggar"), and George Ware ("The Boy I Love is Up in the Gallery") are also incorporated.
- Also note the song "We're All Out for Good Old Number One"
- Utopia, Limited; or, The Flowers of Progress, is a Savoy opera, with music by Arthur Sullivan and libretto by W. S. Gilbert. It was the second-to-last of Gilbert and Sullivan's fourteen collaborations, premiering on 7 October 1893. Gilbert's libretto satirises limited liability companies, and particularly the idea that a bankrupt company could leave creditors unpaid without any liability on the part of its owners. It also lampoons the Joint Stock Company Act by imagining the absurd convergence of natural persons (or sovereign nations) with legal commercial entities under the limited companies laws. In addition, it mocks the conceits of the late 19th-century British Empire and several of the nation's beloved institutions. In mocking the adoption by a "barbaric" country of the cultural values of an "advanced" nation, it takes a tilt at the cultural aspects of imperialism.
- legacy
- legacy
- https://www.quora.com/Why-do-ex-Spanish-colonies-tend-to-have-a-Spanish-blooded-ruling-elite-post-Independence-while-in-British-colonies-like-Pakistan-or-Zimbabwe-there-is-no-mixed-blooded-elite-forming-family-dynasties-Why-did-the-Brits
The Commonwealth of Nations (formerly the British Commonwealth), also known as simply the Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of 53 member states that are mostly former territories of the British Empire. The Commonwealth operates by intergovernmental consensus of the member states, organised through the Commonwealth Secretariat and non-governmental organisations, organised through the Commonwealth Foundation. The Commonwealth dates back to the mid-20th century with the decolonisation of the British Empire through increased self-governanceof its territories. It was formally constituted by the London Declaration in 1949, which established the member states as "free and equal".[6] The symbol of this free association is Queen Elizabeth II who is the Head of the Commonwealth, but this role does not carry any power with it. While there are over 31 republics and five monarchies who have a different monarch, the Queen is the ceremonial head of state and reigning constitutional monarch of only 16 members of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth realms. The position of the crown remains legally distinct from the position of monarch and the position of the Head of the Commonwealth. The Queen has since ceased to be the head of state or have any formal position in several nations of the commonwealth including India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore. Member states have no legal obligation to one another. Instead, they are united by language, history, culture and their shared values of democracy, free speech, human rights, and the rule of law. These values are enshrined in the Commonwealth Charter and promoted by the quadrennial Commonwealth Games.
- The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod or Lady Usher of the Black Rod generally shortened to Black Rod, is an official in the parliaments of several Commonwealth countries. The position originates in the House of Lords of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
- The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM; /ˈtʃɒɡəm/ or/ˈtʃoʊm/) is a biennial summit meeting of the heads of government from all Commonwealth nations. Every two years the meeting is held in a different member state and is chaired by that nation's respective Prime Minister or President who becomes the Commonwealth Chair-in-Office until the next meeting. Queen Elizabeth II, who is the Head of the Commonwealth, attended every CHOGM beginning with Ottawa in 1973 until Perth in 2011, although her formal participation only began in 1997. However, she was represented by the Prince of Wales at the 2013 meeting as the 87-year-old monarch was curtailing her overseas travel. The Queen continues to attend CHOGMs held in Europe and was present at the 2015 summit in Malta and attended the 2018 CHOGM held in London.- The Prince of Wales will succeed the Queen as head of the Commonwealth, its leaders have announced. The Queen had said it was her "sincere wish" that Prince Charles would follow her in the role. Leaders of the Commonwealth have been discussing the issue at a meeting behind closed doors at Windsor Castle. The head role is non-hereditary so is not automatically passed on when the Queen dies, with suggestions it might have rotated among the 53 leaders. http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-43840710
france
- Acadia (French: Acadie) was a colony of New France in northeastern North America that included parts of eastern Quebec, the Maritime provinces, and modern-day Maine to the Kennebec River. During much of the 17th and early 18th centuries, Norridgewockon the Kennebec River and Castine at the end of the Penobscot River were the southernmost settlements of Acadia.The first capital of Acadia, established in 1605, was Port-Royal. A British force from Virginia attacked and burned down the town in 1613, but it was later rebuilt nearby, where it remained the longest serving capital of French Acadia until the British Siege of Port Royalin 1710.[a] Over seventy-four years there were six colonial wars, in which English and later British interests tried to capture Acadia starting with King William's War in 1689. During these wars, along with some French troops from Quebec, some Acadians, the Wabanaki Confederacy, and French priests continuously raided New England settlements along the border in Maine. While Acadia was officially conquered in 1710 during Queen Anne's War, present-day New Brunswick and much of Maine remained contested territory. Present-day Prince Edward Island (Île Saint-Jean) and Cape Breton (Île Royale) as agreed under Article XIII of the Treaty of Utrechtremained under French control.[6] By militarily defeating the Wabanaki Confederacy and the French priests, present-day Maine fell during Father Rale's War. During King George's War, France and New France made significant attempts to regain mainland Nova Scotia. After Father Le Loutre's War, present-day New Brunswick fell to the British. Finally, during the French and Indian War (the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War), both Île Royale and Île Saint-Jean fell to the British in 1758. Today, the term Acadia is used to refer to regions of North America that are historically associated with the lands, descendants, or culture of the former French region. It particularly refers to regions of The Maritimes with French roots, language, and culture, primarily in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, the Magdalen Islands and Prince Edward Island, as well as in Maine.[7] It can also be used to refer to the Acadian diaspora in southern Louisiana, a region also referred to as Acadiana. In the abstract, Acadia refers to the existence of a French culture in any of these regions. People living in Acadia, and sometimes former residents and their descendants, are called Acadians, also later known as Cajuns, the English (mis)pronunciation of 'Cadiens, after resettlement in Louisiana.
