Tuesday, December 18, 2018

history

what is history
- etymology
  • https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Germanic-languages-not-have-any-word-for-history-before-it-was-introduced-from-French-and-Latin 
- History is the version of past events that people have decided to agree upon, Napoleon Bonaparte once said.
- https://www.quora.com/10-000-years-from-now-do-you-think-society-will-lump-us-in-with-the-Greeks-and-Romans

evidence
- direct
  • paper sources
  • underground sources
- indirect
  • archaeological materials of underground sources
  • anthropological materials of undergound sources
  • ancient historical sources of other countries
definition of civilisation
- A civilization isn’t just any society where people settle down to live in one place. Civilization is characterized by a variety of things, but mostly by cities, which is to say permanent settlements where the population is so large they can’t all make a living by farming. https://www.quora.com/It-is-well-know-that-Sumer-is-considered-the-oldest-civilization-around-4000-BCE-yet-Byblos-is-the-oldest-continuously-populated-city-in-the-world-built-around-7000-to-8000-years-ago-Why-Byblos-isnt-considered-the


oldest/ancient civilisations
- https://www.quora.com/How-is-the-oldest-language-in-the-world-is-Sumerian-when-in-fact-civilization-began-in-Africa
- https://www.quora.com/What-are-the-four-ancient-civilizations
- https://www.quora.com/What-were-the-two-most-ancient-civilizations the Indus valley civilization lies at the very cradle of subsequent civilization that arose in the region of the Indus valley. This civilization flourished in areas extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India.Also known as the Harappan civilization and the Mohenjo-Daro civilization – named after the excavation sites where the remains of the civilization were found, the peak phase of this civilization is said to have lasted from 2600 BC to around 1900 BC. A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban centers in the region. The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. And based on the artifacts found in excavations, it is evident the culture was rather rich in arts and crafts. The origin of Mesopotamia dates back so far back in the, there is no known evidence of any other civilized society before them. The timeline of ancient Mesopotamia is usually held to be around 3300 BC – 750 BC. Mesopotamia is generally credited with being the first place where civilized societies truly began to take shape. It was somewhere around 8000 BC that people found the concept of agriculture and slowly started to domesticate animals for both the purpose of food as well as to assist in agriculture. People had already been creating art much before all that. But all this was part of human culture, not a human civilization. And then the Mesopotamians rose, refining, adding and formalizing all these systems, combining them to form the first civilization. They prospered in the regions of modern-day Iraq – then known as Babylonia, Sumer and Assyria highlands.
- The Aztec were the inheritors of a long continuity of civilization in Mexico going back to the Olmec in the first millennium BC, just as the Spanish themselves were part of a continuity going back to Greeks and Phoenicians settling down and influencing Iberian natives in a similar time frame, but a single unified kingdom of Spain was itself a recent development, with Ferdinand conquering the last of al-Andalus and coming to rule most of the Iberian peninsula only a few years before Columbus sailed.https://www.quora.com/Is-it-true-that-Oxford-University-was-founded-before-Aztec-civilization-began
- https://www.quora.com/Which-ancient-civilizations-are-considered-to-be-pristine-and-not-derivative-of-previous-civilizations There are currently believed to be six pristine civilizations, which is to say societies where complex social hierarchies and urban living were independently invented. Those are, in approximate order of appearance:
  • Mesopotamia and Caral (on the coast of Peru)
  • Egypt and Harappan (on the Indus river) civilization
  • The Yellow River civilization
  • The Olmec (in southern Mexico)
Could there be more? Possibly. I don’t think anybody’s overwhelmingly confident about Cahokia, and there’s the potential of something going on in West Africa.
- https://www.quora.com/Why-is-Mesopotamia-taught-as-the-cradle-of-civilization-when-other-older-thriving-civilizations-existed-at-the-same-time
- https://www.quora.com/Why-haven-t-we-found-civilisations-older-than-7000-8000-years-old
- connections, linkage
  • https://www.quora.com/Did-Ancient-Greek-and-Rome-know-the-existence-of-China  The Greeks were aware of the distant origin of silk as early as about the 5th century BC; the first mention of the Σῆρες (Seres or “silk people”) is in Ctesias, an early Greek geographer from the Persian empire. Ctesias’s work survives today only in scattered quotations, so there’s not enough information there to know if the “silk people” were clearly identified with the Chinese, or if the Greeks were thinking of one of the many intermediary nations along the route to the east. The fact that the describes them like this:The Seres and the inhabitants of upper India are said to have an exceedingly large physique as some of them are found to be thirteen cubits [= 6m] tall, and they live for more than 200 yearsmakes it seem unlikely the information was first hand. It may also reflect confusion about the ultimate origin of silk, since the Greeks usually described northern Indians and some of the steppes peoples, such as the Saka, as particularly tall and imposing.After Ctesias, there’s no literary evidence until around the first century. However there are a few bits of archaeological evidence attesting to ongoing contact. For example the Sampul Tapestry, from modern Xinjiang, probably dates from the heyday of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, a central Asian state that arose out of the fragments of Alexander’s empire and sat on what would later become the Silk Road.From about 130 BC the Greeks in Egypt began sailing to India using the monsoon winds. This opened up a flourishing trade, so adventurous Greek and Roman traders could be found many places in Indochina, Myanmar and southern China. The Romans and Greeks now distinguished between the Seres of northern China, reached overland by caravans, and the Sinae who were reached by the sea routes. The Roman-era sea trade came up the rivers from Burma or sailed around to Guangzhou, where Roman glassware has been found by archeologists
- legacy
  • infrastucture
    • ******https://www.quora.com/Why-did-ancient-civilizations-stop-building-megalithic-structures The Great Pyramid was built c.2500 BC. This was before money was invented. That was only introduced by King Alyattes of Lydia c. 600 BC. After that only slave labor made megaprojects possible. Here's the last time an obelisk was raised (without fossil fuels). It was in Rome in the 16th century. I see a lot more horses on capstans than people.  Here's when the Obelisk of Axum was tranported in the 1930s. I guess Lamborghini hadn't made any tractors yet.
- event

