Thursday, December 20, 2018

italy history

Calabria
- Calabria has one of the oldest records of human presence in Italy, which date back to around 700,000 BC when a type of Homo Erectus evolved leaving traces around coastal areas. During the Paleolithic period stone age man created the "Bos Primigenius", a figure of a bull on a cliff which dates back around 12,000 years in the Cave of Romito in the town of Papasidero. When the Neolithic period came the first villages were founded around 3,500 BC. Around 1500 BC a tribe called the Oenotri ("vine-cultivators"), settled in the region. According to Greek mythology they were Greeks who were led to the region by their king, Oenotrus. The Greeks used the term 'italoi', which according to some ancient Greek writers was derived from a legendary king of the Oenotri, Italus and according to others from the bull. Originally the Greeks used 'italoi' to indicate Calabria and later it became synonymous with the rest of the peninsula. Calabria therefore was the first region to be called Italia (Italy). In the mid to late Republican period it referred to the Italian peninsula and did not include northern Italy (Gallia Cisaplina). Augustus incorporated Gallia Cisaplina into the region of Italia. During the eighth and seventh centuries BC, Greek settlers founded many colonies (settlements) on the coast of southern Italy (Magna Grecia). 

Etruria (/ɪˈtrʊəriə/; usually referred to in Greek and Latin source texts as Tyrrhenia Greek: Τυρρηνία) was a region of Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what are now Tuscany, Lazio, and Umbria.The ancient people of Etruria are labeled Etruscans, and their complex culture was centered on numerous city-states that rose during the Villanovan period in the ninth century BCE and were very powerful during the Orientalizing Archaic periods. The Etruscans were a dominant culture in Italy by 650 BCE, surpassing other ancient Italic peoples such as the Ligures, and their influence may be seen beyond Etruria's confines in the Po River Valley and Latium, as well as in Campania and through their contact with the Greek colonies in Southern Italy (including Sicily). Indeed, at some Etruscan tombs, such as those of the Tumulus di Montefortini at Comeana (see Carmignano) in Tuscany, physical evidence of trade has been found in the form of grave goods—fine faience ware cups are particularly notable examples. Such trade occurred either directly with Egypt or through intermediaries such as Greek or Phoenician sailors. Rome, buffered from Etruria by the Silva Ciminia, the Ciminian Forest, was influenced strongly by the Etruscans, with a series of Etruscan kings ruling at Rome until 509 BCE when the last Etruscan king Lucius Tarquinius Superbus was removed from power and the Roman Republic was established. The Etruscans are credited with influencing Rome's architecture and ritual practice; it was under the Etruscan kings that important structures such as the Capitolium, Cloaca Maxima, and Via Sacra were realized. The Etruscan civilization was responsible for much of the Greek culture imported into early Republican Rome, including the twelve Olympian gods, the growing of olives and grapes, the Latin alphabet (adapted from the Greek alphabet), and architecture like the arch, sewerage and drainage systems. In the augustean organization of Italy, Etruria was the name of a region (Regio VII), whose borders were the Tiber, the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Apuan Alps and the Apennines, roughly coincident with those of Etruscan Etruria.The Grand Duchy of Tuscany (which existed 1569–1801 and 1814–1859) styled itself in Latin as Magnus Ducatus Etruriae (Grand Duchy of Etruria). The name Etruria was also applied to the Kingdom of Etruria, an ephemeral client state of Napoleon I of France which replaced the Grand Duchy between 1801 and 1807. A particularly noteworthy work dealing with Etruscan locations is D. H. Lawrence's Sketches of Etruscan Places and other Italian essays.
- The Etruscan civilization (/ɪˈtrʌskən/) is the modern name given to a powerful and wealthy civilization of ancient Italy in the area corresponding roughly to Tuscany, western Umbria, and northern Lazio. As distinguished by its unique language, this civilization endured from before the time of the earliest Etruscan inscriptions (c. 700 BC) until its assimilation into the Roman Republic, beginning in the late 4th century BC with the Roman–Etruscan Wars.
  •  The Capitoline Wolf (Italian: Lupa Capitolina) is a bronze sculpture of the mythical she-wolf suckling the twins, Romulus and Remus, from the legend of the founding of Rome. When Numitor, grandfather of the twins, was overthrown by his brother Amulius, the usurper ordered them to be cast into the Tiber River. They were rescued by a she-wolf who cared for them until a herdsman, Faustulus, found and raised them. The Capitoline Wolf has been housed since 1471 in the Palazzo dei Conservatori on the Campidoglio (the ancient Capitoline Hill), Rome, Italy.
  • Le faisceau de licteur / Fasces (English: /ˈfæsiːz/, Latin: [ˈfa.skeːs]; a plurale tantum, from the Latinword fascis, meaning "bundle"; Italian: fascio littorio) is a bound bundle of wooden rods, sometimes including an axe with its blade emerging. The fasces had its origin in the Etruscan civilization and was passed on to ancient Rome, where it symbolized a magistrate's power and jurisdiction. The axe originally associated with the symbol, the Labrys (Greek: λάβρυς, lábrys) the double-bitted axe, originally from Crete, is one of the oldest symbols of Greek civilization. To the Romans, it was known as a bipennis.[2] Commonly, the symbol was associated with female deities, from prehistoric through historic times.[citation needed] The image has survived in the modern world as a representation of magisterial or collective power, law and governance. The fasces frequently occurs as a charge in heraldry: it is present on the reverse of the U.S. Mercury dime coin and behind the podium in the United States House of Representatives; and it was the origin of the name of the National Fascist Party in Italy (from which the term fascism is derived). During the first half of the 20th century both the fasces and the swastika (each symbol having its own unique ancient religious and mythological associations) became heavily identified with the authoritarian/fascist political movements of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. During this period the swastika became deeply stigmatized, but the fasces did not undergo a similar process. The fact that the fasces remained in use in many societies after World War II may have been due to the fact that prior to Mussolini the fasces had already been adopted and incorporated within the governmental iconography of many governments outside Italy. As such, its use persists as an accepted form of governmental and other iconography in various contexts. (The swastika remains in common usage in parts of Asia for religious purposes which are also unrelated to early 20th century European fascism.) The fasces is sometimes confused with the related term fess, which in French heraldry is called a fasce.
  • ********The Etruscans established themselves in Tuscany and built several cities. Their society was very sophisticated society.They themselves were descendants of the so called Villanovan culture.Wikipedia: The Villanovan culture (c. 900 BC – 700 BC), regarded as the oldest phase of Etruscan civilization, was the earliest Iron Age culture of Central Italy and Northern Italy, abruptly following the Bronze Age Proto-Villanovan culture and giving way in the 7th century BC to an increasingly orientalizing culture influenced by Greek traders and colonists who settled in South Italy.The Villanovan people branched from the cremating Urnfield cultures of eastern Europe and appeared in Italy in the 10th or 9th century BC.The Villanovans controlled the rich copper and iron mines of Tuscany and were accomplished metalworkers.https://www.quora.com/Who-were-the-ancestors-of-Romans-Latins-from-Italy-Are-there-any-archeological-discoveries-that-indicate-prove-who-lived-in-todays-lands-of-Italy-before-the-Romans-or-when-the-Romans-settled-in-Italy
  • etruscan (as people)
  • https://www.quora.com/Where-did-the-Etruscans-come-from-Why-and-how-did-they-disappear
  •  https://www.quora.com/How-hellenized-were-Etruscans-Were-they-as-hellenized-as-the-later-Romans-Or-did-they-manage-to-maintain-most-of-their-original-culture-despite-the-contacts-with-Greeks
  • language
  • https://www.quora.com/What-influence-did-Etruscan-and-other-Paleo-European-languages-have-on-Indo-European The language the Etruscans spoke was of non-Indo-European Anatolian origin, and was not present in Europe prior to around 1200 BCE at the earliest. The speakers of what would become Etruscan are thought to have come from Anatolia to Europe in the wake of the fall of the Hittite Empire.
  •  https://www.quora.com/Does-Etruscan-have-any-descendant-languages
  •  https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-origin-of-the-suffix-mart-in-grocery-store-names
  • arts
    • The Chimera of Arezzo is regarded as the best example of ancient Etruscan artwork.[1] British art historian, David Ekserdjian, described the sculpture as "one of the most arresting of all animal sculptures and the supreme masterpiece of Etruscan bronze-casting."[2] Made entirely of bronze and measuring 78.5 cm high with a length of 129 cm,[3] it was found alongside a small collection of other bronze statues in Arezzo, an ancient Etruscan and Roman city in Tuscany. The statue was originally part of a larger sculptural group representing a fight between a Chimera and the Greek hero Bellerophon. This sculpture was likely created as a votive offering to the Etruscan god Tinia.According to Greek mythology the Chimera or "she-goat" was a monstrous, fire-breathing hybrid creature of Lycia in Asia Minor, created by the binding of multiple animal parts to create a singular unnatural creature. As the offspring of Typhon and Echidna, the Chimera ravaged the lands of Lycia at a disastrous pace. Distressed by the destruction of his lands, the king of Lycia, Iobates, ordered a young warrior named Bellerophon to slay the dreaded Chimera, also as a favor to a neighboring king, Proetus. Proetus wanted Bellerophon dead because his wife accused him of ravishing her, and he assumed that the warrior would perish in the attempt to kill the beast. Bellerophon set out on his winged horse, Pegasus, and emerged victorious from his battle, eventually winning not only the hand of Iobates' daughter but also his kingdom. It is this story that led art historians to believe that the Chimera of Arezzo was originally part of a group sculpture that included Bellerophon and Pegasus. Votive offerings for the Gods often depicted mythological stories. A round hole on the left rump of the Chimera might suggest a spot where Bellerophon may have struck the beast with a now-missing spear.[2] The first known literary reference was in Homer's Iliad, and the epic poetry of Hesiod in the 8th century BCE also mentions the Chimera.
  • Artefacts
    • 在1847年出土於一個名為「猴子墓」的伊特拉斯坎文明古墓，但壁畫失去了曾經豐富多彩的細節，變成了模糊不清的紅色人形斑點；墓內另有女舞者、體育比賽等壁畫。研究人員以多照度高光譜提取技術（MHX），透過使用可見光、紅外光和紫外光拍攝數十幅圖像，再用意大利國家研究委員會開發的演算法處理圖像數據。該技術可檢測到古埃及人發明的埃及藍，團隊再用以分析其他剩餘顏色，揭示該畫描繪了有岩石、樹木和水的伊特拉斯坎地下世界。研究員阿迪諾爾菲（Gloria Adinolfi）指，壁畫顏料褪色是古文明研究的一大障礙，相信新技術有助揭示更多伊特拉斯坎文明的壁畫。h

