Wednesday, December 19, 2018

arabic language

origin
- belong to semitic language family
-  The Namara inscription (Arabicنقش النمارة‎‎ naqš an-Namārah) is usually interpreted as an early example of the Arabic language, but is sometimes interpreted as a late version of the Nabataean language in its transition to Arabic. It has been described by Irfan Shahid as "the most important Arabic inscription of pre-Islamic times" and by Kees Versteegh as "the most famous Arabic inscription". It is also an important source for the relationships between the Romans and the Arabs in the fourth century AD. The inscription is now held by the Louvre museum in Paris. The inscription is carved in five lines on a block of basalt, which may have been the lintel for a tomb. It is the epitaph of a recently deceased Arab king of the LakhmidsImru' al-Qays ibn 'Amr, and dated securely to AD 328. Imru' al-Qays followed his father 'Amr ibn Adi in using a large army and navy to conquer much of Iraq and the Arabian peninsula from their capital at al-Hirah. At this time, they were vassals of the Persian Sassanids. Raids on Iran triggered a campaign by Sassanid emperor Shapur II which conquered the Iraqi lands, and Imru' al-Qays retreated to Bahrain. He moved to Syria to seek help from the Roman emperor Constantine. Imru' al-Qays converted to Christianity before his death in Syria and was entombed in the Syrian desert. His conversion is mentioned in the Arab history of Hisham Ibn Al-Kalbi, but not mentioned in the inscription itself; equally there is no mention of any pagan belief.
- after ad700 muslim conquests had dispersed arab settlers to spain and eastern persia, resulting in adoption of use of arabic by vast numbers of non-arabs.  8th century scholars in lower iraq established a standard of correct arabic.  The golden age of arabic literature span from 8th to 11th century.  
- in 8th century, script used for the rendering of old aramaic
- a century later, greeks borrowed the script
- about the same time, a form of script was introduced into south arabia which had close affinities with old phoenician script. Scripts closely analogous to this became widely prevalent throughout the south and centre of arabic peninsula, where they remained in normal use down to the 5th centur ad, but thereafter fell into disuse; in the horn of africa, they ultimately evolved into the ethiopian script used for rendering present day aramaic.
- script
  • Genetic relationship with latin alphabet, both traceable to a scriot current on the levant coast around 1000 bc and used for notation of old phoenician
  • An abjad (pronounced /ˈæbɑːd/ or /ˈæbæd/
) is a type of writing system where each symbol or glyph stands for a consonant, leaving the reader to supply the appropriate vowel. The name abjad is based on the old Arabic alphabet's first four letters – a, b, j, d – to replace the common terms "consonantary", "consonantal alphabet" or "syllabary" to refer to the family of scripts called West Semitic.The name "abjad" (abjad أبجد) is derived from pronouncing the first letters of the Arabic alphabet in order. The ordering (abjadī) of Arabic letters used to match that of the older HebrewPhoenician and Semitic alphabets: ʾ (aleph) - b - g - d.
  • The Persians invented “Arabic” calligraphy. It had evolved from the Nabatean Script.But it was a Persian vizier to a Caliph that invented c.900 a more “elegant” flowing, cursive style, Thuluth.https://www.quora.com/Why-does-the-Persian-language-Farsi-use-the-Arabic-script
  • styles
    • kufic
    • Naskh (Arabicنسخ‎‎ nasḫ/nasḵ; also known as Naskhi or by its Turkish name Nesih) is a specific calligraphic style for writing in the Arabic alphabet, thought to have been invented by the calligrapher Ibn Muqlah Shirazi (Persian:ابن مقلهٔ شیرازی‎‎). The root of this Arabic term nasakh-a (نسخ) means "to copy". It either refers to the fact that it replaced its predecessor, Kufic script, or that this style allows faster copying of texts. With small modifications, it is the style most commonly used for printing ArabicPersianPashtoand Sindhi languages. 
    • ta'liq style emerging in 15th century, favourite in india and persia
    • ruq' a script - popular in ottoman period and the normal style used for handwriting in most of arab world
    • maghribi script (of kufic inspiration) - in morocco and algeria

    • https://www.quora.com/Is-it-possible-to-write-Maltese-and-Hebrew-with-the-Arabic-Script
    • https://www.quora.com/Arabic-language-letters-in-the-past-used-to-be-written-without-any-dots-so-how-were-Arabs-able-to-differentiate-between-vowels-and-consonants If Arabs were able to understand words through the context of the sentences, then non-native Arabic speakers found it difficult. An Arab grammarian  Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali  known for his cleverness in grammar, poetry, and everything related to the Arabic language worked hard and introduced Letter-pointing and vowel-pointing to the grammar system to overcome this dilemma which was the spread of error and the inability to distinguish between similar letters especially among non-native Arabic speakers.


