都市国家A city-state is a sovereign state, also described as a type of small independent country, that usually consists of a single city and its dependent territories. Historically, this included cities such as Rome, Athens, Carthage, and the Italian city-states during the Renaissance. As of March 2018 only a handful of sovereign city-states exist, with some disagreement as to which are city-states. A great deal of consensus exists that the term properly applies currently to Singapore, Monaco, and Vatican City. City states are also sometimes called micro-states which however also includes other configurations of very small countries. A number of other small states share similar characteristics, and therefore are sometimes also cited as modern city-states. Namely, Qatar, Brunei, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Malta, which each have an urban center comprising a significant proportion of the population, though all have several distinct settlements and a designated or de facto capital city. Occasionally, other small states with high population densities, such as San Marino, are also cited, despite lacking a large urban centre characteristic of traditional city-states. Several non-sovereign cities enjoy a high degree of autonomy, and are sometimes considered city-states. Hong Kong and Macau, along with independent members of the United Arab Emirates, most notably Dubai and Abu Dhabi, are often cited as such.
- Historical city-states included Sumerian cities such as Uruk and Ur; Ancient Egyptian city-states, such as Thebes and Memphis; the Phoenician cities (such as Tyre and Sidon); the five Philistine city-states; the Berber city-states of the Garamantes; the city-states of ancient Greece (the poleis such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth); the Roman Republic (which grew from a city-state into a great power); the Mayan and other cultures of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica (including cities such as Chichen Itza, Tikal, Copán and Monte Albán); the central Asian cities along the Silk Road; the city-states of the Swahili coast; Venice; Ragusa; states of the medieval Russian lands such as Novgorod and Pskov; and many others. Danish historian Poul Holm has classed the Viking colonial cities in medieval Ireland, most importantly Dublin, as city-states.
- in europe
- Andorra (/ænˈdɔːrə,
-ˈdɒrə/ ; Catalan: [ənˈdorə]), officially the Principality of Andorra (Catalan: Principat d'Andorra), also called the Principality of the Valleys of Andorra[5] (Catalan: Principat de les Valls d'Andorra), is a sovereign landlocked microstate on the Iberian Peninsula, in the eastern Pyrenees, bordered by France to the north and Spain to the south. Believed to have been created by Charlemagne, Andorra was ruled by the Count of Urgell until 988, when it was transferred to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Urgell, and the present principality was formed by a charter in 1278. It is known as a principality as it is a diarchy headed by two Co-Princes: the Catholic Bishop of Urgell in Catalonia, Spain and the President of France.
- In the 13th century, a military dispute arose between the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix as aftermath of the Cathar Crusade. The conflict was resolved in 1278 with the mediation of the king of Aragon, Pere II between the Bishop and the Count, by the signing of the first paréage which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count of Foix[31] (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the Bishop of Urgell, in Catalonia. This gave the principality its territory and political form.
- hkej 13aug18 shum article
- case of san marino
- After the unification of the Kingdom of Italy a treaty in 1862 confirmed San Marino's independence. It was revised in 1872. see also 14aug18 shum article
- https://www.quora.com/Do-small-countries-like-San-Marino-or-Vatican-actually-feel-like-countries-or-small-Italian-provinces San Marino is absolutely a complete country. They are absolutely devoted to the idea. They have a capital, companies, residential towns, a dozen football teams divided into two leagues, shops and restaurants and a Grand Hotel and schools and Eurovision Song Contest participants, a history of full independence going back 1,700 years and the whole shebang—even a fully equipped Museum of Natural History, which I can warmly recommend.
- Seborga, a small principality in nortwestern Italy. When Italy was united in the 1800s they missed out on some paperwork and Seborga was never properly incorporated into Italy. It is still there, a micronation with 307 inhabitants.https://www.quora.com/Where-are-some-of-the-weirdest-places-in-Europe
- 對岸共和國Užupis (Yiddish: זארעטשע, Belarusian: Зарэчча, Russian: Заречье, Polish: Zarzecze) is a neighbourhood in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania, largely located in Vilnius' old town,[1] a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Užupis means "beyond the river" or "the other side of the river" in the Lithuanian language and refers to the Vilnia River; the name Vilnius was derived from the Vilnia. The district has been popular with artists for some time, and has been compared to Montmartre in Paris and to Freetown Christiania in Copenhagen, due to its bohemian and laissez-faire atmosphere. On April 1, 1998, the district declared itself an independent republic (The Republic of Užupis).
- 十六世紀的文字記載稱，這兒原是一片古老的葡萄園。時光荏苒，後因疏於建設、貧窮、雜亂，漸成了被遺忘的角落。一批來自各國的自由職業者、藝術家到此群居，久而久之成了另一隅世界，自立「對岸共和國」。經過多年經營，這裏豎起了守護神雕像，定立了自己的「國歌」，選出了自己的「總統」、「主教」，甚至還立了「憲法」。它也因此聲名大噪，成為了維爾紐斯最有吸引力的地頭，是不少遊客遊覽的一景。「對岸共和國」河對岸的聖母東正教堂也是維爾紐斯的著名景點。我們去時正逢婚禮，四十多歲的神甫正為新人祝福。他把食指放到嘴邊，制止旁人發出輕微聲息，用溫柔的眼神去注視年輕人的親吻。他的臉上露着真誠的喜悅，彷彿享受新婚甜蜜的是他自己。然而東正教的神甫是不近女色、終身不娶的。教堂後面便是維爾尼亞河，鏽舊的鐵橋上拴着數不清的鎖頭。情侶們用傳統形式鎖住愛的祝願，祈求得到保佑。跨過橋便是「對岸共和國」。在橋頭看去，河岸是一面石牆，掛着放大的長段電影膠卷。橋旁有個石龕，藏着半人高的銅雕，那是一座姿態撩人的美人魚，出自一位名家。許多人正是被她魅惑而來定居的。踏進「對岸共和國」街道，便見到牆上嵌着一片片一人多高的銅板，用十九種文字刻着對岸共和國的「憲法」。最末一塊是中文繁體字（推測立「憲」者中有使用繁體字的華人），共四十一條。若干條一本正經刻下的憲法規條，讀來卻有點無厘頭：第九條，每個人都有無所事事的權利；第十條，每個人都有愛和照顧貓的權利；第十一條，每個人都有權照顧狗隻直到其中一方死去；第十二條，每隻狗有權去做狗；第十三條，每隻貓沒有義務要愛牠的主人……莫非這就是追求極度自由的無政府主義者的文書風格？「對岸共和國」的房子大都老舊殘破，有的房子只支在頹垣敗瓦上。但窗台上放置的小玩意兒、院子裏的花兒、晾曬的五顏六色衣物，都告知這裏的人家生活得有滋有味。在一個破落的院子我們見到了一位六七十歲的老人，他用蹩腳的英語加上肢體語言告訴我們，他是俄羅斯人，是一名藝術家，從年輕時就住在這裏。他說作品過去賣得便宜，現在價格高了三倍。他一瘸一拐地領我們去看他的作品：隨意堆在角落的掉色繪畫、缺口陶器、掉漆茶壺，還有一個看來是他最得意的作品：利用高高低低的殘牆斷壁置放的幾部手機和收音機……物件和背景結合在一起，為展示歲月嬗變。我很難認為這作品「美」，但老人能說出很艱深的一番話。這院子有一座二層高的殘樓，門窗都朽爛了，有的窗位只是一個殘洞，就只是一個荒廢院落。老人獨自在這個院子生活了幾乎一輩子，外人眼中不免淒涼，但他的樂趣是我們不理解的，一如那些憲法規條，我們永不可能理解那些條文背後的故事和用意。立陶宛也有我們看得明白的一面，那就是她引以為傲的特拉凱（Trakai）古堡。古堡是歐洲各國常見到的中世紀風景，它們造型獨特，防禦性強，多在崇山峻嶺間，利用山壁山洞修築。這顯示出封建社會曾經的封疆佔地、閉塞自保的特點。古堡內裏構造都大同小異，以幽徑串通各區間，可生活可防守。今天的古堡大多已改建成展示當年生活形態、用品的展覽館。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200204/PDF/b4_screen.pdf
- freedomland (see philippines)
- The Principality of Sealand, more commonly known as Sealand is a micronation that claims Roughs Tower, an offshore platform located in the North Sea approximately 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) off the coast of Suffolk, England, as its territory. Roughs Tower is a disused Maunsell Sea Fort, originally called HM Fort Roughs, built as an anti-aircraft defensive gun platform by the British during World War II. Since 1967, the decommissioned HM Fort Roughs has been occupied by family and associates of Paddy Roy Bates, who claim that it is an independent sovereign state. Bates seized it from a group of pirate radio broadcasters in 1967 with the intention of setting up his own station at the site. He attempted to establish Sealand as a nation-state in 1975 with the writing of a national constitution and establishment of other national symbols. While it has been described as the world's smallest country[6] or nation, Sealand is not officially recognised by any established sovereign state in spite of Sealand's government's claim that it has been de facto recognised by the United Kingdom and Germany. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in force since 1994 states "Artificial islands, installations and structures do not possess the status of islands. They have no territorial sea of their own, and their presence does not affect the delimitation of the territorial sea, the exclusive economic zone or the continental shelf". Since 1987, Sealand lies within the territorial waters of the United Kingdom. Bates moved to the mainland when he became elderly, naming his son, Michael, as regent. Bates died in October 2012 at the age of 91. Michael lives in Suffolk, England.
- In 1978, a German businessman, Alexander Achenbach along with other Germans and Dutch, invaded Sealand and took Bates's son, Michael, hostage. Bates and others then launched a counterattack in the early hours of the morning to recapture the fort. He held the German and Dutch men as prisoners of war. As one had accepted a Sealand Passport, he was held and convicted of treason while the rest were released.[1] Germany then sent a diplomat to Britain to ask for intervention but Britain claimed they did not have jurisdiction. Germany then sent a diplomat to Sealand directly to negotiate the release of the prisoner.[2] He was released, and the act of diplomatic negotiation was claimed by Roy to be de factorecognition of Sealand, which Germany has denied.