      ttps://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210307/00180_039.html

  • 拉文納  Ravenna (/rəˈvɛnə/ rə-VEN-ə, Italian: [raˈvenna], also locally [raˈvɛnna] ; Romagnol: Ravèna) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire from 402 until that empire collapsed in 476. It then served as the capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom until it was re-conquered in 540 by the Byzantine Empire. Afterwards, the city formed the centre of the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna until the invasion of the Lombards in 751, after which it became the seat of the Kingdom of the Lombards.The origin of the name Ravenna is unclear, although it is believed the name is Etruscan.[6] Some have speculated that "ravenna" is related to "Rasenna" (later "Rasna"), the term that the Etruscans used for themselves, but there is no agreement on this point.
    • Arian Baptistry ceiling mosaic   https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arian_Baptistry_ceiling_mosaic_-_Ravenna.jpg 
    • En Rávena se encuentra enterrado Dante Alighieri, autor de La divina comedia. A nivel deportivo, la ciudad es considerada como la cuna del voleibol en Italia.
Eyrx
- https://www.facebook.com/ItalianConsulate.HK/photos/pcb.1718292818421370/1718292435088075 Eryx was founded by the Elymians, an ancient people with their own - not yet deciphered - language. The Elymians inhabited the western part of Sicily during the Bronze Age and Classical antiquity. The Elymi shared western Sicily with the Sicani, the Phoenicians, and later the Greeks. Their three most important cities were Segesta, the political centre; Eryx (the modern Erice), a religious centre; and Entella. Other cities were Elima, Halyciae (referred to as Alicia in modern Italian sources), Iaitas, Hypana, and Drepanon. Erice (Eryx) was well known in ancient times for the temple of Venus Erycina, the goddess of fertility. It was the Sicans who set up an altar to Venus Erycina, and the sanctuary was much frequented during the Elymian and Phoenician period, according to the Blue Guide Sicily. According to the city information at the Sanctuary of the Venus of Erice, a Phoenician dedication to the goddess Astarte has been found in Erice, as well as a Greek inscription to Aphrodite and fragments of one in Latin to Venus - three divinities sharing the same identity.