    - calligraphy

    • http://www.islam.org.hk/index.php?action-viewnews-itemid-17265 
    • forms of calligraphy
    • kufic
    • naskh
    • thuluth
    •  talig
    • diwani
    • others: muhaggag, rayhani, ljaza, moroccan


    arab regional dialects

    • Egyptian
    • Iraqi
    • Lebanese
    • Algerian
    • Moroccan
    • Tunisian
    - https://www.quora.com/Which-Arabic-accent-spoken-is-closer-to-pure-Arabic-Which-one-would-be-good-to-learn
    -  https://www.quora.com/What-Arabic-dialect-is-mostly-spoken
    - https://www.quora.com/What-Arabic-speaking-regions-of-the-world-have-the-greatest-difficulty-understanding-each-other-s-Arabic The lowest possible degree of intelligibility between well-known Arabic dialects is between an Iraqi (the northern-eastern-most part of Eastern Arabic) and a Morrocan (the western-most part of Western Arabic), where both would have great difficulties understanding each other as these two varieties aren't intelligible; In such case, they would resort to Fuşha (edit: or English/French) to understand each other.
    In short, as long as the dialects of urban areas are concerned, all the dialects of the eastern and central parts of the Arab world are fairly mutually intelligible. The mutual intelligibility between the eastern and western parts is one way. The west understands the east but the east does not underdtand the west.For reasons that are beyond the point here, the dialects of the west are only half intelligible to the east ( Libya, Tunisia, Mauritania) or nearly unintelligible ( Morroco, Algeria). However, people from those countries can make themselves easily understood by mixing their dialect with fusha Arabic, or othet Arabic dialects, and replacing the French words of which they make much use in their everyday life.https://www.quora.com/How-do-Arabs-understand-each-other-s-dialects


    Letters
    - The Arabic alphabet (الأبجدية العربية) contains 28 letters, which are classified into 14 sun letters (الحروف الشمسية) and 14 moon letters (الحروف القمرية). This classification is based on the way these letters affect the pronunciation of the definite article (ال) at the beginning of words. The definite article is assimilated into the sun letters and loses its distinctive sound. As a result, the sound at the beginning of the word is doubled.https://www.quora.com/Why-is-the-first-Laam-silent-in-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85-How-do-we-know-which-letters-are-silent-when-reading-the-Arabic-script

    • ******https://www.quora.com/How-do-you-say-the-in-different-languages

    The ي letter
    https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-difference-in-sound-made-between-the-%D9%8A-and-%D9%89-alphabets-in-Arabic

    consonants “ع” and “ح”
    - https://www.quora.com/What-do-the-Arabic-pharyngeal-consonants-%D8%B9-and-%D8%AD-sound-like-to-foreigners 

    dh ض
    In colloquial Arabic, there are people that pronounce dhādh (ض) as THā’ (ظ) and (ظ) as (ض). From this, certain regions around the world, specifically in Persian and Asian communities such as in Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and areas around the east subcontinent such as India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and Malaysia, will convert this letter to sound like the English equivalent of the letter /z/.So afzal is actually afdhal (افضل) which means the most favored, the most preferred, the absolute best. It can be used to compare two distinguishable ideas that one is better than the other.https://www.quora.com/What-does-the-Arabic-word-afzal-mean

    p sound
    - https://www.quora.com/When-did-Arabic-lose-the-p-sound-in-native-words It surely happened far in the prehistory of Arabic, because the change of p to f is not unique to Arabic, it is shared also with the South Arabian languages and the Ethiopic Semitic languages. So it surely happened long time ago , when the ancestors of Arabic, and South Arabian were still closely related to each other, and easily influencing each other. And then the Ethiopic branch of Semitic broke off from South Arabian, due to their migration from Yemen to Africa.