- HavenCo Limited was a data haven, data hosting services company, founded in 2000 to operate from Sealand, a self-declared sovereign principality that occupies a man-made former World War II defensive facility originally known as Roughs Tower located approximately six miles from the coast of Suffolk, southeast England. In November 2008, operations of HavenCo ceased without explanation.
- see japanese version of wikipedia for people granted with honours/titles
- note that coat of arms include a trident, a merlion lookalike creature
- hkej 5jan18 columns page
Autonomous regions
- Asturias (/æˈstʊəriəs, ə-/; Spanish: [asˈtuɾjas]; Asturian: Asturies [asˈtuɾjes]; Portuguese: Astúrias), officially the Principality of Asturias (Spanish: Principado de Asturias; Asturian: Principáu d'Asturies), is an autonomous community in north-west Spain. It is coextensive with the province of Asturias, and contains some of the territory that was part of the larger Kingdom of Asturias in the Middle Ages. Asturias was inhabited, first by Homo erectus, then by Neanderthals. Since the Lower Paleolithic era, and during the Upper Paleolithic, Asturias was characterized by cave paintings in the eastern part of the area. In the Mesolithic period, a native culture developed, that of the Asturiense, and later, with the introduction of the Bronze Age, megaliths and tumuli were constructed. In the Iron Age, the territory came under the cultural influence of the Celts; the local Celtic peoples, known as the Astures, were composed of tribes such as the Luggones, the Pesicos, and others, who populated the entire area with castros (fortified hill-towns). Today the Astur Celtic influence persists in place names, such as those of rivers and mountains.
- The only official language in Asturias is Spanish. The Asturian language, also known as Bable, is also spoken, and is protected by law (Ley 1/1998, de 23 de marzo, de uso y promoción del bable/asturiano — "Law 1/1998, of 23 March, of Use and Promotion of Bable/Asturian"). It is sometimes used by the Asturian civil service. In the western part of Asturias, Eonavian is also spoken, and its promotion also falls under the responsibility of Law 1/1998. Whether Eonavian is a dialect continuum or a variety of Galician language, however, is a subject of debate, and its use in the Asturian Administration is minor compared to the use of the Asturian language. Within Asturias, there is an ongoing process to establish place names in Asturian and Eonavian dialects.
- Galicia (English i/ɡəˈlɪsiə/, /ɡəˈlɪʃə/;Galician: [ɡaˈliθja], [ħaˈliθja], or [ħaˈlisja];Spanish: [ɡaˈliθja]; Galician andPortuguese: Galiza, pronounced: [ɡaˈliθa],[ħaˈliθa] or [ħaˈlisa] in Galician and [ɡɐˈlizɐ]in Portuguese) is an autonomous community of Spain and historic nationality under Spanish law.
- Ceuta (assimilated pronunciation /ˈsjuːtə/ SEW-tə, also /ˈseɪʊtə/ SAY-uu-tə; Spanish: [ˈθeuta]; Arabic: سبتة, Sabtah) is an 18.5-square-kilometre (7.1 sq mi) Spanish autonomous city on the north coast of Africa, separated by 14 kilometers from Cadiz province on the Spanish mainland by the Strait of Gibraltar and sharing a 6.4 kilometer land border with M'diq-Fnideq Prefecture in the Kingdom of Morocco. It was part of Cádiz province until 14 March 1995 when both Ceuta and Melilla's Statutes of Autonomywere passed, the latter having been part of Málaga province. Ceuta, like Melilla and the Canary Islands, was a free port before Spain joined the European Union.[citation needed] As of 2011, it has a population of 82,376. Its population consists of Christians, Muslims, and small minorities of Sephardic Jews and ethnic Sindhi Hindus. Spanish is the official language, while Darija Arabic is also spoken by 40–50% of the population which is of Moroccan origin. Ceuta's location has made it an important commercial trade and military way-point for many cultures, beginning with the Carthaginians in the 5th century BC, who called the city Abyla; initially, this was also its name in Greek and Latin. It was known variously in Ancient Greek as: Ἀβύλη, Ἀβύλα, Ἀβλύξ, or Ἀβίλη στήλη – Abyle, Abila, Ablyx or Abile Stele – "Pillar of Abyle")[5] and in the Latin derivation from Greek as Abyla Mons Columna ("Mount Abyla" or "Column of Abyla"). Together with Gibraltar on the European side, it formed one of the famous "Pillars of Hercules".[5][6] Later, it was renamed for a formation of seven surrounding smaller mountains, collectively referred to as Septem Fratres ('[The] Seven Brothers') by Pomponius Mela, which lent their name to a Roman fortification known as Castellum ad Septem Fratres. It changed hands again approximately 400 years later, when Vandal tribes ousted the Romans.[citation needed] After being controlled by the Visigoths, it then became an outpost of the Byzantine Empire. Ceuta was an important Christian center since the fourth century (as recent discovered ruins of a Roman basilica show). In the 7th century the Umayyads tried to conquer the region but were unsuccessful. Byzantine governor, Julian (described as King of the Ghomara) who was a vassal of the Visigothic kings of Iberia changed his allegiance after the king Rodericraped his daughter, and exhorted the Muslims to invade the Iberian Peninsula. Under the leadership of the Berber general Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Muslims used Ceuta as a staging ground for an assault on Visigothic Iberian Peninsula. After Julian's death, the Berbers took direct control of the city, which the indigenous Berber tribes resented. They destroyed Ceuta during the Kharijite rebellion led by Maysara al-Matghari in 740. Ceuta lay in ruins until it was resettled in the 9th century by Mâjakas, chief of the Majkasa Berber tribe, who started the short-lived Banu Isam dynasty. His great-grandson briefly allied his tribe with the Idrisids, but the Banu Isam rule ended in 931 when he abdicated in favor of Abd ar-Rahman III, the Umayyad Caliph of Cordoba. Ceuta reverted to MoorishAndalusian rule in 927 along with Melilla, and later Tangier, in 951. Chaos ensued with the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in 1031. Following this Ceuta and the rest of Muslim Iberia were controlled by successive North African dynasties. Starting in 1084, the Almoravid Berbers ruled the region until 1147, when the Almohads conquered the land. Apart from Ibn Hud's rebellion of 1232, they ruled until the Tunisian Hafsids established control. The Hafsids' influence in the west rapidly waned, and Ceuta's inhabitants eventually expelled them in 1249. After this, a period of political instability persisted, under competing interests from the Kingdom of Fez and the Kingdom of Granada. The Kingdom of Fez finally conquered the region in 1387, with assistance from the Crown of Aragon.The city was recognized as a Portuguese possession by the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479) and by the Treaty of Tordesilhas (1494). In the 1540s the Portuguese began building the Royal Walls of Ceuta as they are today including bastions, a navigable moat and a drawbridge. Some of these bastions are still standing, like the bastions of Coraza Alta, Bandera and Mallorquines. Luís de Camões lived in Ceuta between 1549 and 1551, losing his right eye in battle, which influenced his work of poetry Os Lusíadas. In 1578 king Sebastian of Portugal died at the Battle of Alcácer Quibir (known as the Battle of Three Kings) in what is today northern Morocco, without descendants, triggering the 1580 Portuguese succession crisis. His granduncle, the elderly Cardinal Henry, succeeded him as King, but Henry also had no descendants, having taken holy orders. When the Cardinal-King died two years after Sebastian's disappearance, three grandchildren of king Manuel I of Portugal claimed the throne: Infanta Catarina, Duchess of Braganza, António, Prior of Crato, and Philip II of Spain (Uncle of former King Sebastian of Portugal), who would go on to be crowned king Philip I of Portugal in 1581, uniting the two crowns and overseas empires known as the Iberian Union.[12], which allowed the two kingdoms to continue without being merged. During the Iberian Union 1580 to 1640, Ceuta attracted many residents of Spanish origin. Ceuta became the only city of the Portuguese Empire that sided with Spain when Portugal regained its independence in the Portuguese Restoration War of 1640.On 1 January 1668 by the Treaty of Lisbon, King Afonso VI of Portugal recognized the formal allegiance of Ceuta to Spain and formally ceded Ceuta to King Carlos II of Spain. The city was attacked by Moroccan forces under Moulay Ismail during the Siege of Ceuta (1694-1727). During the longest siege in the history, the city underwent changes leading to the loss of its Portuguese character. While most of the military operations took place around the Royal Walls of Ceuta, there were also small-scale penetrations by Spanish forces at various points on the Moroccan coast, and seizure of shipping in the Strait of Gibraltar. Disagreements regarding the border of Ceuta resulted in the Hispano-Moroccan War (1859–60), which ended at the Battle of Tetuán.
- hkej 3nov17 shum article
- Economist 22may2021 "testing the floodgates" morocco and spain - king muhammad is weaponising migration
The government of Morocco has repeatedly called for Spain to transfer the sovereignty of Ceuta and Melilla, along with uninhabited islets such as the islands of Alhucemas, the rock of Vélez and the Perejil island, drawing comparisons with Spain's territorial claim to Gibraltar. In both cases, the national governments and local populations of the disputed territories reject these claims by a large majority.[93] The Spanish position states that both Ceuta and Melilla are integral parts of Spain, and have been since the 16th century, centuries prior to Morocco's independence from France in 1956, whereas Gibraltar, being a British Overseas Territory, is not and never has been part of the United Kingdom. Both cities also have the same semi-autonomous status as the mainland region in Spain. Melilla has been under Spanish rule for longer than cities in northern Spain such as Pamplona or Tudela, and was conquered roughly in the same period as the last Muslim cities of Southern Spain such as Granada, Málaga, Ronda or Almería: Spain claims that the enclaves were established before the creation of the Kingdom of Morocco. Morocco denies these claims and maintains that the Spanish presence on or near its coast is a remnant of the colonial past which should be ended. The United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories does not include these Spanish territories and the dispute remains bilaterally debated between Spain and Morocco.On 21 December 2020, following the affirmations of the Moroccan Prime Minister, Saadeddine Othmani, stating that Ceuta and Melilla "are Moroccan as the [Western] Sahara [is]", Spain urgently summoned the Moroccan Ambassador to convey that Spain expects respect from all its partners to the sovereignty and territorial integrity of its country and asked for explanations about the words of Othmani.