Palermo (Italian: [paˈlɛrmo], Sicilian:Palermu, Latin: Panormus, from Greek:Πάνορμος, Panormos, Arabic: بَلَرْم‎, Balarm;Phoenician: זִיז, Ziz) is a city in Insular Italy, the capital of both the autonomous region of Sicily and the Province of Palermo. The city is noted for its history, culture,architecture and gastronomy, playing an important role throughout much of its existence; it is over 2,700 years old. Palermo is located in the northwest of the island of Sicily, right by the Gulf of Palermo in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The city was founded in 734 BC by thePhoenicians as Ziz ('flower'). Palermo then became a possession of Carthage, before becoming part of the Roman Republic, the Roman Empire and eventually part of theByzantine Empire, for over a thousand years. The Greeks named the cityPanormus meaning 'complete port'. From 831 to 1072 the city was under Arab ruleduring the Emirate of Sicily when the city first became a capital. The Arabs shifted the Greek name into Balarm, the root for Palermo's present-day name. Following theNorman reconquest, Palermo became the capital of a new kingdom (from 1130 to 1816), the Kingdom of Sicily and the capital of the Holy Roman Empire underFrederick II Holy Roman Emperor andConrad IV of Germany, King of the Romans. Eventually Sicily would be united with the Kingdom of Naples to form theKingdom of the Two Sicilies until theItalian unification of 1860.

Deinomenes was the father of Hieron I, Gelo (or Gelon), Thrasyboulos, and Polyzelos. The historian Herodotus writes that his ancestors came from the island of Telos in the Aegean Sea and were the founders of the city of Gela in southern Sicily. Deinomenes consulted an oracle about the fates of his children, and was told that Gelo, Hieron and Thrasyboulos were all destined to become tyrants.
- Gelon also known as Gelo (Greek: Γέλων Gelon, gen.: Γέλωνος; died 478 BC), son of Deinomenes, was a 5th-century BC ruler of Gela and Syracuse and first of the Deinomenid rulers.
- Hieron I (Greek: Ἱέρων Α΄; usually Latinized Hiero) was the son of Deinomenes, the brother of Gelon and tyrant of Syracuse in Sicily from 478 to 467 BC. In succeeding Gelon, he conspired against a third brother, Polyzelos.During his reign, he greatly increased the power of Syracuse. He removed the inhabitants of Naxos and Catania to Leontini, peopled Catania (which he renamed Aetna) with Dorians, concluded an alliance with Acragas (Agrigentum) and espoused the cause of the Locrians against Anaxilas, tyrant of Rhegium.His most important military achievement was the defeat of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at the Battle of Cumae (474 BC), by which he saved the Greeks of Campania from Etruscan domination. A bronze helmet (now in the British Museum[1]), with an inscription commemorating the event, was dedicated at Olympia.Hieron's reign was marked by the creation of the believed first secret police in Greek history, and he was a liberal patron of literature and culture. The poets Simonides, Pindar, Bacchylides, Aeschylus, and Epicharmus were active at his court, as well the philosopher Xenophanes. He was an active participant in panhellenic athletic contests, winning several victories in the single horse race and also in the chariot race. 

  • The Aragonese Castle of Ischia is already unique in itself, standing on a tidal volcanic islet connected to the main island of Ischia only by a causeway.[2] But one of the many rooms inside the castle has a particular history worthy of a gothic novel or horror movie.Built by Hiero I of Syracuse in 474 BC, two towers were built to circumvent Etruscan fleets from attacking Cumaea, situated on the mainland opposite Ischia.[3] Nearby volcanic eruptions from Monte Epomeo forced Hiero's garrisons from the island, which remained partially populated for decades.[4] In 326 BC, the fortress was captured by Romans, and later by the Parthenopeans (the ancient inhabitants of Naples).[5] In the following centuries, the islet was occupied by various peoples, including Byzantines, Arabs, Normans, and Angevins.The castle as it stands today was constructed in 1441 by Alfonso V of Aragon, who connected the rock to the island with a stone causeway instead of the previous wood bridge.[6] Contractors fortified the walls in order to defend the almost 2,000 families that occupied the island during the 16th through 18th centuries against devastating raids of Greek and Turkish pirates[7].In 1809, the Aragonese Castle was shelled by the British, during the Napoleonic Wars.[27] The damaged buildings were abandoned, and the convent was presumably one of them, as the Poor Clares left the castle in the following year. In 1823 on the orders of king Ferdinand VI of Bourbon dynasty, the castle was appropriated as a prison until 1860.[28] Whilst the convent is no longer home to a community of nuns, the ‘death chairs’ are a grim reminder of their presence in the Aragonese Castle.https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-most-disturbing-story-in-history



The Republic of Venice (Italian: Repubblica di Venezia or Repubblica Veneta), traditionally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice (Venetian: Serenìsima Repùblica Vèneta; Italian: Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia), was a sovereign state and maritime republic in northeastern Italy, which existed for a millennium between the 8th century and the 18th century. It was based in the lagooncommunities of the historically prosperous city of Venice, and was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for the people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the decline of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade. In subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Europe and North Africa, as well as Asia. The Venetian navywas used in the Crusades, most notably in the Fourth Crusade. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea. The city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the city's lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe. The city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, especially Marco Polo, as well as Baroque composers such as Vivaldi and Benedetto Marcello. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the city-state's parliament. The ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism. Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons. The opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venice's decline as a powerful maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire. In 1797, the republic was plundered by retreating Austrian and then French forces, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte, and the Republic of Venice was split into the Austrian Venetian Province, the Cisalpine Republic, a French client state, and the Ionian French departments of Greece. Venice then became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century.
- etymology

  • An archaic Slavic term in Serbian & Croatian, which survives in Slovenian. ml < bn makes sense. Venet > Bnet kinda makes sense too. But that’s nothing to do with Cyrillic, not if it dates from Proto-Slavic, before Slavic was even written down…

    …. First hit:

    Benátky (Czech, Slovak) Benetke (Slovene) - Venice

    ethnic name Venetici, Vinetici > Slavic Vineteci, gen. pl. Vinetika > Binetika > Benetke

    It's really the change V > B, this change is not so infrequent, for example Czech town Beroun originated from the name of Italian city Verona

    there is also obsolete Serbocroatian name for Venice - Mleci from Bneci 

     So Slavic used to call Venetians Bneci, because Proto-Slavic did not have a /v/ (just as Ancient Greek didn’t, and Greek used to call them Ouenetoi—of course, back then, neither did Latin). And the Slavs that lived closest to Venice, the Slovenians, kept the old name, because they were the familiar people next door; whereas the other Slavs took an Italian form of the name, since they heard of Venice only directly from Venetians (after they got a /v/ in their languages).Czech and Slovak are the next Slavic languages north of Slovenian, and Slovenian apparently shows characteristics of both South Slavic and West Slavic; the Magyars interrupted their connection: Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin. So I’m guessing that knowledge of Venice (and Verona) propagated up from Slovenia to Czechia and Slovakia, and the Czechs and Slovaks happened to retain the old indigenous Slavic word—unlike the Serbs and Croats, who dropped it.