    t, th
    - https://www.quora.com/How-is-Arabic-%D8%B7-and-%D8%B8-different-than-%D8%AA-and-%D8%B2-and-%D8%B6

    3
    - [NATS] in transliteration of arabic, the 3 used  to indicate the gutteral (back-of-the-throat) "ah" sound

    Al- (Arabicال‎, also transliterated as el- as pronounced in varieties of Arabic) is the definite article in the Arabic language: a particle (ḥarf) whose function is to render the noun on which it is prefixed definite. For example, the word كتاب kitāb "book" can be made definite by prefixing it with al-, resulting in الكتاب al-kitāb "the book". Consequently, al- is typically translated as the in English. Unlike most other particles in Arabic, al- is always prefixed to another word and it never stands alone. Consequently, most dictionaries will not list it as a separate word, and it is almost invariably ignored in collation. Similarly, al- is not a permanent component of the word to which it is prefixed. It is added and removed to toggle between the definiteness and indefiniteness of the word. As a particle, al- does not inflect for gender, plurality or grammatical case. The sound of the final -l consonant, however, can vary; when followed by a sun letter such as t, d, r, s, n and a few others, it is replaced by the sound of the initial consonant of the following noun, thus doubling it. For example: for "the Nile", one does not say al-Nīl, but an-Nīl. When followed by a moon letter, like m-, no replacement occurs, as in al-masjid ("the mosque"). This affects only the pronunciation and not the spelling of the article.


    use
    - official language of morocco, algeria, tunis, libya, The United Arab Republic [(UARArabicالجمهورية العربية المتحدة‎‎ al-Jumhūrīyah al-'Arabīyah al-Muttaḥidah) was a state, and between 1958 and 1961, a short-lived political union between Egypt and Syria. The union began in 1958 and existed until 1961, when Syria seceded from the union after the 1961 Syrian coup d'état. In 1971 the UAR was renamed the Arab Republic of Egypt. The president was Gamal Abdel Nasser. The UAR was a member of the United Arab States, a loose confederation with North Yemen, which was dissolved in 1961.], sudan, lebanon, syria, jordan, iraq and the states of arabian peninsula.
    - also used in israel, south-western corner of iran, some enclaves in central asian republics of soviet union, some areas fringing the south of sahara
    - language of qur'an
    - in turkey, official policy since 1923 aimed at replacing it by turkish
    - in spite of heavy lexical infiltration from italian, maltese was once an arabic vernacular. At the end of the 18th century, latin script was chosen when it was first reduced to writing, then developed into a literary language with its own traditions. So standard arabic is unused and unintelligle in malta.
    -  https://www.quora.com/In-what-ways-is-Arabic-considered-to-be-the-most-significant-of-the-widely-used-languages-of-the-world

    Modern Standard Arabic (MSA; Arabicاللغة العربية الفصحى‎ al-lughat ul-ʻArabīyat ul-fuṣḥá 'the most eloquent Arabic language'), Standard Arabic, or Literary Arabic is the standardized and literary variety of Arabic used in writing and in most formal speech throughout the Arab world to facilitate communication. It is considered a pluricentric language. Most Western scholars distinguish two standard (al-)fuṣḥá (الفصحى) varieties of Arabic: the Classical Arabic (CA) (اللغة العربية التراثية al-lughah al-ʻArabīyah al-turāthīyah) of the Quran and early Islamic (7th to 9th centuries) literature, and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) (اللغة العربية المعيارية الحديثة al-lughah al-ʻArabīyah al-miʻyārīyah al-ḥadīthah), the standard language in use today. MSA is based on classical Arabic, and differences between the two varieties of the language are directly related to modernizing and simplification, both in speaking and writing styles. Most Arabic speakers consider the two varieties to be two registers of one language, although the two registers can be referred to in Arabic as فصحى العصر fuṣḥá l-ʻaṣr (MSA) and فصحى التراث fuṣḥá t-turāth (CA).