- Economist 22may2021 "testing the floodgates" morocco and spain - king muhammad is weaponising migration
- aland, sark, saint martin, svalbard, Büsingen am Hochrhein, Montserrat, Northern mariana islands
- Basque nabar (declined absolute singular nabarra): "brownish", "multicolour" (i. e. in contrast to the green mountainous lands north of the original County of Navarre).
- Basque naba (or Castilian nava): "valley", "plain" + Basque herri ("people", "land").
The linguist Joan Coromines considers naba to be linguistically part of a wider Vasconic or Aquitanian language substrate, rather than Basque per se.
During the Roman Empire, the Vascones, a pre-Roman tribe, populated the southern slopes of the Pyrenees, including the area which would ultimately become Navarre. In the mountainous north, the Vascones escaped large-scale Roman settlement, except for some coastal areas—for example Oiasso (in what is now Gipuzkoa)—and the flatter areas to the south, Calagurris (in what is now La Rioja), which were amenable to large-scale Roman farming—vineyards, olives, and wheat crops.- [poon hon tong book on interview with ma ying gou] bourbon dynasty is from navarra
- [poon hon tong book on interview with ma ying gou]francis xavier (one of the founders of jesuits) was born to a basque family in navarra in 1506
- 阿布哈茲共和國（阿布哈茲語：Аҧсны；格魯吉亞語：აფხაზეთი；俄语：Абхазия） 通稱阿布哈茲 ，又译作阿柏克茲亞 Abkhazia (/æbˈkɑːziə/ , /æbˈkeɪziə/;) is a de facto and partially recognized republic on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, south of the Greater Caucasus mountains, in northwestern Georgia. It covers 8,660 square kilometres (3,340 sq mi) and has a population of around 240,000. Its capital is Sukhumi. It is called Аԥсны́ [apʰsˈnɨ] in Abkhazian, აფხაზეთი [ɑpʰxɑzɛtʰi] in Georgian, and Абха́зия [ɐˈpxazʲɪjə] in Russian. The status of Abkhazia is a central issue of the Georgian–Abkhazian conflict and Georgia–Russia relations. The polity is recognised as a state by Russia, Venezuela, Nicaragua, Nauru and Syria. While Georgia lacks control over Abkhazia, the Georgian government and most United Nations member states consider Abkhazia legally part of Georgia, whose constitution designates the area as the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia. The region had autonomy within Soviet Georgia at the time when the Soviet Union began to disintegrate in the late 1980s. Simmering ethnic tensions between the Abkhaz—the region's "titular ethnicity"—and Georgians—the largest single ethnic group at that time—culminated in the 1992–1993 War in Abkhazia which resulted in Georgia's loss of control of most of Abkhazia, the de facto independence of Abkhazia, and the ethnic cleansing of Georgians from Abkhazia. Despite the 1994 ceasefire agreement and years of negotiations, the dispute remains unresolved. The long-term presence of a United Nations Observer Mission and a Russian-led Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) peacekeeping force failed to prevent the flare-up of violence on several occasions. In August 2008, Abkhaz and Russian forces fought a war against Georgian forces, which led to the formal recognition of Abkhazia by Russia, the annulment of the 1994 ceasefire agreement, and the termination of the UN mission. On 28 August 2008, the Parliament of Georgia declared Abkhazia a Russian-occupied territory, with most United Nations member states concurring.
- The Abkhazians call their homeland Аԥсны (Apsny, Aṗsny), popularly etymologised as "a land/country of the soul", yet literally meaning "a country of mortals (mortal beings)".[17] It possibly first appeared in the seventh century in an Armenian text as Psin(oun), perhaps referring to the historical Apsilians. The state is formally designated as the "Republic of Abkhazia" or "Apsny". The Russian Абхазия (Abkhaziya) is adapted from the Georgian აფხაზეთი (Apkhazeti). In Mingrelian, Abkhazia is known as აბჟუა (Abzhua)[19] or სააფხაზო (saapkhazo). Abkhazia's names in Western languages derived directly from the Russian form: Abkhazie in French; Abkhasien in Danish; Abchasien in German; Abcházie in Czech; Abchazië in Dutch; Abcasia in Italian; Abjasia in Spanish; and Abcázia in Portuguese. In Persian it is called آبخاز Ābkhāz or آبخازستان Ābkhāzestān.
- people
- Lavrentiy Pavlovich Beria (/ˈbɛriə/; Russian: Лавре́нтий Па́влович Бе́рия, IPA: [ˈbʲerʲiə]; Georgian: ლავრენტი პავლეს ძე ბერია, translit.: lavrent'i p'avles dze beria, IPA: [bɛriɑ]; 29 March [17 March old style] 1899 – 23 December 1953) was a Soviet politician, Marshal of the Soviet Union and state security administrator, chief of the Soviet security and secret police apparatus (NKVD) under Joseph Stalin during World War II, and promoted to deputy premier under Stalin from 1941. He later officially joined the Politburo in 1946. Beria was the longest-lived and most influential of Stalin's secret police chiefs, wielding his most substantial influence during and after World War II. Following the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939 he was responsible for organizing the Katyn massacre. He simultaneously administered vast sections of the Soviet state and acted as the de facto Marshal of the Soviet Union in command of NKVD field units responsible for barrier troops and Soviet partisan intelligence and sabotage operations on the Eastern Front during World War II. Beria administered the vast expansion of the Gulaglabor camps and was primarily responsible for overseeing the secret detention facilities for scientists and engineers known as sharashkas. He attended the Yalta Conference with Stalin, who introduced him to U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt as "our Himmler"[2]. After the war, he organized the Communist takeover of the state institutions in Central Europe and Eastern Europe and political repressions in these countries. Beria's uncompromising ruthlessness in his duties and skill at producing results culminated in his success in overseeing the Soviet atomic bomb project. Stalin gave it absolute priority and the project was completed in under five years, having been accelerated by Soviet espionage against the West. After Stalin's death in March 1953, Lavrentiy Beria became First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union and head of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. In this dual capacity, he formed a troika alongside Georgy Malenkov and Vyacheslav Molotovthat briefly led the country in Stalin’s place. However, in a coup d'état launched by Nikita Khrushchev with help from Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov on June 1953, Beria was ultimately removed from power and subsequently arrested on charges of 357 counts of rape and treason. He was sentenced to death and was executed by Pavel Batitsky on December 23, 1953.
- Beria was born in Merkheuli, near Sukhumi, in the Sukhum Okrug of the Kutais Governorate (now Gulripshi District, de facto Republic of Abkhazia, then part of the Russian Empire). He was from the Mingrelian ethnic group and grew up in a Georgian Orthodox family.Beria's mother, Marta Jaqeli (1868–1955), was deeply religious and church-going (she spent much time in church and died in a church building). She was previously married and widowed before marrying Beria's father, Pavel Khukhaevich Beria (1872–1922), a landowner from Abkhazia.[5] Beria also had a brother (name unknown), and a deaf sister named Anna. In his autobiography, Lavrentiy Beria mentioned only his sister and his niece, implying that his brother was (or any other siblings were) dead or had no relationship with Beria after he left Merkheuli. Beria attended a technical school in Sukhumi, and joined the Bolsheviks in March 1917 while a student in the Baku Polytechnicum (subsequently known as the Azerbaijan State Oil Academy). As a student, Beria distinguished himself in mathematics and the sciences. The Polytechnicum's curriculum concentrated on the petroleum industry. Beria also worked for the anti-Bolshevik Mussavatists in Baku. After the Red Army captured the city on 28 April 1920, Beria was saved from execution because there was not enough time to arrange his shooting and replacement, and Sergei Kirov possibly intervened.[8] While in prison, he formed a connection with Nina Gegechkori (1905–10 June 1991)[9] his cellmate's niece, and they eloped on a train.[10] She was 17, a trained scientist from an aristocratic family. In 1919, at the age of twenty, Beria started his career in state security when the security service of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic hired him while still a student at the Polytechnicum. In 1920 or 1921 (accounts vary) Beria joined the Cheka, the original Bolshevik secret police. At that time, a Bolshevik revolt took place in the Menshevik-controlled Democratic Republic of Georgia, and the Red Army subsequently invaded. The Cheka became heavily involved in the conflict, which resulted in the defeat of the Mensheviks and the formation of the Georgian SSR. By 1922, Beria was deputy head of the Georgian branch of Cheka's successor, the OGPU. In 1924, he led the repression of a Georgian nationalist uprising, after which up to 10,000 people were executed. For this display of "Bolshevik ruthlessness," Beria was appointed head of the "secret-political division" of the Transcaucasian OGPU and was awarded the Order of the Red Banner. In 1926, Beria became head of the Georgian OGPU; Sergo Ordzhonikidze, head of the Transcaucasian party, introduced him to fellow-Georgian Iosef Dzhughashvili, later known as Joseph Stalin. As a result, Beria became an ally in Stalin's rise to power. During his years at the helm of the Georgian OGPU, Beria effectively destroyed the intelligence networks that Turkey and Iran had developed in the Soviet Caucasus, while successfully penetrating the governments of these countries with his agents. He also took over Stalin's holiday security.