  • 11月27日至 30日，第三屆文明古國論壇部長級會議在北京 舉行，會議審議通過了《北京宣言》。宣言強 調，所有的文明構成了人類共同的遺產，文明 沒有高低、優劣之分，不同國家、不同民族、 不同文明之間要相互尊重，應共同努力推動人 類進步和世界和平可持續發展。 宣言重申，繼續努力建設有共同目標的文 明古國共同體，通過合作創新發展機遇；推進 「共商、共建、共享」 ，促進文化間的對話、 平等和包容，促進文化交流，支持和保護文化 權利，增進民心相通。 由中國文化和旅遊部主辦的本屆部長級會 議上，中國、秘魯、埃及、希臘、伊朗、亞美 尼亞、伊拉克、意大利等國部長級官員齊聚一 堂，就保護文化遺產、深化文化合作等展開深 入對話與交流。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20191201/PDF/a9_screen.pdf


collapse of civilisations
- the great collapse of civilization around the Mediterranean Basin, around 1,200 B.C.E. mentioned in https://www.haaretz.com/archaeology/.premium.MAGAZINE-ancient-tablets-may-reveal-what-destroyed-minoan-civilization-1.7809371

ancient language 
- This is a pre Indo-European script that predates both Sumerian and Egyptian by three millennia. No one can decide whether it’s writing or protowriting, however. Being pre Indo-European, it’s most likely closely related (I use “closely” loosely) to Basque, but the time between them is so long, that it doesn’t help us.https://www.quora.com/Which-ancient-language-are-we-aware-of-but-are-unable-to-decode
- https://www.quora.com/Are-there-any-ancient-languages-with-lots-of-scripts-that-we-cant-read Of course, the most notorious is Minoan, the language spoken by the ancient inhabitants of Crete, these people were pre-Greek (I mean that lived in Greece before the Greeks). Another language that pops in my mind is Etruscan, once spoken in Italy before the Romanization of the region, Etruscan was a Tyrsenian language (so, non-IE), its script (that was an alphabet) was the ancestor of the Latin, Gaulish and Germanic (Runic) script, we deciphered the major part, but not all.