  • https://www.quora.com/How-come-we-say-Venice-when-its-originally-pronounced-Venezia
- the lion with wings holding a sword looks like the lion in the flag of sri lanka, it seems that the lion in the flag of previous versions do not hold sword
- people

  • Andrea Gritti (17 April 1455 – 28 December 1538) was the Doge of Venetian Republic from 1523 to 1538, following a distinguished diplomatic and military career.Andrea Gritti was born on 17 April 1455 in Bardolino, near Verona.[1] His father, Francesco, son of Triadano Gritti, died soon after, and his mother, Vienna, daughter of Paolo Zane, remarried in 1460 to Giacomo Malipiero, with whom she had two more sons, Paolo and Michele. Andrea had a very close relationship with his half-brothers.[1] Andrea was brought up by his paternal grandfather, receiving his first education at his grandfather's house in Venice, before going on to study at the University of Padua. At the same time he accompanied his grandfather on diplomatic missions to England, France, and Spain.In 1476 he married Benedetta, daughter of Luca Vendramin, but she died at childbirth of their son, Francesco, on the same year.[1] Widowed, Gritti moved to the Ottoman capital, Constantinople, where he engaged in trade, particularly of cereals, often in partnership with the Genoese merchant Pantaleo Coresi.[1] He enjoyed the guidance of his great-uncle, Battista Gritti, who gave him insight on important officials and traders.[1] Gritti's enterprise was successful and allowed him to live a prosperous life during his almost twenty-year stay in the city. At his home in the quarter of Galata, he lived with a Greek woman, with whom he had four illegitimate sons: Alvise, Giorgio, Lorenzo, Pietro. He also became a person of prominence in the Italian community of Galata, serving as head of the Venetian community. He also enjoyed a good relationship with the Ottoman grand vizier, Hersekzade Ahmed Pasha, securing from him various accommodations and exemptions in exchange for frequent monetary donations, as well as the esteem of Ahmed Pasha's father-in-law, Sultan Bayezid II.Elected Doge in 1523, Gritti concluded a treaty with Charles V, ending Venice's active involvement in the Italian Wars. He attempted to maintain the neutrality of the Republic in the face of the continued struggle between Charles and Francis, urging both to turn their attention to the advances of the Ottoman Empire in Hungary. However, he could not prevent Suleiman I from attacking Corfu in 1537, drawing Venice into a new war with the Ottomans. His dogaressa was Benedetta Vendramin. 
  •  He is buried in the church of S. Francesco della Vigna in Venice.https://web.archive.org/web/20041208014110/http://www.provincia.venezia.it/gritti/en/storia.htm
  • ******[time dec2019 double issue] light box on gritti palace which was beset by 6ft high floods.  An underwater barrier system, meant to hold back the sea and intended to be operational by 2011, remains unfinished. A portrait of gritti was shown with incriptions "DVX ANDREA GRITTI" and coat of arms (cross shape looks like the shape of spcc school badge)
- The Doge's Palace (Italian: Palazzo Ducale; Venetian: Pałaso Dogal) is a palace built in Venetian Gothic style, and one of the main landmarks of the city of Venice in northern Italy. The palace was the residence of the Doge of Venice, the supreme authority of the former Venetian Republic, opening as a museum in 1923. 
- downfall
  • Venice, Genoa & other Italian city-states declined when Portugal reached Calicut India in 1498. The Italians relied on the Ottomans for Asian goods. The Ottomans had jacked up the prices after they conquered Constantinople in 1453. Portugal saw an opportunity if they could discover an oceanic route to Asia.https://www.quora.com/What-led-to-the-downfall-of-Venetian-power
- huns
  • In 451 Attila was defeated at the Battle of Catalaunian Plains. He retreated back to Pannonia, now Hungary. But the next year he went on a rampage again. This time he was going into Italy. In 452 he devastated the city of Aquileia so much, its inhabitants established a refugee camp in some muddy islands in a lagoon. Later it became a permanent settlement called Venice. https://www.quora.com/Were-there-any-miracles-that-saved-the-Roman-empire-throughout-its-long-history


The Republic of Florence, or the Florentine Republic (Repubblica Fiorentina), was a state that was centered on the cityof Florence, located in modern Tuscany,Italy. The republic originated in 1115, when the Florentine people rebelled against the Margraviate of Tuscany upon the death of the powerful feudal rulerMargravine Matilda, a woman who controlled vast territories including Florence. The Florentines formed a commune in Matilda's place.[3] The republic was ruled by a council, known as the signoria. The signoria was chosen by the gonfaloniere (titular ruler of the city), who was elected every two months by Florentine guild members. The republic had a checkered history of coups and counter coups against various factions. The Medici faction gained governance of the city in 1434, uponCosimo de' Medici's counter coup against the faction that had sent him into exile the previous year. The Medici kept control of Florence until 1494. Giovanni de' Medici (later Pope Leo X) re-conquered the republic in 1512. Florence repudiated Medici authority for a second time in 1527, during the War of the League of Cognac. The Medici re-assumed their rule in 1531, after an 11-month siege of the city. The republican government was disestablished in 1532, when Pope Clement VII appointed Alessandro de' Medici "Duke of the Florentine Republic", making the "republic" a hereditary monarchy.

********The Republic of Siena (Italian: Repubblica di Siena) was a historic state consisting of the city of Siena and its surrounding territory in Tuscany, central Italy. It existed for over 400 years, from 1125 to 1555. During its existence, it gradually expanded throughout southern Tuscany becoming one of the major powers of the Middle Ages, and one of the most important commercial, financial and artistic centers in Europe.In the Italian War of 1551–59 the republic was defeated by the rival Republic of Florence in alliance with the Spanish crown. After 18 months of resistance, the Republic of Siena surrendered on 21 April 1555, marking the end of the republic.The aristocratic families in Siena date their line to the Lombards' surrender in 774 to Charlemagne. At this point, the city was inundated with a swarm of Frankish overseers who married into the existing Sienese nobility and left a legacy that can be seen in the abbeys they founded throughout Sienese territory. Feudal power waned however, and by the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 the border territory of the Mark of Tuscia which had been under the control of her family, the Canossa, broke up into several autonomous regions.

- Siena, like other Tuscan hill towns, was first settled in the time of the Etruscans (c. 900–400 BC) when it was inhabited by a tribe called the Saina. The Etruscans were a tribe of advanced people who changed the face of central Italy through their use of irrigation to reclaim previously unfarmable land, and their custom of building their settlements in well-defended hill forts. A Roman town called Saena Julia was founded at the site in the time of the Emperor Augustus. Some archaeologists assert that Siena was controlled for a period by a Gaulish tribe called the Senones.[citation needed]According to local legend, Siena was founded by Senius and Aschius, two sons of Remus and thus nephews of Romulus, after whom Rome was named. Supposedly after their father's murder by Romulus, they fled Rome, taking with them the statue of the she-wolf suckling the infants (Capitoline Wolf), thus appropriating that symbol for the town.[citation needed] Additionally they rode white and black horses, giving rise to the Balzana, or coat of arms of Siena with a white band atop a dark band. Some claim the name Siena derives from Senius. Other etymologies derive the name from the Etruscan family name Saina, the Roman family name Saenii, or the Latin word senex "old" or its derived form seneo "to be old".