- Commemorative Coin of the 2011 Domino World Championship in Abkhazia https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Abkhazia_10_apsar_Ag_2011_Domino_b.jpg/150px-Abkhazia_10_apsar_Ag_2011_Domino_b.jpg
- 民族区域自治制度，是指在国家统一领导下，各少数民族聚居的地方实行区域自治，设立自治机关，行使自治权的制度。民族区域自治制度是我国的基本政治制度之一，是建设中国特色社会主义政治的重要内容。民族区域自治制度就是在统一的祖国大家庭里，在国家的统一领导下，以少数民族聚居的地区为基础，建立相应的自治机关，设立自治机关，行使自治权，自主地管理本民族、本地区的内部事务，行使当家做主的权利。1941年5月1日，陕甘宁边区政府颁布了《陕甘宁边区纲领》，其中规定：“依据民族平等原则，实行蒙回民族与汉族在政治经济文化上的平等权利，建立蒙回民族的自治区。”1945年10月23日，中央在关于内蒙工作方针的指示中指出：“对内蒙的基本方针，在目前是实行民族区域自治。”1946年2月18日更明确指出：“根据和平建国纲领要求民族平等自治，但不应提出独立自治口号。”在这一方针指导下，1947年5月1日，党领导建立了我国第一个省一级的内蒙古自治区，为以后在其他民族地区实行民族区域自治指明了方向，积累了宝贵的经验。1949年《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》中明确规定：“各少数民族聚居的地区，实行民族区域自治，按照民族聚居的人口多少和区域大小，分别建立各种民族自治机关。”后来，民族区域自治又明确载入历次宪法，成为我国的一项重要政治制度。民族自治地方的自治机关是自治区、自治州、自治县的人民代表大会和人民政府。民族自治地方的自治机关的组成和工作，根据宪法和法律，由民族自治地方的自治条例或者单行条例规定。民族自治地方的自治机关实行人民代表大会制。民族自治地方的人民政府对本级人民代表大会和上一级国家行政机关负责并报告工作，在本级人民代表大会闭会期间，对本级人民代表大会常务委员会负责并报告工作。各民族自治地方的人民政府都是国务院统一领导下的国家行政机关，都服从国务院。民族自治地方自治机关实行自治区主席、自治州州长、自治县县长负责制，分别主持本级人民政府的工作。截止到2013年，中国共计有5个自治区。这种以少数民族聚居的地方为基础，建立相应的自治机关，行使自治权，由少数民族自己当家作主，管理本民族内部的地方事务．民族自治区享有宪法、民族区域自治法和其他法律规定的民族自治权
- Bohol /bɔːhɔːl/ is a 1st provincial income class island province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, consisting of the island itself and 75 minor surrounding islands. Its capital is Tagbilaran. 保和省（或稱薄荷省）（Bohol）是菲律賓的一個島嶼省份，位於中米沙鄢政區，首府為塔比拉蘭市（Tagbilaran City）。薄荷省所在的薄荷島是菲律賓第10大島，位於米沙鄢群島的中心位置。島上有著名的巧克力山。島民喜歡稱本島為薄荷共和國。這裡以前短暫獨立。
Home rule is government of a colony, dependent country, or region by its own citizens. It is thus the power of a constituent part (administrative division) of a state to exercise such of the state's powers of governance within its own administrative area that have been decentralized to it by the central government. In the British Isles, it traditionally referred to self-government, devolution or independence of its constituent nations—initially Ireland, and later Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. In the United States and other countries organised as federations of states, the term usually refers to the process and mechanisms of self-government as exercised by municipalities, counties, or other units of local government at the level below that of a federal state (e.g., US state, in which context see special legislation). It can also refer to the similar system under which Greenland and the Faroe Islands are associated with Denmark. Home rule is not, however, comparable with federalism. Whereas states in a federal system of government (e.g., Canada, Federal Republic of Germany, Switzerland, Brazil, Ethiopia and the United States) have a guaranteed constitutional existence, a devolved home rule system of government is created by ordinary legislation and can be reformed, or even abolished, by repeal or amendment of that ordinary legislation. A legislature may, for example, create home rule for an administrative division, such as a province, a county, or a department, so that a local county council, county commission, parish council, or Board of supervisors may have jurisdiction over its unincorporated areas, including important issues like zoning. Without this, the division is simply an extension of the higher government. The legislature can also establish or eliminate municipal corporations, which have home rule within town or city limits through the city council. The higher government could also abolish counties/townships, redefine their boundaries, or dissolve their home-rule governments, according to the relevant laws.
- John Forrest Dillon (December 25, 1831 – May 6, 1914) was an American jurist who served on federal and Iowa state courts. He authored a highly influential treatise on the power of states over municipal governments. The theory of state preeminence over local governments was expressed as Dillon's Rule in an 1868 case: "Municipal corporations owe their origin to, and derive their powers and rights wholly from, the legislature. It breathes into them the breath of life, without which they cannot exist. As it creates, so may it destroy. If it may destroy, it may abridge and control".[2] By contrast, the Cooley Doctrine, or the doctrine of home rule, expressed the theory of an inherent right to local self-determination. In a concurring opinion, Michigan Supreme Court Judge Thomas M. Cooley in 1871 stated, "local government is a matter of absolute right; and the state cannot take it away". In Municipal Corporations (1872), Dillon explained that in contrast to the powers of states, which are unlimited but for express restrictions under the state or federal constitution, municipalities only have the powers that are expressly granted to them.[4] This formulation of the scope of municipal power came to be known as "Dillon's Rule." It holds that municipal governments have only the powers expressly granted to them by the state legislature, those powers necessarily implied by the express powers, and those that are essential and indispensable to the municipality's existence and functioning. Further, the powers expressly granted to the municipality should be narrowly construed, and any ambiguities in the legislative grant of power should be resolved against the municipality. However, when the state has not specifically directed the method by which the municipality may implement its granted power, the municipality has the discretion to choose the method so long as its choice is reasonable.
- In a contrasting legal theorem to that of Dillon's Rule (which posits that towns and cities have no independent authority except as explicitly or implicitly granted by a state legislature) the Cooley Doctrine proposed a legal theory of an inherent but constitutionally-permitted right to local self-determination. In a concurring opinion, Cooley, J., wrote "local government is [a] matter of absolute right; and the state cannot [as to the case referenced in the main opinion, People v. Hurlbut] take it away."
- examples - seward, alaska
- usa
- Hell is an unincorporated community in Putnam Township, Livingston County, in the U.S. state of Michigan. Hell developed around a sawmill, gristmill, distillery and tavern. All four were operated by George Reeves, who moved to the area in the 1830s from the Catskill Mountainsin New York. He purchased a sawmill on what is now known as Hell Creek in 1841. In addition to the sawmill, Reeves purchased 1,000 acres (400 ha) of land surrounding the mill. Reeves then built a gristmill on Hell Creek which was powered by water that was impounded by a small dam across the creek. Farmers in the area were quite successful in growing wheat and had an abundance of grain. Reeves opened a distillery to process the excess grain into whiskey. Reeves also opened a general store/tavern on his property.
- economist 13apr19 "lessons from hell"
- Sautee Nacoochee (or Sautee-Nacoochee) is an unincorporated community and census-designated place in White County, Georgia, United States
- stonewall, texas, birthplace of lyndon johnson
印第安保留地（英語：Indian reservation）或國內屬國（英語：Domestic dependent nation） Indian reservation is a legal designation for an area of land managed by a federally recognized Native American tribe under the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs rather than the state governments of the United States in which they are physically located. Each of the 326[1] Indian reservations in the United States is associated with a particular Native American nation. Some of the country's 574[3] federally recognized tribes have more than one reservation, while some share reservations, and others have no reservations at all. In addition, because of past land allotments, leading to some sales to non–Native Americans, some reservations are severely fragmented, with each piece of tribal, individual, and privately held land being a separate enclave. This jumble of private and public real estate creates significant administrative, political, and legal difficulties.The collective geographical area of all reservations is 56,200,000 acres (22,700,000 ha; 87,800 sq mi; 227,000 km2),[1] approximately the size of Idaho. While most reservations are small compared to U.S. states, there are 12 Indian reservations larger than the state of Rhode Island. The largest reservation, the Navajo Nation Reservation, is similar in size to West Virginia. Reservations are unevenly distributed throughout the country; the majority are west of the Mississippi River and occupy lands that were first reserved by treaty or "granted" from the public domain.Because tribes possess tribal sovereignty, even though it is limited, laws on tribal lands vary from those of the surrounding area.[6] These laws can permit legal casinos on reservations, for example, which attract tourists. The tribal council, not the local government or the United States federal government, often has jurisdiction over reservations. Different reservations have different systems of government, which may or may not replicate the forms of government found outside the reservation. Most Native American reservations were established by the federal government; a limited number, mainly in the East, owe their origin to state recognition.The name "reservation" comes from the conception of the Native American tribes as independent sovereigns at the time the U.S. Constitution was ratified. Thus, the early peace treaties (often signed under conditions of duress or fraud) in which Native American tribes surrendered large portions of land to the U.S. also designated parcels which the tribes, as sovereigns, "reserved" to themselves, and those parcels came to be called "reservations".[8][9] The term remained in use even after the federal government began to forcibly relocate tribes to parcels of land to which they had no historical connection.Today a majority of Native Americans and Alaska Natives live somewhere other than the reservations, often in larger western cities such as Phoenix and Los Angeles.[10][11] In 2012, there were over 2.5 million Native Americans, with about 1 million living on reservations.
no/unclear/confused nationality
- Baarle is a town inside Netherlands that is mostly Belgian but inside the Belgian parts there are smaller pieces that belong to Netherlands.This Guy has the border entering his house through the front door.https://www.quora.com/Where-are-some-of-the-weirdest-places-in-Europe- Pheasant Island is situated in a river that marks the border between France and Spain. Since they could not decide who it belonged to, they decided to share it and now it changes nationality every sixth months.https://www.quora.com/Where-are-some-of-the-weirdest-places-in-Europe
One country two systems/devolution
- british isles
- places like HK hkej 6dec14 a22 Aland Islands (hkej 2&3 may17 shum article), Goa, Sinujiu, puerto rico, cook islands
- case of Greater London Authority hkej 9dec14 a17
- The Federated Malay States (FMS) was a federation of four protected states in the Malay Peninsula—Selangor, Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang—established by the British government in 1895, which lasted until 1946, when they, together with two of the former Straits Settlements (Malacca and Penang) and the Unfederated Malay States, formed the Malayan Union. Two years later, the Union became the Federation of Malaya and finally Malaysia in 1963 with the inclusion of North Borneo(present-day Sabah), Sarawak and Singapore.The United Kingdom was responsible for foreign affairs and defence of the federation, whilst the states continued to be responsible for their domestic policies. Even so, the British Resident General would give advice on domestic issues, and the states were bound by treaty to follow that advice. The federation had Kuala Lumpur, which was then part of Selangor, as its capital. The first FMS Resident-General was Frank Swettenham.The federation, along with the other Malay states and British possessions of the peninsula, was overrun and occupied by the Japanese during World War II. After the liberation of Malaya following the Japanese surrender, the federation was not restored, but the federal form of government was retained as the principal model for consolidating the separate States as an independent Federation of Malaya and the Federation's later evolution into Malaysia.