countries no longer exist
- *************https://www.quora.com/Which-countries-no-longer-exist-in-Europe

Fire
- [andrew c scott] first occurrence of burnt soils - 1.5 million years ago from wonderwerk cave in southern africa; use of fire in caves in israel from some 400000 to 300000 years ago; cooking a regular activity until late paleolithic (50000 to 10000 ears ago); cooking of cereals in less than 10000 years ago; domestication f crops probably originated in western asia; charred grains in middle east and europe until around 7000 bce; conserving fire and learning to start it, use of flints to produce sparks untila around 40000 years ago. Austrian aboriginal peoples developed a fire-stick culture some 50000-60000 years ago (patch burning may have had a possibly unintended beneficial consequence of producing a mosaic of burned and unburned areas on the landscape that have been shown to limit the size and intensity of some natural lightning-ignited fires). Human populations were already shaping landscapes by fire (eg forest clearing, slash and burn agriculture, increase crop of nuts such as acorns and chestnuts from trees) by african middle stone age around 100000 years ago. Widespread use arose when hunter-gatherer populations changed to agricultural and pastoral populations from around 10000 years ago. Fire allowed stretch of working day and aided a range of pyro-technologies for tool making. A social focus was created and helped group interactions. It is believed that two glues in use by 100000-50000 years ago required fire. Twine needed for working a fire drill appears to have been in use 120000 years ago.  The first use of industrial fire is likely to have been in the making of pottery (thought to have developed in china, could have been as early as 20000 years ago). Only about 5000 years ago fire was used in metal working (copper, bronze and then iron. involving a persistent hearth with high temperatures rather than a usual open hearth fire). Records in greenland suggest the smelting of lead and silver was being undertaken 5000 years ago.  The main impact of these development technologies came with the expansion of the roman empire. The development of the roman hypocaust system (a heating system used in roman homes and baths designed to circulate hot air under the floors and walls) allowed for an increase in distribution and use of heat, and heating hot water for private and public baths. Charcoal could have been used (they have been used in egypt several thousand years before). The need to develop high temperatures in furnaces led to development of charcoal production and later coal manufacturing.The use of coal revolutionised iron production and led, by the 19thc, to steel production.
- 在水生動物中，螃蟹是比較另類的一族，八條腿支稜着偏要橫着走，兩隻眼探出來酷似火柴頭。大約是受此啟發，在我老家膠東一帶，人們通常會用「瞪起觸燈頭眼」，來調侃那些見了好處就來精神的人，聽起來形象而又風趣。方言中的「觸燈」，後來被稱為火柴。在我懂事時，還沒有「火柴」這個詞，就連「洋火」也是後來的叫法，不用說「自來火」（打火機）了，鄉親們跟火柴叫「觸燈」。從文獻記載看，這一發音可能只限於膠東，我國大多數地區把火柴稱為「取燈兒」。在馮夢龍白話小說《蔣興哥重會珍珠衫》中，那個貪了陳大郎銀子的薛婆子，就是以「忘記帶取燈」為由，設局誘騙三巧兒上當的。由此可見，「取燈」之說最晚可追溯到明代。也許是由於轉音諧讀，相沿成習，鄉親們才把「取燈」說成「觸燈」的。但就字義而言，記為「觸燈」比「取燈」更為妥帖。「取燈」會讓人誤以為是將燈取來，而「觸燈」的意思則是通過觸碰點亮燈盞。原始火柴的出現，據說是在南北朝時期，北齊受到陳國與北周圍攻，生活艱難，宮中照明、燒飯都成了問題，宮女將硫磺粘在木棒上引火取得成功。這種稱作「發燭」的物件，並非真正意義上的火柴，只能算「準火柴」。到後來，發燭不斷改進，並有了「引火奴」、「取燈兒」等別名。十九世紀後，英國人發明了初級火柴，但有毒且易自燃，經瑞典人改進後才有了安全火柴。火柴剛傳入中國時，人們稱之為「洋火」或「洋取燈」。直到解放後很長一段時間，人們才改口叫「火柴」。小小的火柴很不起眼，也很便宜，過去到供銷社買一包十盒只要兩毛錢，但就像柴米油鹽一樣，當年也是百姓生活中須臾不可離開的東西。特別是上世紀六七十年代那段時間，大眾火柴需要憑證、憑票才能買到，其緊缺程度可想而知。為了節約火柴，人們通常會用柴草從有明火處引火，來點燃油燈或爐灶。過年放鞭炮，為節約起見，先用火柴點燃一支香，然後用香頭引燃鞭炮。火柴普及的初期，在偏遠的農村中，還殘留着一些古老的取火方式。如利用火鐮與火石磨擦後冒出的火花點燃火絨，點着了的火絨，呈暗火發煙狀態，燃燒得也比較慢，輕輕吹一下，便會冒出明火。在我離開家鄉之前，還曾看到叼着煙袋的老人用這樣的方式點旱煙。再如，在太陽光下，將凸透鏡的焦點對準易燃物取火，這個法子可以說是先民利用太陽能的最早方式。在《淮南子．天文》中，就有「陽燧火鏡」的記載。大意是說，中午時分，用凹面銅鏡聚集陽光的熱量，使枯乾的艾草燃燒。火的使用，是人類社會文明發展的重要里程碑，火柴的出現使人們的生活更加方便。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2021/01/12/a17-0112.pdf