The Kingdom of Naples (Latin: Regnum Neapolitanum; Catalan: Regne de Nàpols; Spanish: Reino de Nápoles; French: Royaume de Naples; Italian: Regno di Napoli; Neapolitan: Regno 'e Napule), officially known as the Kingdom of Sicily, comprised that part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was established by the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302), when the island of Sicily revolted and was conquered by the Crown of Aragon, becoming a separate kingdom also called the Kingdom of Sicily.[1] For much of its existence, the realm was contested between French and Spanish dynasties. In 1816, it reunified with the island of Sicily to form the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.The term "Kingdom of Naples" is in near universal use among historians, but it was not used officially by the government. Since the Angevins remained in power on the Italian peninsula, they kept the original name of the Kingdom of Sicily (regnum Siciliae). At the end of the War of the Vespers, the Peace of Caltabellotta (1302) provided that the name of the island kingdom would be Trinacria (regnum Trinacriae). However, this usage did not become established, and the island kingdom became known as the Kingdom of Sicily.In the late Middle Ages, it was common to distinguish the two Sicilies by noting its location relative to the rest of Italy and the Punta del Faro, i.e., the Strait of Messina. The peninsular kingdom was known as Sicily citra Farum or al di qua del Faro (on this side of Faro), and the island kingdom was known as Sicily ultra Farum or di la del Faro (on the other side of Faro). When both kingdoms came under the rule of Alfonso the Magnanimous in 1442, this usage became official, although Ferdinand I (1458–94) preferred the simple title King of Sicily (rex Sicilie).By the late Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Sicily citra Farum had become known colloquially as the Kingdom of Naples (regnum Neapolitanum or regno di Napoli). It was sometimes even called the regno di Puglia, kingdom of Apulia. In the 18th century, the Neapolitan intellectual Giuseppe Maria Galanti argued that Apulia was the true "national" name of the kingdom. By the time of Alfonso the Magnanimous, the two kingdoms were sufficiently distinct that they were no longer seen as divisions of a single kingdom. Despite being repeatedly in personal union, they remained administratively separate.
- the kingdom was passed to vittorio amedro of savoy (ally of england and austria against the bourbons in war of sponish succession) after the peace of utrecht of 1713. Vittorio amedeo surrendered the kingdom in exchange for that of sardinia in 1720.
- costume

  • in paintings
  • Donna dell'Isola Ischia
  •  https://www.sothebys.com/en/buy/auction/2020/old-masters-including-portrait-miniatures-from-the-pohl-stroeher-collection/pietro-fabris-a-young-girl-in-traditional


The Kingdom of Sardinia was a state in Southern Europe which existed from the early 14th until the mid-19th century. It was the predecessor state of today's Italy. When it was acquired by the Duke of Savoy in 1720, it was a small state with weak institutions. However, the Savoyards united it with their possessions on the Italian mainland and, by the time of the Crimean War in 1853, had built the resulting kingdom into a strong power. The composite state under the rule of Savoy in this period may be called Savoy-Sardinia or Piedmont-Sardinia, or even the Kingdom of Piedmont to emphasise that the island of Sardinia was of secondary importance to the monarchy. The formal name of the entire Savoyard state was the "States of His Majesty the King of Sardinia". Its final capital was Turin, the capital of Savoy since the Middle Ages.
- note link with aragon
- hkej 19oct17 shum article

The Duchy of Milan was a state of the Holy Roman Empire in northern Italy. It was created in 1395 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, Lord of Milan, who obtained from Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, the founding diploma.[1] At that time, it included twenty-six towns and the wide rural area of the middle Padan Plain east of the hills of Montferrat. During much of its existence, it was wedged between Savoy to the west, Venice to the east, the Swiss Confederacy to the north, and separated from the Mediterranean by Genoa to the south. The Duchy eventually fell to Habsburg Austria with the Convention of Milan during the War of the Spanish Succession. The Duchy remained an Austrian possession until 1796, when a French army under Napoleon Bonaparte conquered it, and it ceased to exist a year later as a result of the Treaty of Campo Formio, when Austria ceded it to the new Cisalpine Republic. After the defeat of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna of 1815 restored many other states which he had destroyed, but not the Duchy of Milan. Instead, its former territory became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, with the Emperor of Austria as its king. In 1859, Lombardy was ceded to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, which would become the Kingdom of Italy in 1861.

- These are all works by Luchino Visconti

, aka Luchino Visconti di Modrone, Count of Lonate Pozzolo, member of the Visconti di modrone family, a branch of the Visconti family which ruled Milano for two centuries.https://www.quora.com/Do-the-Medici-have-living-descendants-still-in-2019-is-it-extraordinary

The Italian Wars, often referred to as theGreat Italian Wars or the Great Wars of Italy and sometimes as the Habsburg–Valois Wars or the Renaissance Wars, were a series of conflicts from 1494 to 1559 that involved, at various times, most of the city-states of Italy, the Papal States, most of the major states of Western Europe (France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, England, and Scotland) as well as the Ottoman Empire. Originally arising from dynastic disputes over the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples, the wars rapidly became a general struggle for power and territory among their various participants, and were marked with an increasing number of alliances, counter-alliances, and betrayals.
- The naval Battle of the Solent took place on 18 and 19 July 1545 during the Italian Wars, fought between the fleets of Francis I of France and Henry VIII of England, in theSolent channel off the south coast of England between Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. The engagement was inconclusive and is most notable for the sinking of the English carrack Mary Rose.

The Duchy of Parma was created in 1545 from that part of the Duchy of Milan south of the Po River, which was conquered by the Papal States in 1512. These territories, centered on the city of Parma, were given as a fief for Pope Paul III's illegitimate son,Pier Luigi Farnese. In 1556, the second Duke, Ottavio Farnese, was given the city of Piacenza, becoming thus also Duke of Piacenza, and so the state was thereafter properly known as theDuchy of Parma and Piacenza (Italian:Ducato di Parma e Piacenza). The Farnese family continued to rule until their extinction in 1731, when the duchy was inherited by the young son of the King of Spain, Don Charles, whose motherElizabeth Farnese was the Farnese heiress. He ruled until the end of the War of the Polish Succession in 1735, when Parma was ceded to Emperor Charles VI in exchange for the Two Sicilies. The Habsburgs only ruled until the conclusion of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapellein 1748, when it was ceded back to theBourbons in the person of Don Philip, Don Charles's younger brother, which received also the little Duchy of Guastalla. As Duke Philip, he became the founder of the House of Bourbon-Parma reigning over the Duchy of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla (Italian:Ducato di Parma, Piacenza e Guastalla). The Duchy of Parma and Piacenza joined with the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and the Duchy of Modena to form the United Provinces of Central Italy in December 1859, and merged with theKingdom of Sardinia into the Kingdom of Italy in March 1860 after holding a referendum. The House of Bourbon continues to claim the title of duke of Parma to this day. Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Parma has held the title since 2010.