- The origin of the designation Acadia is credited to the explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, who on his 16th-century map applied the ancient Greekname "Arcadia" (note the inclusion of the r) to the entire Atlantic coast north of Virginia. "Arcadia" derives from the Arcadia district in Greece, which since Classical antiquity had the extended meanings of "refuge" or "idyllic place". The Dictionary of Canadian Biography says: "Arcadia, the name Verrazzano gave to Maryland or Virginia 'on account of the beauty of the trees,' made its first cartographical appearance in the 1548 Gastaldo map and is the only name on that map to survive in Canadian usage."[8] In 1603 a colony south of the St. Lawrence River between the 40th and 46th parallels was chartered by Henry IV, who recognized the territory as La Cadie.[9] Also in the 17th century, Samuel de Champlainfixed its present orthography with the r omitted. William Francis Ganong, a cartographer, has shown its gradual progress northeastwards, in a succession of maps, to its resting place in the Atlantic provinces of Canada. Also of note is the similarity in the pronunciation of Acadie and the Míkmawísimk suffix -akadie, which means "a place of abundance." The modern usage is still seen in place names such as Shunacadie (meaning "place of abundant cranberries") or Shubenacadie (meaning "place of abundant wild potatoes"). It is thought that intercultural conversation between early French traders and Mi'kmaq hunters may have resulted in the name l'Arcadie being changed to l'Acadie.
- https://www.quora.com/How-will-the-English-speaking-eastern-most-provinces-of-Canada-respond-if-French-speaking-Quebec-becomes-independent-from-Canada
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-the-word-Cajun-come-from-the-word-Acadian
- founded in 1664
- india
- joseph- francois dupleix (1697-1763) had close ties to hyderabad court and managed to install their preferred candidate on the throne. They were also able to persuade the new nizam to transfer to them, as recomoense for their help, a considerable amount of revenue from a large tract of land on the east coast of india known as the northern circars (sarkars)
- north west company
- After the French landed in Quebec in 1608, coureurs des bois spread out and built a fur trade empire in the St. Lawrence basin. The French competed with the Dutch (from 1614) and English (1664) in New York and the English in Hudson Bay(1670). Unlike the French who travelled into the northern interior and traded with First Nations in their camps and villages, the English made bases at trading posts on Hudson Bay, inviting the indigenous people to trade. After 1731, La Vérendryepushed trade west beyond Lake Winnipeg. After the British conquest of New France in 1763 (and defeat of France in Europe), management of the fur trading posts was taken over by English-speakers. These so-called "pedlars" began to merge because competition cost them money and because of the high costs of outfitting canoes to the far west. In 1787 the North West Company merged with a rival organization, Gregory, McLeod and Co., which brought several more able partners in, including John Gregory, Alexander Mackenzie, and his cousin Roderick Mackenzie.
- In 1987, the northern trading posts of the Hudson's Bay Company were sold to an employee consortium that revived the name The North West Company in 1990. The new company is a grocery and merchandise store chain based in Winnipeg, with stores in Northern Canada, Alaska, US Pacific territories and the Caribbean. Its headquarters are across the street from the Forts Rouge, Garry, and Gibraltar National Historic Site of Canada, the site of an old North West Company fort.