- case of sarawak hkej 23feb16 a18
- erbil hkej 18dec18 shum article
- dutch caribbean
Nations declaring independence
- http://www.slate.com/blogs/behold/2014/12/08/the_madison_museum_of_contemporary_art_presents_narayn_mahon_lands_in_limbo.html?wpsrc=fol_tw
Regions fighting for independence
- http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/map-european-regions-fighting-for-independence-vote-europe-countries-state-a7979051.html movements across Europe that could end up physically separating entire nations
- biafra
Independence backed by foreign government
- http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20161002/00192_001.html 近日一場國 際分離勢力大會在俄羅斯舉行，但參加這次大會的大多是歐美分離勢力。這是繼去年之後，俄國第二次舉行類似活動。俄政府支持召開這次會議的一個重要目的，就 是要支持來自歐美的分離主義勢力，以在歐美國家內部製造麻煩。在會議上，來自美國加州的代表高調宣揚加州如何「擺脫作為一個州的枷鎖」，來自美國德州的代 表則聲稱「美國的外交政策不能反映德州的意志」。
A unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) is a formal process leading to the establishment of a new state by a subnational entity which declares itself independent and sovereign without a formal agreement with the national state from which it is seceding. The term was first used when Rhodesia declared independence in 1965 from the United Kingdom (UK) without an agreement with the UK. Prominent examples of a unilateral declaration of independence other than Rhodesia's UDI in 1965 include that of the United States in 1776,[2] the Irish Declaration of Independence of 1919 by a revolutionary parliament, Katanga's declaration of independence by Moise Tshombe in July 1960, the attempted secession of Biafra from Nigeria in 1967, the Bangladeshi declaration of independence from Pakistan in 1970, the (internationally unrecognized) secession of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus from Cyprus in 1983, the Palestinian Declaration of Independence from the Palestinian territories in 1988, and that of the Republic of Kosovo in 2008. During the break up of the Soviet Union throughout 1991, many of its republics declared their independence unilaterally without agreement and were thus not recognised as legitimate by the Soviet central government.
During the breakup of Yugoslavia, the government of the United States asked the governments of Slovenia and Croatia to drop their UDI plans because of the threat of major war erupting in the Balkans because of it, and threatened that it would oppose both countries' UDIs on the basis of the Helsinki Final Act if they did so. However, four days later both Slovenia and Croatia announced their UDIs from Yugoslavia.
- hkej 31oct17 shum article
former and current unrecognised states in africa
- https://c1.staticflickr.com/1/969/41685177642_6ba35fd2d6_k.jpg
One country two systems/devolution
- british isles
- a referendum in 1979 for devolution was narrowly won in scotland but failed to be endorsed by the total electorate
- a similar referendum was overwhelmingly defeated in wales
- the devolved system of government that existed in northern ireland was suspended by direct rule from westminister in 1972
- places like HK hkej 6dec14 a22 Aland Islands (hkej 2&3 may17 shum article), Goa, Sinujiu, puerto rico, cook islands
- case of Greater London Authority hkej 9dec14 a17
- The Federated Malay States (FMS) was a federation of four protected states in the Malay Peninsula—Selangor, Perak, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang—established by the British government in 1895, which lasted until 1946, when they, together with two of the former Straits Settlements (Malacca and Penang) and the Unfederated Malay States, formed the Malayan Union. Two years later, the Union became the Federation of Malaya and finally Malaysia in 1963 with the inclusion of North Borneo(present-day Sabah), Sarawak and Singapore.The United Kingdom was responsible for foreign affairs and defence of the federation, whilst the states continued to be responsible for their domestic policies. Even so, the British Resident General would give advice on domestic issues, and the states were bound by treaty to follow that advice. The federation had Kuala Lumpur, which was then part of Selangor, as its capital. The first FMS Resident-General was Frank Swettenham.The federation, along with the other Malay states and British possessions of the peninsula, was overrun and occupied by the Japanese during World War II. After the liberation of Malaya following the Japanese surrender, the federation was not restored, but the federal form of government was retained as the principal model for consolidating the separate States as an independent Federation of Malaya and the Federation's later evolution into Malaysia.
- case of sarawak hkej 23feb16 a18
- http://www1.hkej.com/dailynews/article/id/1261305/Council+Negri今 天砂勞越州議會的前身，1867年由當時砂勞越國王布魯克成立，其姪子、二代王查爾斯主持。 當時議會成員由本地部族首領擔任，協助布魯克王室處理國家事務，也是王室鼓勵本地人參與治理的主要途徑。砂勞越主權移交至英國後，Council Negri繼續運作，直至砂勞越加入馬來西亞聯邦，成為今天的州議會。https://simonshen.blog/2016/04/04/砂拉越的白人土王：傳說中的烏托邦？/
- The first legislative assembly in Sarawak was formed during the rule of the White Rajahs. The General Council (Majlis Umum) of the Kingdom of Sarawak was convened on 8 September 1867 by Charles Brooke, the Rajah Muda under the orders of James Brooke, then the Rajah of Sarawak. Its members were chosen from local tribe leaders who were thought to be capable of assisting Brooke in administering the kingdom. The General Council later evolved into theCouncil Negri. The Council Negri first met in Bintulu.[1]It continued to function even after Sarawak was ceded to the British Empire in 1946. Since 1963, when Sarawak joined with Malaya, Singapore and North Borneo (now known as Sabah) to formed the Federation of Malaysia, in line with the federal and state constitutions, members of the Assembly have been elected representatives. The Assembly originally had 48 seats. That expanded to 56 in 1985, to 62 in 1985 and to 71 in 2005. In 2014 the Assembly passed a Bill to take the number of constituencies to 82. It has a greater number of seats than any other state assembly in Malaysia.
- case of saipan
- hkej 10aug17 shum article
- Büsingen am Hochrhein ("Buesingen on the High Rhine"), commonly known as Büsingen, is a German town (7.62 km2 or 2.94 sq mi) entirely surrounded by the Swiss canton of Schaffhausen and, south across the High Rhine, by the Swiss cantons of Zürich and Thurgau. It has a population of about 1,450 inhabitants. Since the early 19th century, the town has been separated from the rest of Germany by a narrow strip of land (at its narrowest, about 700 m wide) containing the Swiss village of Dörflingen. Administratively, Büsingen is part of Germany, forming part of the district of Konstanz, in the Bundesland of Baden-Württemberg, but economically, it forms part of the Swiss customs area, as do the independent principality of Liechtenstein and the Italian town of Campione d'Italia. There are no border controls between Switzerland and Büsingen or the rest of Germany since Switzerland joined the Schengen Area in 2008/09.According to article 31 ZK, Büsingen is not part of the customs territory of the European Union. Although Büsingen is otherwise a German town, because it belongs to the Swiss customs territory, EU economic regulations (other than those covered by Swiss–EU treaties) do not apply.Büsingen is the only German town in which people mostly pay with Swiss francs, although technically the euro is legal tender as throughout Germany. Until the late 1980s, the Deutsche Mark was not accepted in Büsingen. Even the Büsingen post office only accepted Swiss francs for paying for German stamps. An amendment forced the Büsingen people to accept the Deutsche Mark and later the euro. But today, Swiss francs are still more popular, since most of the inhabitants work in Switzerland and are paid in Swiss francs.