    vocabularies
    - https://www.quora.com/How-many-words-does-the-Arabic-language-have

    quranic arabic
    - https://www.quora.com/How-different-is-Quranic-Arabic-from-modern-Arabic-language-Which-one-should-I-learn
    - english for mohammad in arabic is pbuh
    - kind - al wadud
    - sacred - quddous
    - one and only - ahad
    - peace - salam
    - 真主 - elah-alaha
    - mohammed was borned in makkah (in the bakkah valley), he then moved to madina. Al madinah al munawwarah means 被啓廸照亮的城市


    Transliteration
    - items joined together in the conventions of the script, but structurally separate words, are hyphenated

    root √ktb
    - for example, has a general meaning of “book” or “read”. If you insert the vowels i and ā, you get kitāb, which means “book”. If you swap them around, you get kātib, meaning “writer” (masc.); for a feminine writer, you add the fem. suffix -a to get kātiba, “female writer”. Maktaba is “library”, iktitāb is registration, muktatib is subscription, and so on.https://www.quora.com/Which-language-has-the-most-words-and-which-the-least-number-of-words-in-total

    adhan
    - literally ears in arabic or to fall on ears of the masses, muslim call to prayer

    allah
    - https://www.quora.com/What-does-Bismillah-Rahman-Rahim-Mean-in-English The term bismillah, is actually three words: 1. The particle bi which means by, for, with the aid of, through or by means of and points toward that which happens next. 2. The next word in this phrase is ism, means Name and indicates the means by which something is distinguished.
    3. The ending of the term is the word Allah, which is the Arabic name of the One. The Semitic roots of the word Allah extend back several thousand years to the Canaanite Elat, Hebrew El and Elohim, and Aramaic Alaha. 

    aywa
    - https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-meaning-of-the-Arabic-word-aywa

    caliphate
    - https://www.quora.com/Does-the-word-caliphate-really-mean-empire-and-or-dynasty-in-Arabic

    Colonisation - Sti'mar
    Colonialism - sti'mariyya
    Communist - suyu'iyy
    Communism - suyu'iyya

    fishing
    - https://www.quora.com/Why-isnt-there-a-word-in-Arabic-for-fishing-like-%D7%93%D7%99%D7%92-%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AC-in-Hebrew-vs-%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%93-%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%AF-for-hunting

    Good - kayr
    Bad - sarr

    https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-difference-between-%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A8-tayyib-%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%85-tamaam-and-%D8%B2%D9%8A%D9%86-zayn-in-response-to-how-are-you-in-Arabic

    Halaal - 合法的
    Haraam - 禁止的


    hello - Salam Alaykum https://www.quora.com/Which-language-is-more-difficult-Chinese-or-Arabic

    kadarjan - poor thing

    let's go
    https://www.quora.com/How-do-you-say-lets-go-in-Arabic

    malik/malek - king?
    Hala wal Malik (Hala and the King – 1967)

    maybe
    - Famous Lebanese singer Fairouz has posted a video of her singing a cover of John Lennon’s ‘Imagine’ on her official Facebook page. Titled ‘Yemken’ – Arabic for ‘Maybe’ 

    michael
    https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-Arabic-variant-of-Michael-how-common-is-this-name

    mostaqbal - future 


    聖戰者(即阿拉伯語مجاهد‎,拉丁化:muǧāhid,英語:Mujahid,意為奮戰者)指的是參與聖戰的鬥士。[1]複數形為Mujahideen[2](阿拉伯語:مجاهدين‎,拉丁化:muǧāhidīn)。這個字是來自阿拉伯語jihad(意為奮戰,即一般所認為的聖戰)。
    Mujahideen (Arabicمجاهدين‎ mujāhidīn) is the plural form of mujahid (Arabic: مجاهد‎), the Arabic term for one engaged in jihad (literally, "struggle"). The English term jihadistsgrammatically corresponds to it.In its roots, mujahideen (an Arabic word) refers to any person performing jihad. In its post-classical meaning, jihad refers to an act which is spiritually comparable in reward to promoting Islam during the early 600s CE. These acts could be as simple as sharing a considerable amount of one's income with the poor.


    naba
    https://www.quora.com/In-Arabic-what-does-naba-mean-Are-there-synonyms-of-naba


    only love can save us - Lan yonqithana siwa al-hob https://www.quora.com/How-do-you-translate-only-love-can-save-us-into-high-Arabic