- In 1811, David Thompson led an expedition to find a northern route over the Rockies. He established a North West Company trading depot that was run by a clerk named Jasper Hawes, from whom the town and the park take their name. http://www.visit-jasper.com/a-brief-history-of-jasper-national-park.html
- The Mississippi Company (French: Compagnie du Mississippi; founded 1684, named the Company of the West from 1717, and the Company of the Indies from 1719[1]) was a corporation holding a business monopoly in French colonies in North America and the West Indies. When land development and speculation in the region became frenzied and detached from economic reality, the Mississippi bubble became one of the earliest examples of an economic bubble.In May 1716, the Scottish economist John Law, who had been appointed Controller General of Finances of France under the Duke of Orleans, created the Banque Générale Privée ("General Private Bank"). It was the first financial institution to develop the use of paper money. It was a private bank, but three quarters of the capital consisted of government bills and government-accepted notes. In August 1717, Law bought the Mississippi Company to help the French colony in Louisiana. In the same year Law conceived a joint-stock trading company called the Compagnie d'Occident (The Mississippi Company, or, literally, "Company of [the] West"). Law was named the Chief Director of this new company, which was granted a trade monopoly of the West Indies and North America by the French government.The bank became the Banque Royale (Royal Bank) in 1718, meaning the notes were guaranteed by the king, Louis XV of France. The company absorbed the Compagnie des Indes Orientales ("Company of the East Indies"), the Compagnie de Chine ("Company of China"), and other rival trading companies and became the Compagnie Perpetuelle des Indes on 23 May 1719 with a monopoly of French commerce on all the seas. Simultaneously, the bank began issuing more notes than it could represent in coinage; this led to a currency devaluation, which was eventually followed by a bank run when the value of the new paper currency was halved.
- Jasper National Park is the largest national park in the Canadian Rockies, spanning 11,000 km2 (4,200 sq mi). It is located in the province of Alberta, north of Banff National Parkand west of Edmonton. Jasper was named after Jasper Hawes, who operated a trading post in the region for the North West Company. Before this it was referred to as Fitzhugh. The park was established on September 14, 1907 as Jasper Forest Park, and was granted national park status in 1930, with the passing of the National Parks Act.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-didn-t-more-European-countries-absorb-their-colonies-like-France-did-with-French-Guiana-and-Reunion-instead-of-giving-them-independence
Netherlands
- spanish embargo in 1598 of dutch ships, merchants, and goods in spain and portugal, spurred expansion of direct dutch trade with east indies, which culminated in the chartering of east inida company. From 1605 onward, the VOC had been making inroads in the east indies by countering or displacing the spanish military presence in several key spice islands in the moluccan archipelago, and plans were being made to form a new west india company to compete in the new world.
- united east india company/verenigde oost-indische compagnie/VOC
- founded in 1602 with strong financial backing
- batavia, an impressive canal-lined and fortified city on the island of java was founded in 1619. It was the capital of an elaborate, centralised commercial and political system. Almost all goods were transported first to batavia and then on to netherlands. Several presidencies were developed.
- according to 中國通史,鄭成功defeated netherlands in taiwan, forcing them to retreat to batavia
- used silver from americas and until 1668, japan to purchase indian textiles to trade for spices and pepper in southeast asia.
- monopolisation of spices - difficult for pepper (as vines grew in many parts of asia) but could exert more control over cloves, nutmeg and mace. Jan pieterszoon coen established a brutal regime over spice islands, enabling VOC's domination. Conflict between the dutch and english companies was temporarily resolved in 1619 with an agreement that gave the company one third of spice trade and one half of pepper trade in exchange for contributing one third toward the cost of VOC fortifications. Both sides then unwilling to honour those terms. In early 1623, the dutch governor of amboyna (ambon) accused the english traders, japanese mercenaries and a portuguese slave overseer of plotting a coup. Thus he used torture to extract false confessions --> amboyna massacre. It was partially resolved in 1654 when the dutch paid 85,000 pounds. This subject became a means of generating hostility toward the dutch during the three anglo-dutch naval wars (1652-54, 1665-67, and 1672-74).
- abolished in 1799
- hkej 26nov18 shum article
- https://dutchreview.com/culture/history/how-rich-was-the-dutch-east-india-company/ The company was also the first official company to issue stocks, which peaked during the Dutch “Tulip Mania”, a craze for tulip bulbs that are seen as the world’s first true financial bubble.The VOC’s stocks pushed the company’s worth to a massive 78 million Dutch guilders, which is a pretty solid business even today, but translates to a whopping $7.9 trillion dollar worth today. Many Indo and Moluccan people are direct descendants of the VOC-days and black Surinam and Antillean-people are African slave descendants. Their Hindu-counterparts were often “contract labourers” from the Indian-subcontinent which was hardly better than being a slave.