- Long under Austrian control, the town became part of the German kingdom of Württemberg under the 1805 Peace of Pressburg agreement during the Napoleonic Wars. In 1918 after the First World War, a referendum was held in Büsingen in which 96% of voters chose to become part of Switzerland. However, it never happened as Switzerland could not offer anything suitable in exchange, and consequently Büsingen has remained an exclave of Germany ever since. Later attempts were rejected by Switzerland. The exclave of Büsingen was formally defined in 1967 through negotiations between West Germany and Switzerland. At the same time, the West German exclave of Verenahof, consisting of just three houses and fewer than a dozen people, became part of Switzerland. hkej 7jul17 shum article
- hkej 7jul16 shum article
- deng xiaoping's conception- 周南回顾邓小平“一国两制”构想http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20170702/PDF/b4_screen.pdf在 谈判过程中，英方还想在“主权换治权”问题上纠缠，并继续打“经济牌”，幻想用这种方式迫使中方让步。但中方不为所动，使英方不得不逐步退却。柯利达在回 忆录中写道：“不得不承认，看来中国领导人在维护国家主权与保持香港繁荣两者之间发生冲突时，宁可牺牲暂时的经济利益，也不会在国家主权问题上让步。
- 邓六条为於1983年6月26日，时任中国共产党中央顾问委员会主任的邓小平会见美国西东大学教授杨力宇时，所提出的解决台湾问题的六条方针。此次谈话的要点收入《邓小平文选》第三卷，题为《中国大陆和台湾和平统一的设想》。其方针思想大致与一国两制构想相同。1979年至1982年间，杨力宇曾11次访问中国大陆。1983年3月，美国旧金山亚洲问题研究协会年会上，杨力宇将“中国统一之展望”列为讨论专题之一。会上，被视为蒋经国总统代表的丘宏达提出了被认为代表中华民国方面的和谈条件。邓小平认为他的误解太深，愿意当面澄清。6月26日的会谈中，邓小平的陪同人员有中共中央政治局委员、中央军委副主席兼秘书长杨尚昆（负责对台工作），中共中央书记处书记、中央宣传部部长邓力群，中央对台工作领导小组副组长汪锋，中国社会科学院院长马洪等人。1987年，蒋经国的一国良制则被视为是对1983年一国两制的回应。
- 杨力宇是今江西省井冈山市柏露乡长富桥村人。父亲杨祖饴早年曾留学日本，母亲是日本人，解放后病逝于家乡。杨力宇于1958年毕业于国立台湾大学，1961年前往美国留学，1970年获斯坦福大学博士学位，先后曾在旧金山州立大学及温索普州立学院任教，并担任亚洲学系主任，现任新泽西州西东大学亚洲学系教授，并自1984年起兼任系主任。2009年4月，与前全美台湾同乡联谊会总会长林映君受聘为台湾的大纽约地区侨务委员。著有《力挽狂澜：连宋稳健务实对抗扁李偏激冒进》、《有容乃大：连战从学者到阁揆之路》、《书生论政》、《打造新台湾、开创新纪元：连战的奉献与承诺》、《海峡两岸关系文集》等，是美国的中国问题研究专家，美国著名汉学家。
- dutch caribbean
- 庫拉索Curaçao
- became wto observer in mar2020
Nations declaring independence
- http://www.slate.com/blogs/behold/2014/12/08/the_madison_museum_of_contemporary_art_presents_narayn_mahon_lands_in_limbo.html?wpsrc=fol_tw
Regions fighting for independence
- http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/map-european-regions-fighting-for-independence-vote-europe-countries-state-a7979051.html movements across Europe that could end up physically separating entire nations
- biafra
- 尼日利亞東南部的比亞法拉（Biafra）。比亞法拉曾在五十年前單方面獨立建國，引起一場極慘烈的內戰，如今國內外形勢丕變，又重現獨立呼聲。尼日利亞雖然是非洲大國，但內部一直不穩定，國境包含了不同種族、宗教、利益集團，可以說從來沒有真正統一過。國內第三大部族伊博族（Igbo）聚居於東南部、幾內亞灣沿岸，即所謂「比亞法拉地區」，在殖民時期，教育水平和西化程度都偏高；最大部族、信奉伊斯蘭教的豪薩族（Hausa）居於北部內陸地帶，立國時的文化水平則偏低。1960年尼日利亞獨立，殖民時代已存在的族群矛盾進一步變得尖銳，代表上述族群利益的軍人先後發動政變和反政變，導致數千名伊博人喪生之餘，更把部份伊博人區域的油田嘛，劃入敵對族群控制區。伊博人乾脆在聚居範圍建立「比亞法拉共和國」，得到法國大力支持，但美蘇英都支持中央政府，最終比亞法拉戰敗，立國三年就重新併入尼日利亞，估計內戰期間，有一百萬人死於飢荒。戰爭結束後，尼日利亞提出「no victor, no vanquished」，尋求全國大和解。不過在伊博族眼中，豪薩族言行不一，伊博族政治人物始終被排擠，無從躋身權力核心。尼日利亞政府又透過設立「尼日利亞國家石油公司」（NNOC），大幅增加聯邦政府對石油利潤的分成比例，造成大量貪腐，豪薩族成了既得利益族群。事實上，整片幾內亞灣的巨量油田中，鄰國喀麥隆十佔其一，尼日利亞其它地區十佔其三，比亞法拉卻十佔其六，伊博人自然認定天然資源被異族掠去，又覺得本族一直被尼日利亞政府「懲罰」和「打壓」，指責當局拒絕支援地方建設，造成失業率高企，民生凋敝。在這樣的背景下，比亞法拉的國號和國旗逐漸重返現實世界，被各個新興分離主義組織高調沿用。「比亞法拉共和國2.0」運動持續升溫，同時還有國際背景：一是國際石油價格年前急挫，二是極端伊斯蘭恐怖組織「博科聖地」活躍度大增，都令伊博族覺得政府沒有能力保護自己。然而在現實層面，伊博人仍然記得敵我懸殊的實力，以及戰爭期間的慘烈傷亡，都不再願意以流血方式抗爭。所以分離組織亦不斷強調「非暴力」立場，提出的都是和平獨立路線圖，包括獨立公投。https://simonshen.blog/2018/01/10/還記得「比亞法拉共和國」嗎？/
Independence backed by foreign government
- http://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20161002/00192_001.html 近日一場國 際分離勢力大會在俄羅斯舉行，但參加這次大會的大多是歐美分離勢力。這是繼去年之後，俄國第二次舉行類似活動。俄政府支持召開這次會議的一個重要目的，就 是要支持來自歐美的分離主義勢力，以在歐美國家內部製造麻煩。在會議上，來自美國加州的代表高調宣揚加州如何「擺脫作為一個州的枷鎖」，來自美國德州的代 表則聲稱「美國的外交政策不能反映德州的意志」。
A unilateral declaration of independence (UDI) is a formal process leading to the establishment of a new state by a subnational entity which declares itself independent and sovereign without a formal agreement with the national state from which it is seceding. The term was first used when Rhodesia declared independence in 1965 from the United Kingdom (UK) without an agreement with the UK. Prominent examples of a unilateral declaration of independence other than Rhodesia's UDI in 1965 include that of the United States in 1776,[2] the Irish Declaration of Independence of 1919 by a revolutionary parliament, Katanga's declaration of independence by Moise Tshombe in July 1960, the attempted secession of Biafra from Nigeria in 1967, the Bangladeshi declaration of independence from Pakistan in 1970, the (internationally unrecognized) secession of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus from Cyprus in 1983, the Palestinian Declaration of Independence from the Palestinian territories in 1988, and that of the Republic of Kosovo in 2008. During the break up of the Soviet Union throughout 1991, many of its republics declared their independence unilaterally without agreement and were thus not recognised as legitimate by the Soviet central government.
During the breakup of Yugoslavia, the government of the United States asked the governments of Slovenia and Croatia to drop their UDI plans because of the threat of major war erupting in the Balkans because of it, and threatened that it would oppose both countries' UDIs on the basis of the Helsinki Final Act if they did so. However, four days later both Slovenia and Croatia announced their UDIs from Yugoslavia.
- hkej 31oct17 shum article
former and current unrecognised states in africa
- https://c1.staticflickr.com/1/969/41685177642_6ba35fd2d6_k.jpg
- 阿扎瓦德（图阿雷格语：ⴰⵣⴰⵓⴷ[1]、法語：État indépendant de l’Azawad，又作Azaouad）is the name given to northern Mali by Tuareg rebels, as well as a former short-lived unrecognised state.
colonised economy voting not to be independent
- https://www.quora.com/Is-there-a-colony-in-modern-history-where-the-citizens-voted-not-to-become-independent
- 坦干伊加Tanganyika /ˌtæŋɡənˈjiːkə/ was a sovereign state, comprising the mainland part of present-day Tanzania, that existed from 1961 until 1964. It first gained independence from the United Kingdom on 9 December 1961 as a state headed by Queen Elizabeth II before becoming a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations exactly a year later. After signing the Articles of Union on 22 April 1964 and passing an Act of Union on 25 April, Tanganyika officially joined with the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar on Union Day, 26 April 1964.[1] The new state changed its name to the United Republic of Tanzania within a year.
- ******Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave situated within the Swiss canton of Ticino, about 23 kilometres from Italy. Since the 1860s until this week, this small 2000-resident town was part of Switzerland's customs territory, but following a request from Rome, the EU imposed the return of Campione to Italy on January 1st of this year.According to press reports, this change worries the locals accustomed to living as if they were Swiss citizens. They enjoyed perks like the telephone service supplied by Swisscom and the Swiss VAT rate which, at 7.7 percent, is much lower than Italy's 22 percent.They also used Swiss currency, drove with Swiss licence plates, and had their rubbish collected and water purified by the Swiss.Concerned about the impact the return to Italy would have on Campione's economy and lifestyle, a citizens' committee had sent to Rome a petition protesting the move. However, it did not succeed.Residents also began collecting signatures a year ago for a petition to join Switzerland – again, to no avail.An interesting fact about the town is that its original name was simply Campione. Prime Minister Benito Mussolini added the suffix d'Italia in the 1930s to re-affirm the exclave's allegiance to its motherland.https://www.thelocal.ch/20200103/arrivederci-campione-italian-exclave-in-switzerland-returns-to-its-homeland
separatist movements
- The South is My Country (Portuguese: O Sul é o Meu País) is a separatist movement that claims the independence of Brazil's South Region, formed by the states of Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. During the Empire of Brazil, several separatist movements existed in the region. Among the main reasons for secession, the groups complained about high taxation of dry meat, the main export product of the region during the time. Armed conflict broke out in the Ragamuffin War,[1] when independence was proclaimed. During the transition to the republic, federalist groups formed in the region, culminating in the Federalist Revolution. In the context of the Brazilian República Velha (Old Republic), the so-called coffee with milk politics were in practice, favoring the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, the largest in terms of population and wealth - producers of coffee and dairy products, respectively. Rio Grande do Sul, among other states, joined the political opposition, forming the Liberal Alliance (Portuguese: Aliança Liberal) and launched Getúlio Vargas as candidate for president, who lost to Júlio Prestes. Vargas had almost 100% of the votes in Rio Grande do Sul. The Liberal Alliance refused to accept the results of the election, claiming that Prestes' victory was fraudulent. This led to a coup d'état known as Revolution of 1930, which made Getulio Vargas the new president, ending the Old Republic.[4] Since then, only three presidents from the south region (Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina) came to power democratically: Getúlio Vargas, João Goulart and Dilma Rousseff.
case of cospaia
- Cospaia was a small republic in Italy, located in northern Umbria, independent from 1440 to 1826. It unexpectedly gained independence in 1440 after Pope Eugene IV, embroiled in a struggle with the Council of Basel, made a sale of territory to the Republic of Florence. By error, a small strip of land went unmentioned in the sale treaty and its inhabitants promptly declared themselves independent. An early centre in Italy for tobacco production, Cospaia eventually evolved into a commerce haven which, in 1826, was divided between Tuscany and the Papal States. Each citizen was awarded a silver coin by the church to help convince them to continue farming tobacco. Today, Cospaia is a hamlet (frazione) of the comune of San Giustino in the Province of Perugia.
veneto
- The Venetian independence referendum of 2014 was an unofficial, non-binding, online and privately organised poll held among residents of Veneto, one of the 20 regions of Italy, 16–21 March 2014. The vote, known also as the "digital plebiscite" or "Plebiscito.eu", was promoted by Plebiscite 2013, a Venetian nationalist organisation led by Gianluca Busato.