seven wonders of the world
- https://www.quora.com/Which-of-the-Seven-Wonders-of-the-Ancient-World-still-exist-and-what-happened-to-the-others
- https://www.quora.com/How-many-of-the-seven-wonders-of-the-world-still-exist
- https://www.quora.com/Which-of-the-Seven-Ancient-Wonders-of-the-world-still-exist

  • https://www.quora.com/Every-empire-has-met-its-end-When-do-you-think-the-Western-Empire-American-Empire-will-end


dynasties
- cycle


Family of kings
- depicted in early islamic images and texts - turks and/or persians; china; India; Rome

large scale migration
- https://www.quora.com/Were-Indo-Europeans-more-numerous-than-locals-when-they-expanded-to-Europe-and-the-Middle-East

Natural disaster
- Mount Tambora, or Tomboro, is an active stratovolcano in the northern part of Sumbawa, one of the Lesser Sunda Islands of Indonesia.The 1815 eruption released 10 to 120 million tons of sulphur into the stratosphere, causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have been used to estimate the ejected sulfur mass: the petrologicalmethod, an optical depth measurement based on anatomical observations, and the polar ice core sulfate concentration method, which calibrated against cores from Greenland and Antarctica. In the spring and summer of 1816, a persistent stratospheric sulfate aerosol veil, described then as a "dry fog", was observed in the northeastern United States. It was not dispersed by wind or rainfall, and it reddened and dimmed sunlight to an extent that sunspots were visible to the naked eye. Areas of the northern hemisphere suffered extreme weather conditions and 1816 became known as the "year without a summer". Average global temperatures decreased about 0.4 to 0.7 °C (0.7 to 1.3 °F), enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe. After 4 June 1816, when there were frosts in Connecticut, cold weather expanded over most of New England. On 6 June 1816, it snowed in Albany, New York and Dennysville, Maine. Similar conditions persisted for at least three months, ruining most crops across North America while Canada experienced extreme cold. Snow fell until 10 June near Quebec City, accumulating to 30 centimetres (12 in).That year became the second-coldest year in the northern hemisphere since 1400, while the 1810s were the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora's eruption and other suspected volcanic events between 1809 and 1810.[48] (See sulfate concentration chart.) Surface-temperature anomalies during the summers of 1816, 1817 and 1818 were −0.51, −0.44 and −0.29 °C, respectively. Along with a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced a stormier winter,[5] and the Elbe and Ohře Rivers froze over a period of twelve days in February 1816. As a result, prices of wheat, rye, barley and oats rose dramatically by 1817.This climate anomaly has been cited as a reason for the severity of the 1816–19 typhusepidemic in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean.[5] In addition, large numbers of livestock died in New England during the winter of 1816–1817, while cool temperatures and heavy rains led to failed harvests in the British Isles. Families in Wales travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply. Demonstrations at grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson and looting, took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the 19th century.