    Sahib or Saheb (/ˈsɑːhɪb/traditionally /ˈsɑː()b/Perso-Arab: صاحب, Devanagari: साहिब, Gurmukhi: ਸਾਹਿਬ, Bengali: সাহেব) is a word of Arabic origin meaning "companion". As a loanword, it has passed into several languages, including PersianKurdishTurkish, UrduHindiPunjabiPashtoBengaliGujaratiMarathi and Somali. In English, it is especially associated with British rule in India. It can be used as a term of address, either as an official title or an honorific. It is often shortened to saab.Sahibzada is a princely style or title equivalent to, or referring to a young prince. This derivation using the Persian suffix -zada(h), literally 'born from (or further male/female descendant; compare Shahzada) a Sahib', was also (part of) the formal style for some princes of the blood of Hindu and Muslim dynasties in the Indian sub-continent,Sahib means "owner" in Arabic and was commonly used in the Indian Sub-continent as a courteous term in the way that "Mister" (also derived from the word "master") and "Mrs." (derived from the word "mistress") is used in the English language. It is still used today in the Sub-continent just as "Mister" and "Mrs.", and continues to be used today by English language speakers as a polite form of address."Sahib" is also appended to the names of holy places associated with the Sikh Gurus such as Nankana Sahib, Patna Sahib, Anandpur Sahib.In the British Indian Army, a British officer would address a Viceroy's commissioned officer(i.e., a native Indian officer) as "<rank> sahib" or "<name> sahib". This form of address is still retained in the present-day army of independent India.The term sahib was applied indiscriminately to any person whether Indian or Non-Indian. This included Europeans who arrived in the Sub-continent as traders in the 16th Century and hence the first mention of the word in European records is in 1673.Pukka sahib was also a term used to signify genuine and legitimate authority, with pukkameaning "absolutely genuine".Sahiba is the authentic form of address to be used for a female. Under the British Raj, however, the word used for female members of the establishment was adapted to memsahib, a variation of the English word "ma'am" having been added to the word sahib.The same word is also appended to the names of Sikh gurus.The term sahib (normally pronounced saab) was used on P&O vessels which had Indian and/or Pakistani crew to refer to officers, and in particular senior officers. On P&O Cruisesand Princess Cruises vessels the term continued to be used by non-Indian/non-Pakistani junior officers to refer to the senior deck and engine officers for many years, even when no Indian or Pakistani crew featured in the ship's company.
    - also used in film out of africa

    sharmuta
    - https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-etymology-of-the-Arabic-word-Sharmuta

    sorry
    - https://www.quora.com/How-do-you-say-sorry-in-Arabic
    - https://www.quora.com/How-do-you-say-pardon-me-in-Arabic

    tarab
    - [NATS] arabic word for ecstasy, usually associated with vocal music

    Tayyeb: طيب
    This word is not only used in Arabic but I think also in Turkish and Persian (Turkish prime minister name as an example.) It has different meanings and it can work as different phrases depending on the stress of the letters and the tone of the word.  https://www.quora.com/In-Arabic-what-is-a-phrase-every-single-Arab-speaker-utters-every-day-of-his-life

    tea
    - https://www.quora.com/When-native-Arabic-speakers-see-an-Arabic-word-in-the-Arabic-script-do-they-recognise-it-visually-without-spelling-it-out-letter-by-letter-just-as-readers-of-the-Latin-script-do

    Ummah (Arabicأمة‎‎) is an Arabic word meaning "community". It is distinguished from Sha'b (Arabicشعب‎‎) which means a nation with common ancestry or geography. Thus, it can be said to be a supra-national community with a common history. It is a synonym for ummat al-Islamiyah (Arabicالأمة الإسلامية‎‎) (the Islamic Community), and it is commonly used to mean the collective community of Islamic peoples. In the Quran the ummah typically refers to a single group that shares common religious beliefs, specifically those that are the objects of a divine plan of salvation.[1][2] In the context of Pan-Islamism and politics, the word Ummah can be used to mean the concept of a Commonwealth of the Believers (أمة المؤمنين ummat al-mu'minīn).