- Venice authorities have called on its citizens to decide whether they want to split their municipality in two – on one side the historic city and islands which are famously built on stilts on the lagoon, and on the other the inland and more residential ‘frazioni’ known as Mestre. It’s a decision that beggars belief at a time when referendums across Europe, approved or attempted, seem to be sowing more divisions than any actual prospect of civil neighbourliness.But the case for a referendum in Venice isn’t one based on cultural identity or fear of foreign government; instead its focal points are mass tourism, depopulation and urban decay. On Wednesday September 25 Veneto Region’s president Luca Zaia announced that the referendum was legitimate and could go ahead in two months, even though he did not have the support of Venice mayor Luigi Brugnaro, who urged all residents not to take part in “yet another referendum on separation”.Strangely enough, there have been previous calls in recent years for Venice to separate itself from Italy altogether and become its own independent country (it was already its own city-state for 1,000 years), but this referendum call is more pragmatic and moderate.“It’s the only solution possible for effectively governing these distinct cities,” We Are Here Venice, a non-profit association that addresses the municipality’s challenges, describes on its website.“Venice and Mestre are two completely different realities that were united during fascism in 1926 and whose history and issues are entirely different.”Whereas tourism in old Venice has ballooned to the current 20 million annual visitors it receives today, its other six boroughs on the mainland are largely post-industrial, overpopulated areas that receive little attention and investment by comparison.https://www.thelocal.it/20190927/venice-to-vote-on-whether-to-split-city-in-half
crete vs cyprus
- hkej 11dec17 shum article
卡宾达省Cabinda (formerly called Portuguese Congo, Kongo: Kabinda) is an exclave and province of Angola, a status that has been disputed by several political organizations in the territory. The capital city is also called Cabinda, known locally as Tchiowa, Tsiowa or Kiowa.[3] The province is divided into four municipalities—Belize, Buco-Zau, Cabinda and Cacongo.Modern Cabinda is the result of a fusion of three kingdoms: N'Goyo, Loango and Kakongo. It has an area of 7,290 km2 (2,810 sq mi) and a population of 716,076 at the 2014 census; the latest official estimate (as at mid 2019) is 824,143. According to 1988 United States government statistics, the total population of the province was 147,200, with a near even split between rural and urban populations.[4] At one point an estimated one third of Cabindans were refugees living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo;[5] however, after the 2007 peace agreement, refugees started returning to their homes.Cabinda is separated from the rest of Angola by a narrow strip of territory belonging to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which bounds the province on the south and the east. Cabinda is bounded on the north by the Republic of the Congo, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Adjacent to the coast are some of the largest offshore oil fields in the world.[7] Petroleum exploration began in 1954 with the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, when the territory was under Portuguese rule.Cabinda also produces hardwoods, coffee, cacao, rubber, and palm oil products; however, petroleum production accounts for most of Cabinda's domestic product. Cabinda produces 700,000 barrels (110,000 m3) of crude oil per day.[when?] Cabinda Oil is associated with Sonangol, Agip Angola Lda (41%), Chevron (39.2%), Total (10%) and Eni (9.8%).In 1885, the Treaty of Simulambuco established Cabinda as a protectorate of the Portuguese Empire, and Cabindan independence movements consider the occupation of the territory by Angola illegal. While the Angolan Civil War largely ended in 2002, an armed struggle persists in the exclave of Cabinda.[citation needed] Some of the factions have proclaimed an independent Republic of Cabinda, with offices in Paris.
Countries that don't exist
- http://edition.cnn.com/2016/02/12/travel/countries-that-dont-exist/index.html?sr=fbcnni021216countries-that-dont-exist1014AMStoryGalLink&linkId=21211288
houses on ocean
- 美國一名男子與其泰裔女友，因極度嚮往自由，早前在泰國布吉島以南約廿二公里的海域，建造了一間海上屋。惟此舉被泰國軍方視為侵犯主權及分裂國土，二人有可能被判死刑。男子周四（18日）透過電郵發聲，形容事件荒謬，稱軍方正追殺他們，現時與女友藏身在泰國一個安全地方。海軍指，他們的行為挑戰國家主權，又指二人建屋前曾向當局申請，但不獲批准；強調若海上屋漂浮會對船隻造成威脅，因為該處是航道。埃爾托斯基曾經為一名軟件工程師，其後成為比特幣投資者，他與女友為「海上家園」運動的支持者，同時亦是「海洋建築商」（Ocean Builders）的成員，主張在國際水域建屋，不受任何國家管轄。不過「海洋建築商」發聲明稱，該間海上屋並非埃爾托斯基二人興建，他們只是租客，居住了數周，同時記錄期間的海上生活。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190420/00180_009.html
usa
- In the United States, an independent city is a city that is not in the territory of any county or counties with exceptions noted below. Of the 41 independent U.S. cities,[1] 38 are in Virginia, whose state constitution makes them a special case. The three independent cities outside Virginia are Baltimore, Maryland; St. Louis, Missouri; and Carson City, Nevada.
Azawagh (Azawaɣ) is the generic Tuareg Berber name of all Tuareg Berber vast areas especially the northern half of Mali and northern and western Niger. Its independence was declared unilaterally by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA) in 2012, after a Tuareg rebellion drove the Malian Army from the region. It rejoined Mali in February 2013, after less than a year of unrecognized independence.Azawad, as claimed by the MNLA, comprises the Malian regions of Timbuktu, Kidal, Gao, as well as a part of Mopti region,[2] encompassing about 60 percent of Mali's total land area. Azawad borders Burkina Faso to the south, Mauritania to the west and northwest, Algeria to the north and northeast, and Niger to the east and southeast, with undisputed Mali to its southwest. It straddles a portion of the Sahara and the Sahelian zone. Gao is its largest city and served as the temporary capital,[3] while Timbuktu is the second-largest city, and was intended to be the capital by the independence forces.
colonised economy voting not to be independent
- https://www.quora.com/Is-there-a-colony-in-modern-history-where-the-citizens-voted-not-to-become-independent
- 坦干伊加Tanganyika /ˌtæŋɡənˈjiːkə/ was a sovereign state, comprising the mainland part of present-day Tanzania, that existed from 1961 until 1964. It first gained independence from the United Kingdom on 9 December 1961 as a state headed by Queen Elizabeth II before becoming a republic within the Commonwealth of Nations exactly a year later. After signing the Articles of Union on 22 April 1964 and passing an Act of Union on 25 April, Tanganyika officially joined with the People's Republic of Zanzibar and Pemba to form the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar on Union Day, 26 April 1964.[1] The new state changed its name to the United Republic of Tanzania within a year.
- https://www.quora.com/Are-there-any-countries-that-liked-British-rule-and-weren-t-happy-when-they-had-to-get-independence When Jamaica gained its independence in 1962, originally it was anticipated that the Cayman Islands would be part of the new country. However, not too many Caymanians were keen on this idea, and so after various behind the scenes diplomatic negotiations, Jamaica became independent sans Cayman, and Cayman remained behind under British rule as new, separately administered British Overseas Territory.
Also in the Caribbean: in 1967 the island of Anguilla was lumped into a Federation with the newly independent St Kitts & Nevis. The Anguillans were pretty unhappy about this, and they duly ejected the St Kitts police and declared themselves to be an independent republic. The British then sent the military in to quell the ‘uprising’ in 1969 (under the highly questionable name of “Operation Sheepskin”), but to their surprise the British paratroopers were met by Anguillans waving British flags and greeting them as ‘liberators’. In one of the shortest and happiest invasions in history, by lunchtime the British troops had stripped off and were happily swimming at the beach with their newfound friends.
an ethnic community in a neighbouring state- ******Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave situated within the Swiss canton of Ticino, about 23 kilometres from Italy. Since the 1860s until this week, this small 2000-resident town was part of Switzerland's customs territory, but following a request from Rome, the EU imposed the return of Campione to Italy on January 1st of this year.According to press reports, this change worries the locals accustomed to living as if they were Swiss citizens. They enjoyed perks like the telephone service supplied by Swisscom and the Swiss VAT rate which, at 7.7 percent, is much lower than Italy's 22 percent.They also used Swiss currency, drove with Swiss licence plates, and had their rubbish collected and water purified by the Swiss.Concerned about the impact the return to Italy would have on Campione's economy and lifestyle, a citizens' committee had sent to Rome a petition protesting the move. However, it did not succeed.Residents also began collecting signatures a year ago for a petition to join Switzerland – again, to no avail.An interesting fact about the town is that its original name was simply Campione. Prime Minister Benito Mussolini added the suffix d'Italia in the 1930s to re-affirm the exclave's allegiance to its motherland.https://www.thelocal.ch/20200103/arrivederci-campione-italian-exclave-in-switzerland-returns-to-its-homeland
- https://kobaltlaw.co.uk/law/campione-ditalia-italian-tax-haven-heart-switzerland-smart-high-net-worth-individuals-choosing-italy-monaco-saving-millions/
- https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-10-15/swiss-talk-of-annexing-italy-s-former-cia-spy-nest-roils-rome
- Campione d’Italia, an exclave of Italy within Switzerland. With fewer than 2,000 residents, the exclave results from a territorial adjustment in the 16th century. Like similar geopolitical oddities, Campione has a colourful past. Its casino, owned by the local government, was founded in 1917, reputedly to help tease intelligence out of off-duty diplomats in the first world war. Among those who later found it convenient to establish themselves in Campione was Howard Marks, one of the world’s biggest cannabis-smugglers.https://www.economist.com/europe/2020/01/02/a-tiny-italian-exclave-unwillingly-joins-the-eus-customs-union
Visitors coming from Switzerland encounter a grandiose arch marking the frontier. Yet “until now, it was as if Campione were part of Switzerland,” says Alessandro Alfieri, a senator for Lombardy, the Italian region to which the exclave belongs. Campione’s inhabitants have their rubbish collected, their water purified and their telephones supplied by Swiss utilities. They drive on Swiss number-plates. And until this week they were, in effect, part of the Swiss customs area, an arrangement with which they were perfectly happy.
separatist movements
- The South is My Country (Portuguese: O Sul é o Meu País) is a separatist movement that claims the independence of Brazil's South Region, formed by the states of Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. During the Empire of Brazil, several separatist movements existed in the region. Among the main reasons for secession, the groups complained about high taxation of dry meat, the main export product of the region during the time. Armed conflict broke out in the Ragamuffin War,[1] when independence was proclaimed. During the transition to the republic, federalist groups formed in the region, culminating in the Federalist Revolution. In the context of the Brazilian República Velha (Old Republic), the so-called coffee with milk politics were in practice, favoring the states of São Paulo and Minas Gerais, the largest in terms of population and wealth - producers of coffee and dairy products, respectively. Rio Grande do Sul, among other states, joined the political opposition, forming the Liberal Alliance (Portuguese: Aliança Liberal) and launched Getúlio Vargas as candidate for president, who lost to Júlio Prestes. Vargas had almost 100% of the votes in Rio Grande do Sul. The Liberal Alliance refused to accept the results of the election, claiming that Prestes' victory was fraudulent. This led to a coup d'état known as Revolution of 1930, which made Getulio Vargas the new president, ending the Old Republic.[4] Since then, only three presidents from the south region (Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina) came to power democratically: Getúlio Vargas, João Goulart and Dilma Rousseff.