奇斯帕达纳共和国或译帕达河内共和国   The Cispadane Republic (Repubblica Cispadana) was a short-lived republiclocated in northern Italy, founded in 1796 with the protection of the French army, led by Napoleon Bonaparte. In the following year, it was merged with the Transpadane Republic(until recently the Duchy of Milan) to form the Cisalpine Republic. These were French client states organized by Napoleon after the Battle of Lodi in May 1796. The republic's name refers to the "near side" of the River Po.On 16 October 1796, a congress was held in Modena after the ruler, Duke Hercules III, had fled to Venice to escape the French advance. The congress was formed by representatives from the provinces of Modena, Bologna, Ferrara and Reggio Emilia, all located south of the Po. The congress was unofficially organized by Napoleon, whose French army had swept through northern Italy earlier in the year, and who needed to settle the situation in Italy and gather new troops for an offensive against Austria. The congress proclaimed that the four provinces would form the Repubblica Cispadana and invited other Italian populations to join them. A civic guard, composed of mounted hunters and artillery, was formed. In the 7 January 1797 session, in Reggio Emilia, the congress decided to form a government. The flag, the first tricolore in Italy, was a horizontal tricolour, with red (top), white and green stripes. In the center was an emblem composed of a quiver, accolade to a war trophy, with four arrows that symbolized the four provinces forming the Republic, all within a crown of bay. 箭筒中的四支箭象征了组成波河联邦（Po federation）的四个省。 According to its constitution, the Republic was to be governed by a directory based on the French Directory; it had a bicameral parliament composed of a Council of Sixty and a Council of Thirty, and was divided into departments after the French model and comuni(municipalities).

奇萨尔皮尼共和国  The Cisalpine Republic (Repubblica Cisalpina) was a sister republic of Francein Northern Italy that lasted from 1797 to 1802.After the Battle of Lodi in May 1796, Napoleon Bonaparte organized two states: one to the south of the Po, the Cispadane Republic, and one to the north, the Transpadane Republic. On 19 May 1797, Napoleon transferred the territories of the former Duchy of Modena to Transpadania and, on 12 Messidor (29 June), he decreed the birth of the Cisalpine Republic, creating a Directory for the republic and appointing its ministers. France published the constitution of the new republic on 20 Messidor (7 July), establishing the division of the territory into eleven departments: Adda (Lodi), Alpi Apuane (Massa), Crostolo (Reggio), Lario (Como), Montagna (Lecco), Olona (Milan), Panaro (Modena), Po (Cremona), Serio (Bergamo), Ticino (Pavia), and Verbano (Varese). The rest of Cispadania was merged into the Cisalpine Republic on 27 July, with the capital of the unified state being Milan. On 1 Brumaire (22 October), Bonaparte announced the union of Valtelline with the Republic, after its secession from the Swiss Three Grey Leagues. Austria acknowledged the new entity in the Treaty of Campoformioof 17 October, gaining in exchange what remained of the Venetian Republic. On 25 Brumaire (15 November), the full international recognition and legality of the new state was ratified by the law governing the final annexation of the conquered territories.
- The origin of Majani taste lies in a small shop in Bologna center. The city had just been annexed to the Cispadane Republic, and occupied by Napoleonic troops. In her Laboratory, Teresina Majani, progenitor of the oldest family of Italian chocolatiers, produces the first delights of the ancient House.https://www.majani.it/en/storia/

  • note that there is a al marjani mosque in kazan, russia, built in 1766-1770 by Catherine the Great's authority and on the city's population's donations.


unification
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Italy-unify-if-all-its-regions-are-so-different note the maps
-  The Order of the Crown of Italy, Ordine della Corona d'Italia, was founded as a national order in 1868 by King Vittorio Emanuele II, to commemorate the unification of Italy in 1861. It was awarded in five degrees for civilian and military merit. Compared with the older Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (1572), the Order of the Crown of Italy was awarded more liberally and could be conferred on non-Catholics as well; eventually, it became a requirement for a person to have already received the Order of the Crown of Italy in at least the same degree before receiving the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus. The order has been suppressed by law since the foundation of the Republic in 1946. However, Umberto II did not abdicate his position as fons honorum and it remained under his Grand Mastership as a dynastic order. While the continued use of those decorations conferred prior to 1951 is permitted in Italy, the crowns on the ribbons issued before 1946 must be substituted for as many five pointed stars on military uniforms.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-where-Savoy-and-Nice-annexed-to-France-at-the-time-of-Italian-unification After their victory and the creation of the kingdom of Italy, the French were rewarded with two provinces of Piedmont: Savoy and Nice.


L'Esercito volontario per l'indipendenza della Sicilia (EVIS), fu una formazioneparamilitare clandestina, creata da Antonio Canepa (conosciuto con lo pseudonimo Mario Turri), che ne fu il primo comandante, nel febbraio del 1945.[1] Rappresentò la formazione armata separatista fiancheggiatrice del Movimento Indipendentista Siciliano. Si prefiggeva da un lato il sabotaggio del governo italiano con azioni di guerriglia, dall'altro di imprimere al processo indipendentista siciliano una soluzione repubblicana. Alla sua costituzione, l'EVIS non verrà pubblicamente riconosciuto dal MIS, e osteggiato da alcuni suoi dirigenti, come Antonino Varvaro, che uscirà dal MIS e finirà nel PCI. Si sciolse di fatto il 29 dicembre 1945 con l'arresto del suo ultimo "comandante", Concetto Gallo.