- The Dutch Gold Coast or Dutch Guinea, officially Dutch possessions on the Coast of Guinea(Dutch: Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea) was a portion of contemporary Ghanathat was gradually colonized by the Dutch, beginning in 1598. The colony became the most important Dutch colony in West Africa after Fort Elmina was captured from the Portuguese in 1637, but fell into disarray after the abolition of the slave trade in the early 19th century. On 6 April 1872, the Dutch Gold Coast was, in accordance with the Anglo-Dutch Treaties of 1870–71, ceremonially ceded to the United Kingdom.
- The Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie; VOC) was an early megacorporation founded by a government-directed amalgamation of several rival Dutch trading companies (voorcompagnieën) in the early 17th century.[1][2] It was established on March 20, 1602 as a chartered company to trade with India and Indianised Southeast Asian countries when the Dutch government granted it a 21-year monopoly on the Dutch spice trade. It has been often labelled a trading company (i.e. a company of merchants who buy and sell goods produced by other people) or sometimes a shipping company. However, VOC was in fact a proto-conglomerate company, diversifying into multiple commercial and industrial activities such as international trade (especially intra-Asian trade), shipbuilding, and both production and trade of East Indian spices,[9] Formosan sugarcane,[10][11] and South African wine.[12][13][14] The Company was a transcontinental employer and an early pioneer of outward foreign direct investment. The Company's investment projects helped raise the commercial and industrial potential of many underdeveloped or undeveloped regions of the world in the early modern period. In the early 1600s, by widely issuing bonds and shares of stock to the general public,[a] VOC became the world's first formally-listed public company.[b] In other words, it was the first corporation to be listed on an official stock exchange.[c][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]It was influential in the rise of corporate-led globalisation in the early modern period.
- south africa
- Groote Schuur is an estate in Cape Town, South Africa. In 1657, the estate was owned by the Dutch East India Company which used it partly as a granary.
- Abel Janszoon Tasman (Dutch: [ˈɑbəl ˈjɑnsoːn ˈtɑsmɑn]; 1603 – 10 October 1659) was a Dutch seafarer, explorer, and merchant, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). He was the first known European explorer to reach the islands of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania) and New Zealand, and to sight the Fiji islands. Employed by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), Tasman sailed from Texel to Batavia in 1633, taking the southern Brouwer Route. During this period, Tasman took part in a voyage to Seram Island; the locals had sold spices to other European nationalities than the Dutch. He had a narrow escape from death, when in an incautious landing several of his companions were killed by people of Seram. In August 1637, Tasman was back in Amsterdam, and the following year he signed on for another ten years and took his wife with him to Batavia. On 25 March 1638 he tried to sell his property in the Jordaan, but the purchase was cancelled.
- New Netherland was a colony founded by the Dutch on the east coast of North America in the seventeenth century, which vanished when the English wrested control of it in 1664, turning its capital, New Amsterdam, into New York City. It extended from Albany, New York, in the north to Delaware in the south. It encompassed parts of what are now the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Connecticut and Delaware.https://www.newnetherlandinstitute.org/history-and-heritage/digital-exhibitions/a-tour-of-new-netherland/ The colony was conceived by the Dutch West India Company (WIC) in 1621 to capitalize on the North American fur trade. It was settled slowly at first because of policy mismanagement by the WIC and conflicts with American Indians. The settlement of New Sweden by the Swedish South Company encroached on its southern flank, while its northern border was redrawn to accommodate an expanding New England Confederation. The colony experienced dramatic growth during the 1650s and became a major port for trade in the north Atlantic Ocean. The Dutch surrendered Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan island to England in 1664 (formalized in 1667), contributing to the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1673, the Dutch retook the area but relinquished it under the Treaty of Westminster (1674), ending the Third Anglo-Dutch War the next year. The inhabitants of New Netherland were European colonists, American Indians, and Africans imported as slave laborers.