- On 1 October 2016, Plebisul - an unofficial referendum - was held. Voters were asked if they wanted to secede from Brazil, forming a new country with the three states.
- hkej 14dec17 shum article
基礎自治体A municipality is usually a single administrative divisionhaving corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. It is to be distinguished (usually) from the county, which may encompass rural territory or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality. A municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latinmunicipalis. The English word municipality derives from the Latin social contract municipium (derived from a word meaning "duty holders"), referring to the Latin communities that supplied Rome with troops in exchange for their own incorporation into the Roman state (granting Roman citizenship to the inhabitants) while permitting the communities to retain their own local governments (a limited autonomy). A municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, to a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The territory over which a municipality has jurisdiction may encompass
- only one populated place such as a city, town, or village
- several of such places (e.g., early jurisdictions in the U.S. state of New Jersey (1798–1899) as townships governing several villages, Municipalities of Mexico, Municipalities of Colombia)
- only parts of such places, sometimes boroughs of a city such as the 34 municipalities of Santiago, Chile.
case of cospaia
- Cospaia was a small republic in Italy, located in northern Umbria, independent from 1440 to 1826. It unexpectedly gained independence in 1440 after Pope Eugene IV, embroiled in a struggle with the Council of Basel, made a sale of territory to the Republic of Florence. By error, a small strip of land went unmentioned in the sale treaty and its inhabitants promptly declared themselves independent. An early centre in Italy for tobacco production, Cospaia eventually evolved into a commerce haven which, in 1826, was divided between Tuscany and the Papal States. Each citizen was awarded a silver coin by the church to help convince them to continue farming tobacco. Today, Cospaia is a hamlet (frazione) of the comune of San Giustino in the Province of Perugia.
veneto
- The Venetian independence referendum of 2014 was an unofficial, non-binding, online and privately organised poll held among residents of Veneto, one of the 20 regions of Italy, 16–21 March 2014. The vote, known also as the "digital plebiscite" or "Plebiscito.eu", was promoted by Plebiscite 2013, a Venetian nationalist organisation led by Gianluca Busato.
- Venice authorities have called on its citizens to decide whether they want to split their municipality in two – on one side the historic city and islands which are famously built on stilts on the lagoon, and on the other the inland and more residential ‘frazioni’ known as Mestre. It’s a decision that beggars belief at a time when referendums across Europe, approved or attempted, seem to be sowing more divisions than any actual prospect of civil neighbourliness.But the case for a referendum in Venice isn’t one based on cultural identity or fear of foreign government; instead its focal points are mass tourism, depopulation and urban decay. On Wednesday September 25 Veneto Region’s president Luca Zaia announced that the referendum was legitimate and could go ahead in two months, even though he did not have the support of Venice mayor Luigi Brugnaro, who urged all residents not to take part in “yet another referendum on separation”.Strangely enough, there have been previous calls in recent years for Venice to separate itself from Italy altogether and become its own independent country (it was already its own city-state for 1,000 years), but this referendum call is more pragmatic and moderate.“It’s the only solution possible for effectively governing these distinct cities,” We Are Here Venice, a non-profit association that addresses the municipality’s challenges, describes on its website.“Venice and Mestre are two completely different realities that were united during fascism in 1926 and whose history and issues are entirely different.”Whereas tourism in old Venice has ballooned to the current 20 million annual visitors it receives today, its other six boroughs on the mainland are largely post-industrial, overpopulated areas that receive little attention and investment by comparison.https://www.thelocal.it/20190927/venice-to-vote-on-whether-to-split-city-in-half
crete vs cyprus
- hkej 11dec17 shum article
卡宾达省Cabinda (formerly called Portuguese Congo, Kongo: Kabinda) is an exclave and province of Angola, a status that has been disputed by several political organizations in the territory. The capital city is also called Cabinda, known locally as Tchiowa, Tsiowa or Kiowa.[3] The province is divided into four municipalities—Belize, Buco-Zau, Cabinda and Cacongo.Modern Cabinda is the result of a fusion of three kingdoms: N'Goyo, Loango and Kakongo. It has an area of 7,290 km2 (2,810 sq mi) and a population of 716,076 at the 2014 census; the latest official estimate (as at mid 2019) is 824,143. According to 1988 United States government statistics, the total population of the province was 147,200, with a near even split between rural and urban populations.[4] At one point an estimated one third of Cabindans were refugees living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo;[5] however, after the 2007 peace agreement, refugees started returning to their homes.Cabinda is separated from the rest of Angola by a narrow strip of territory belonging to the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which bounds the province on the south and the east. Cabinda is bounded on the north by the Republic of the Congo, and on the west by the Atlantic Ocean. Adjacent to the coast are some of the largest offshore oil fields in the world.[7] Petroleum exploration began in 1954 with the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, when the territory was under Portuguese rule.Cabinda also produces hardwoods, coffee, cacao, rubber, and palm oil products; however, petroleum production accounts for most of Cabinda's domestic product. Cabinda produces 700,000 barrels (110,000 m3) of crude oil per day.[when?] Cabinda Oil is associated with Sonangol, Agip Angola Lda (41%), Chevron (39.2%), Total (10%) and Eni (9.8%).In 1885, the Treaty of Simulambuco established Cabinda as a protectorate of the Portuguese Empire, and Cabindan independence movements consider the occupation of the territory by Angola illegal. While the Angolan Civil War largely ended in 2002, an armed struggle persists in the exclave of Cabinda.[citation needed] Some of the factions have proclaimed an independent Republic of Cabinda, with offices in Paris.
Countries that don't exist
- http://edition.cnn.com/2016/02/12/travel/countries-that-dont-exist/index.html?sr=fbcnni021216countries-that-dont-exist1014AMStoryGalLink&linkId=21211288
houses on ocean
- 美國一名男子與其泰裔女友，因極度嚮往自由，早前在泰國布吉島以南約廿二公里的海域，建造了一間海上屋。惟此舉被泰國軍方視為侵犯主權及分裂國土，二人有可能被判死刑。男子周四（18日）透過電郵發聲，形容事件荒謬，稱軍方正追殺他們，現時與女友藏身在泰國一個安全地方。海軍指，他們的行為挑戰國家主權，又指二人建屋前曾向當局申請，但不獲批准；強調若海上屋漂浮會對船隻造成威脅，因為該處是航道。埃爾托斯基曾經為一名軟件工程師，其後成為比特幣投資者，他與女友為「海上家園」運動的支持者，同時亦是「海洋建築商」（Ocean Builders）的成員，主張在國際水域建屋，不受任何國家管轄。不過「海洋建築商」發聲明稱，該間海上屋並非埃爾托斯基二人興建，他們只是租客，居住了數周，同時記錄期間的海上生活。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20190420/00180_009.html
usa
- In the United States, an independent city is a city that is not in the territory of any county or counties with exceptions noted below. Of the 41 independent U.S. cities,[1] 38 are in Virginia, whose state constitution makes them a special case. The three independent cities outside Virginia are Baltimore, Maryland; St. Louis, Missouri; and Carson City, Nevada.
- Williamsburg is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. When Williamsburg received its charter in 1722, it had portions located in both James City and York County. In 1870, the Virginia General Assembly changed the boundaries so that it was entirely within James City County. A year later, a new state constitution created the political entity known as an independent city, which is not located in any county. Williamsburg subsequently incorporated as a city in 1884 and separated from James City County.[8] However, it continues to share several constitutional officers with James City County. The city also operates a joint school division with James City County, under voluntary agreement which leaders revisit at planned intervals. Williamsburg, as an independent city, has operated under the council-manager form of government since 1932.
- Manassas (formerly Manassas Junction)[8] is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. In July 1861, the First Battle of Manassas– also known as the First Battle of Bull Run – was fought nearby, the first major land battle of the American Civil War. Manassas commemorated the 150th anniversary of the First Battle of Manassas from July 21–24, 2011.The Second Battle of Manassas (or the Second Battle of Bull Run) was fought near Manassas from August 28–30, 1862. At that time, Manassas Junction was little more than a railroad crossing, but a strategic one, with rails leading to Richmond, Virginia, Washington, D.C., and the Shenandoah Valley. Despite these two Confederatevictories, Manassas Junction was in Unionhands for most of the war. Following the war, the crossroads grew into the town of Manassas, which was incorporated in 1873. In 1894, Manassas was designated as the county seat of Prince William County, Virginia, replacing Brentsville. In 1975, Manassas was incorporated as an independent city, and as per Virginia law, was separated from Prince William County.
trivial
- economist 3jul2021 "there goes the neighbourhood" case of lubec - what gets lost when national policies cuts everything
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