People
- Chigi is a Roman princely family of Sieneseextraction descended from the counts ofArdenghesca, which possessed castles in theMaremma, southern Tuscany. The earliest authentic mention of them is in the 13th century, with one Alemanno, counsellor of the Republic of Siena. The first very prominent member was Mariano (1439–1504), a banker and two times ambassador of Siena to the Popes Alexander VI and Julius II. He founded the Roman branch of the family, the other branch was started by his brother, Benedetto. Agostino Chigi (1465–1520) was the most famous member of the family during theRenaissance. He became an immensely rich banker, and built the palace and gardens afterwards known as the Farnesina, decorated by Raphael, and was noted for the splendour of his entertainments. Pope Julius II made him practically his finance minister and gave him the privilege of quartering his own (Della Rovere) arms with those of the Chigi. Cardinal Fabio Chigi, on being elected pope as Alexander VII at the Conclave of 1655, conferred the Roman patriciate on his family. His elder brother Mario, last commander of theCorsican Guard in Rome, continued the branch of the family in Siena. His brother Augusto continued the line in Rome. Augusto's son Agostino was made Reichsfurst (prince of the Holy Roman Empire) by Leopold I in 1659. Agostino married Maria Virginia Borghese (relative of the Borghese pope), and acquired the principates of Farnese (1658), Campagnano (1661) and Ariccia, where a famous palazzo bearing the family name still exists. The pope also had two nephews who became cardinals, Flavio I, who was his Cardinal-Nephew and one of the main art collectors of the family and built the Villa Cetinale in 1680, and Sigismondo.The princely family is represented by Prince Mario Chigi, Prince Chigi Albani della Rovere (b. 1929), whose heir is Prince Flavio Chigi Albani della Rovere (b. 1975)
- Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli([nikkoˈlɔ mmakjaˈvɛlli]; 3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often been called the founder of modernpolitical science. He was for many years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. He wrote his most renowned workThe Prince (Il Principe) in 1513. "Machiavellianism" is a widely used negative term to characterize unscrupulous politicians of the sort Machiavelli described most famously in The Prince. Machiavelli described immoral behavior, such as dishonesty and killing innocents, as being normal and effective in politics. He even seemed to endorse it in some situations. The book itself gained notoriety when some readers claimed that the author was teaching evil, and providing "evil recommendations to tyrants to help them maintain their power."[2] The term "Machiavellian" is often associated with political deceit, deviousness, and realpolitik. On the other hand, many commentators, such as Baruch Spinoza,Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot, have argued that Machiavelli was actually a republican, even when writingThe Prince, and his writings were an inspiration to Enlightenment proponents of modern democratic political philosophy.

  • the term “The Five Good Emperors” was coined by Niccolò Machiavelli trying to illustrate a point, arguing that adoption, rather than hereditary inheritance, brought the Roman Empire to its civilizational apogee. https://www.quora.com/Why-is-Augustus-not-considered-one-of-the-five-good-emperors-Wasnt-he-a-good-emperor

- Ippolito (II) d'Este (25 August 1509 – 2 December 1572) was an Italian cardinal and statesman. He was a member of the House of Este, and nephew of the other Ippolito d'Este, also a cardinal. He is perhaps best known for his despoliation of the then 1,400-year-oldHadrian's Villa, built by the Roman emperorHadrian, removing marbles and statues from it to decorate his own villa, the Villa d'Este.
- Altiero Spinelli (31 August 1907 – 23 May 1986) was an Italian political theorist and European federalist. Spinelli is referred to as one of the founding fathers of the European Union due to his co-authorship of the Ventotene Manifesto, his founding role in the European federalist movement, his strong influence on the first few decades of post-World War II European integration and, later, his role in re-launching the integration process in the 1980s. Spinelli was born in Rome, and joined the Italian Communist Party (PCI) at an early age in order to oppose the regime of Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party. Following his entry into radical journalism, he was arrested in 1927 and spent ten years in prison and a further six in confinement. During the war he was interned on the island of Ventotene (in the Gulf of Gaeta) along with some eight hundred other political opponents of the regime. During those years, he broke with the Italian Communist Party over Stalin's purges (resulting in him being ostracised by many of the other prisoners), but refused to compromise with the fascist regime, despite offers of early release.

利古里亚人The Ligures (singular Ligus or Ligur; English: Ligurians; Greek: Λίγυες) were an Indo-European people who appear to have originated in, and gave their name to, Liguria, a region of north-western Italy.[1] Elements of the Ligures appear to have migrated to other areas of western Europe, including the Iberian peninsula. Little is known of the Old Ligurian language. It is generally believed to have been an Indo-European language with particularly strong Celticaffinities, as well as similarities to Italic languages. Only some proper names have survived, such as the inflectional suffix -asca or -asco"village". Because of the strong Celtic influences on their language and culture, they were known in antiquity as Celto-Ligurians (in Greek Κελτολίγυες Keltolígues).
- note that
  • The site where Cassis (in france) now sits was first occupied between 500 and 600 BC by the Ligures, who constructed a fortified habitation at the top of the Baou Redon. These people lived by fishing, hunting, and by farming. The current site of Cassis could have been inhabited by the Greeks, though no proof has yet been found. During the Roman times, Cassis was part of the maritime route made by the Emperor Antoninus Pius.
  • see if there is any relations between the cassis commune and the cassis drink (mentioned in chef james martin show on christmas food)


France
- The Horses of Saint Mark (Cavalli di San Marco), also known as the Triumphal Quadriga, is a set of Roman bronze statuesof four horses, originally part of a monument depicting a quadriga (a four-horse carriage used for chariot racing). The horses were placed on the facade, on the loggia above the porch, of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, northern Italy after the sack of Constantinople in 1204. They remained there until looted by Napoleon in 1797 but were returned in 1815. The sculptures have been removed from the facade and placed in the interior of St Mark's for conservation purposes, with replicas in their position on the loggia.