    months
    - https://www.quora.com/In-Arabic-dictionaries-months-like-February-are-spelt-%D9%81%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%B1-whereas-in-Arabic-calendars-February-is-spelt-%D8%B4%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B7-Why-is-this

    fruits
    - orange, lemon

    https://www.quora.com/Is-it-true-that-all-languages-use-the-word-Orange-to-describe-both-the-color-and-the-citrus-fruit-Can-you-share-either-a-positive-or-negative-example-This-is-true-for-English-and-Arabic-what-about-other-languages The fruit that is called “orange” in English is “lemon” in my Arabic dialect (ليمون - laymūn), what is called “lemon” in English is “sour lemon” in my dialect (ليمون حامض), and the color is (برتقاليburtuqāliyy). 
      people's names
      - aladdin

      • https://www.quora.com/Why-doesnt-Aladdin-have-a-real-Arabic-name It means beliefs/ religion held high.

      - https://www.quora.com/Is-Leila-a-Persian-or-an-Arabic-name
      Hakim or Al-Hakim (commonly Arabicحكيم ḥakīm‎ "wise" or Arabicحاکم ḥākem‎ "ruler") are a masculine given name.
      - surname
      • Rahman (Arabicرحمن‎, Raḥmān) is an Arabic male name meaning Gracious. With nisba (Arabic onomastic), the name becomes Rahmani, means "descendant of the gracious one" and is used as a surname. In IslamAr-Rahman (The Most Gracious) is one of the Names of God
      • notable people
      •  Aarif Lee, born Aarif Rahman. HK-born Chinese Canadian singer, songwriter and actor of Chinese, Arab and Malay descent

      proverb / idioms
      - nothing lasts forever https://www.quora.com/How-deep-can-you-go-within-three-words
      -  https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-common-Arabic-idioms-and-how-would-you-explain-them-in-English
      - palestinian arabic

      • Hum mitl al-asabi3 fee eedak: mish kul wa7id zay al-ba3d. https://www.quora.com/Do-you-like-Arabs
      https://www.quora.com/What-do-Arabs-think-of-people-learning-Arabic

      usa
      - economist 20oct18 "out of one, many" arabic, a great language, has a low profile Between 2002 and 2009 the number of university students in America learning Arabic shot up by 231%, making it a more popular subject than Latin and Russian. This was a “Sputnik moment”: like the Soviet satellite, it shocked Americans into studying their adversaries.But national attention soon wandered. Arabic-learning declined by 10% between 2009 and 2016—years in which America continued to fight in Iraq and later against Islamic State. In both America and Britain, Arabic is just the eighth-most-studied language, behind less important but somehow sexier ones such as (in British a-level exams) Italian.

      russia
      - loan words from arabic

      • https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-Arabic-loanwords-in-your-native-language

      mauritania
      Mauritania is the country where people speak proper, classical Arabic. They speak the classical Arabic in their daily communication. People in Mauritania are known to master the Arabic language, memorize thousands of verses of poetry which include the grammar and rules of the language. They are also known to have very sharp memories and strong ability to memorize. Hundreds of thousands of them memorize the Holy Quran verbatim, word by word.Mauritanians have strong affection for the Arabic poetry, to the extent that It is said “when one poet dies, another poet is born.” https://www.quora.com/What-is-the-place-in-the-world-where-people-speak-Arabic-the-closest-from-classical-Arabic

      turkey and iran
      - https://www.quora.com/Is-Arabic-a-popular-language-in-Iran-and-Turkey

      syria and iraq
      - https://www.quora.com/Do-people-of-Iraq-and-Syria-speak-the-same-dialect-of-Arabic



      persia
      - https://www.quora.com/When-and-why-did-Persians-adopt-the-Arabic-Abjad-alphabet-and-not-stick-to-their-ancient-writing-system Persian adopted the Arabic abjad post Muslim conquest which occurred in the 7th century - before it, they used the Pahlavi writing script, which was very closely based on the Aramaic one, which has been used for writing Aramaic and its dialects (as well as the liturgical Syriac language) for a very long time.

      india
      - loan words
      • https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-prominent-Arabic-loanwords-in-Hindi-or-Urdu
      relations with other languages
      - https://www.quora.com/What-languages-are-closest-to-Arabic

      online resources
      - www.talkinarabic.com



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