- The Bowery (/ˈbaʊəri/) is a street and neighborhood in the southern portion of the New York City borough of Manhattan. The street runs from Chatham Square at Park Row, Worth Street, and Mott Street in the south to Cooper Square at 4th Street in the north.[3] The eponymous neighborhood runs roughly from the Bowery east to Allen Street and First Avenue, and from Canal Street north to Cooper Square/East Fourth Street.[4][5][6] To the south is Chinatown, to the east are the Lower East Side and the East Village, and to the west are Little Italy and NoHo.[6][7] It has historically been considered a part of the Lower East Side.[8]In the 17th century, the road branched off Broadway north of Fort Amsterdam at the tip of Manhattan to the homestead of Peter Stuyvesant, director-general of New Netherland. The street was known as Bowery Lane prior to 1807.[9] "Bowery" is an anglicization of the Dutch bouwerij, derived from an antiquated Dutchword for "farm": In the 17th century the area contained many large farms.In 1654, the Bowery's first residents settled in the area of Chatham Square; ten freed enslaved men and their wives set up cabins and a cattle farm there. Petrus Stuyvesant, the last Dutch governor of New Amsterdam before the English took control, retired to his Bowery farm in 1667. After his death in 1672, he was buried in his private chapel. His mansion burned down in 1778 and his great-grandson sold the remaining chapel and graveyard, now the site of the Episcopal church of St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery.
- For more than three decades, the New Netherland Institute (NNI) has helped cast light on America’s long-neglected Dutch roots. Created in 1986 as the Friends of the New Netherland Project, it has supported the transcription, translation, and publication of the 17th-century Dutch colonial records held by the New York State Archives and State Library. https://www.newnetherlandinstitute.org/about-nni/
- people
- J.F.A. Dligoor, an engineer working in Dutch East Indies(now Indonesia) in building Prijetan dam in Lamongan, East Java and who was buried in the country.
- Stephanus Abraham "Stef" Blok (born 10 December 1964) is a Dutch politician serving as Minister of Foreign Affairs in the Third Rutte cabinet since 7 March 2018.Dligoor was one of his ancestors.
- https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3099011/dutch-foreign-minister-stef-blok-raises-hong-kong-and-human
germany
- africa
- Kamerun was an African colony of the German Empire from 1884 to 1916 in the region of today's Republic of Cameroon. Kamerun also included northern parts of Gabon and the Congo with western parts of the Central African Republic, southwestern parts of Chad and far eastern parts of Nigeria.The first German trading post in the Duala area (present-day Douala) on the Kamerun River delta (present-day Wouri River delta) was established in 1868 by the Hamburg trading company C. Woermann. The firm's agent in Gabon, Johannes Thormählen, expanded activities to the Kamerun River delta. In 1874, together with the Woermann agent in Liberia, Wilhelm Jantzen, the two merchants founded their own company, Jantzen & Thormählen there. Both of these West Africa houses expanded into shipping with their own sailing ships and steamers and inaugurated scheduled passenger and freight service between Hamburg, Germany and Duala.[1] These companies and others obtained extensive acreage from local chiefs and began systematic plantation operations, including bananas.
- planned symbol and coat of arms include an elephant (in 1914, never put into use)
- https://simonshen.blog/2015/12/01/德國「模範殖民地」膠州灣/
- usa
- The Russian-American Company Under the High Patronage of His Imperial Majesty(Russian: Под высочайшим Его Императорского Величества покровительством Российская-Американская Компания Pod vysochayshim Yego Imperatorskogo Velichestva pokrovitelstvom Rossiyskaya-Amerikanskaya Kompaniya) was a state-sponsored chartered company formed largely on the basis of the United American Company. Emperor Paul I of Russia chartered the company in the Ukase of 1799. It had the mission of establishing new settlements in Russian America, conducting trade with natives, and carrying out an expanded colonization program.Russia's first joint-stock company, it came under the direct authority of the Ministry of Commerce of Imperial Russia. Count Nikolai Petrovich Rumyantsev (Minister of Commerce from 1802 to 1811; Minister of Foreign Affairs from 1808 to 1814) exercised a pivotal influence upon the early activities of the Company. In 1801 the company's headquarters moved from Irkutsk to Saint Petersburg, and the merchants who were initially the major stockholders were soon replaced[by whom?]with Russia's nobility and aristocracy.Count Rumyantsev funded Russia's first naval circumnavigation of the globe under the joint command of Adam Johann von Krusenstern and Nikolai Rezanov in 1803–1806. Later he funded and directed the Ryurik's circumnavigation of 1814–1816, which provided substantial scientific information on Alaska's and California's flora and fauna, and important ethnographic information on Alaskan and Californian (among others) natives. During the Russian-California period (1812–1842) when they operated Fort Ross, the Russians named present-day Bodega Bay, California as "Rumyantsev Bay" (Залив Румянцев) in his honor.
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