  • It is certain that the horses, along with the quadriga with which they were depicted, were long displayed at the Hippodrome of Constantinople; they may be the "four gilt horses that stand above the Hippodrome" that "came from the island of Chios under Theodosius II" mentioned in the 8th- or early 9th-century Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai.[4] They were still there in 1204, when they were looted by Venetian forces as part of the sack of the capital of the Byzantine Empire in the Fourth Crusade. The collars on the four horses were added in 1204 to obscure where the animals' heads had been severed to allow them to be transported from Constantinople to Venice.[5] Shortly after the Fourth Crusade, Doge Enrico Dandolo sent the horses to Venice, where they were installed on the terrace of the façade of St Mark's Basilicain 1254. Petrarch admired them there.
asia
- Odoric of Pordenone, ofm (1286–1331), also known as Odorico Mattiussi/Mattiuzzi, Odoricus of Friuli or Orderic of Pordenone, was an Italian late-medieval Franciscan friar and missionary explorer. His account of his visit to China was an important source for the account of John Mandeville. Many of the incredible reports in Mandeville have proven to be garbled versions of Odoric's eyewitness descriptions.Odoric was born at Villanova, a hamlet now belonging to the town of Pordenone in Friuli, in or about 1286. He came from the Italian family of the Mattiussi, one of the families in charge of defending the town of Pordenone in the name of Ottokar II, King of Bohemia. Otto Hartig, writing in the Catholic Encyclopedia, says his family was Czech. [1] Andrea Tilatti, in Treccani, says this is unsubstantiated.According to the ecclesiastical biographers, in early years he took the vows of the Franciscan order and joined their convent at Udine, the capital of Friuli. In 1296 Odoric went as a missionary to the Balkans, and then to the Mongols in southern Russia.Odoric was dispatched to the East in April 1318. Starting from Padua, he went to Constantinople via Venice and then crossed the Black Sea to Trebizond.[2] From there he traveled and preached in Armenia, Media, and Persia. In all these countries the Franciscans had founded mission centers. From Sultanieh he proceeded by Kashan and Yazd, and turning thence followed a somewhat indirect route by Persepolis and the Shiraz and Baghdad regions, to the Persian Gulf. With another friar, James of Ireland, as his companion, he sailed from Ormus to India,[3] landing at Thane, near Mumbai.At this city St Thomas of Tolentino and his three Franciscan companions had recently been martyred for "blaspheming" Muhammad before the local qadi during a domestic violence case.[4] Their remains had been gathered by Jordan of Severac, a Dominican who had left them a short time before and who later became the first Catholic bishop in India. He interred them at the church in Supera, near Vasai, about 26 miles north of Mumbai. Odoric relates that he disinterred these relics and carried them with him on his further travels. From Thane, he travelled down the Malabar coast, stopping at Kodungallur and Quilon. From there, he proceeded around Cape Comorin to the Coromandel Coast. Here, he visited the Church of St. Thomas.[5] He also visited Puri, giving one of the earliest accounts of the Chariot Festival of the Hindu God Jagannath to the western world [6] In his own account of 1321, Odoric reported how the people put the "idols" on chariots, and the King and Queen and all the people drew them from the "church" with song and music.From India, Odoric sailed in a junk to Sumatra, visiting various ports on the northern coast of that island. Thence, he visited Java, Borneo, Champa,[9]:91 via Great Nicobar Island.[10] Account on official site of Apostolic Vicariate of Brunei Darussalam stated that he travelled Borneo, and probably came to Brunei, in 1325.[11] He travelled from Ceylon to Guangzhou (which he knew as "Chin-Kalan" or "Mahachin"). From Guangzhou, he travelled overland to the great port of Quanzhou ("Zayton") where there were two houses of his order. In one of these, he deposited most of the remains of the Four Martyrs of Thane, although he continued to carry St Thomas's head until he delivered it to the Franciscans of the martyr's hometown of Tolentino.From Fuzhou Odoric struck across the mountains into Zhejiang and visited Hangzhou ("Cansay"). It was at the time one of the great cities of the world and Odoric —like Marco Polo, Marignolli, and Ibn Batuta—gives details of its splendors. Passing northward by Nanjing and crossing the Yangzi, Odoric embarked on the Grand Canal and travelled to the headquarters of the Great Khan (probably Yesün Temür Khan) at Khanbaliq (within present-day Beijing). He remained there for three years, probably from 1324 to 1327. He was attached, no doubt, to one of the churches founded by the Franciscan Archbishop John of Monte Corvino, at this time in extreme old age. He also visited Yangzhou where Katarina Vilioni's tombstone was found in 1951.Odoric did not return to Italy till the end of 1329 or the beginning of 1330; but, as regards intermediate dates, all that we can deduce from his narrative or other evidence is that he was in western India soon after 1321 (pretty certainly in 1322) and that he spent three years in China between the opening of 1323 and the close of 1328. On one of his trips, his ship was nearly capsized by a typhoon but they landed safely in Bolinao, Pangasinan, Philippines. He is said to have held a Mass there, in around 1324. That would have pre-dated the Mass celebrated in 1521 by Pedro de Valderrama for the crew of Magellan's circumnavigation, which is generally regarded as the first Mass in the Philippines, by some 197 years. However, historian William Henry Scott concluded after examining Odoric's writings about his travels that he likely never set foot on Philippine soil and, if he did, there is no reason to think that he celebrated Mass.Odoric's return voyage is less clearly described. Returning overland across Asia, through the Land of Prester John (possibly Mongolia), and through Casan, the adventurous traveller seems to have entered Tibet,[1] and even perhaps to have visited Lhasa. After this we trace the friar in northern Persia, in what he calls "Millestorte", once famous as the Land of the Assassins, i.e. the Rudbar of Alamut. No further indications of his homeward route (to Venice) are given, though it is almost certain that he passed through Tabriz. The vague and fragmentary character of the narrative, in this section, forcibly contrasts with the clear and careful tracing of the outward way.During a part at least of these long journeys the companion of Odoric was James of Ireland, an Irishman, as appears from a record in the public books of Udine, showing that shortly after Odoric's death a present of two marks was made to this Irish friar, Socio beau Fratris Odorici, amore Dei et Odorici. Shortly after his return Odoric betook himself to the Minorite house attached to the Friary of St. Anthony at Padua, and it was there that in May 1330 he related the story of his travels, which was taken down in homely Latin by Friar William of Solagna.Travelling towards the papal court at Avignon, Odoric fell ill at Pisa, and turning back to Udine, the capital of his native province, died there.鄂多立克（義大利語：Odorico da Pordenone，約1286年－1331年1月14日，又译为和德理）意大利方济各会托钵僧，是中世纪著名的旅行家，著有《鄂多立克东游录》，和马可波罗、伊本·白图泰、尼可罗·康提一同被称为中世纪四大旅行家。1286年鄂多立克在意大利弗里乌黎省波登隆埃县诺瓦村出生。早年皈依方济各会，成为灰衣修士。1318年从威尼斯启程东游，经君士坦丁堡、特拉布宗、霍尔木兹、孟买、奎隆、马拉巴尔海岸、锡兰、苏门答腊、占婆，经广州入中国，游历泉州、福州、明州、杭州、金陵、扬州、北京等地旅行，取道西藏回国。后在病榻上口述东游经历，由他人笔录成书《鄂多立克东游录》

documents, artefacts
- The Archivio di Stato di Firenze, is the repository for the public records and archives of the Italian city of Florence. The archive holds over 600 funds dating back to the 8th century which, laid out in a line, would stretch over 75 km (46 miles).  It was founded on February 20th 1852 by decree of the Grand Duke Leopoldo II of Tuscany. Until 1989, the archive was located in the Uffizi. On November 4th, 1966 the River Arno flooded, causing damage to over 60,000 pieces of archival material.[2] The flood incited the decision to construct a modern building for the archives further from the River Arno. The new building, designed by Italo Gamberini and his team of architects, was begun in 1974. [3] It included a space for the restoration laboratory, which was founded shortly after the 1966 to recover damaged documents.[4] Between 1987-1988 archival materials were transferred from the Uffizi to their current location, on the Viale della Giovine Italia, near the Piazza Beccaria in Florence. The new building Staff have included Gaetano Milanesi among others.
  • the book of the nall features the names of the condemned including dante scmp 1apr2021

worth a read
- https://www.quora.com/Who-came-after-the-Romans

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