  • http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/1816-the-year-without-summer-excerpt/
- 1883 krakatoa volcanic eruption

floods
-如果我們把眼光放到全世界，就會發現一個很有趣的現象：幾乎是在同一個時間段，古巴比倫、古代墨西哥、瑪雅地區、亞特蘭蒂斯和《聖經》中，幾乎世界上任何一個有足夠時間跨度的民族歷史和傳說中，都有着驚人相似的「大洪水」的傳說。而且在傳說中，時間、地點、內容等，也都有着驚人的相似之處。那麼，我們是不是可以得出這樣一個結論：這場幾乎席捲全球的大洪水確實發生過，甚至大致的時間都能確定在公元前2370年左右。當然，這只是一個推論，事實真相如何，需要更多的資料和考古學證據才能確定。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2021/01/13/a17-0113.pdf
- 1964

  • The Christmas flood of 1964 was a major flood in the Pacific Northwest and some of Northern California between December 18, 1964, and January 7, 1965, spanning the Christmas holiday.[1] Considered a 100-year flood, it was the worst flood in recorded history on nearly every major stream and river in coastal Northern California and one of the worst to affect the Willamette River in Oregon. It also affected parts of southwest Washington, Idaho, and Nevada. In Oregon, 17 or 18 people died as a result of the disaster, and it caused hundreds of millions of dollars in damage.[3] The flooding on the Willamette covered 152,789 acres (61,831.5 ha). The National Weather Service rated the flood as the fifth most destructive weather event in Oregon in the 20th century.[5] California Governor Pat Brown was quoted as saying that a flood of similar proportions could "happen only once in 1,000 years," and it was often referred to later as the Thousand Year Flood.
  • year of great flood (in europe and affected croatia?)
warfare
- https://www.quora.com/When-was-the-first-war-in-human-history  The only way to answer that is by giving the answer to the First Recorded Battle in Human History. The first war recorded in any detail was between Lagash and Umma in c. 2450 BC on a stele called the Stele of the Vultures. It shows the king of Lagash leading a Sumerian army consisting mostly of infantry. The Battle of Megiddo (fought 15th century BC) was fought between Egyptian forces under the command of Pharaoh Thutmose III and a large rebellious coalition of Canaanite vassal states led by the king of Kadesh.[2] It is the first battle to have been recorded in what is accepted as relatively reliable detail. Megiddo is also the first recorded use of the composite bow and the first body count.[3] All details of the battle come from Egyptian sources—primarily the hieroglyphic writings on the Hall of Annals in the Temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, Thebes (now Luxor), by the military scribe Tjaneni.Egyptian Army 10,000–20,000 / 1,000 chariots 10,000 infantry some cavalryCanannite Army 10,000–15,000 / 1,000 chariots 10,000 infantry
Thutomose attacked by way of a center route over very rough terrain and pass. The Canannites were caught in the flank. The Egyptian Army held the initiative and also stayed in formation. The Canannites were routed after a spirited battle and withdrew into Megiddo.

communications
- conch shells
  • [sedgewick] Tremulous calls on conch shells sought each other out across the hillside and ravines


Department stores
- late 19th century

https://www.quora.com/What-did-ancient-civilizations-do-to-keep-cool-ie-were-primitive-forms-of-air-conditioning-utilized-and-did-these-continue-to-be-used-into-the-Middle-Ages-Renaissance-etc

demography
- https://www.quora.com/Why-didnt-Frances-population-grow-to-the-size-of-Germany-when-it-occupies-a-larger-area-with-more-fertile-land

generations
- The Lost Generation was the social generational cohort that came of age during World War I. "Lost" in this context refers to the "disoriented, wandering, directionless" spirit of many of the war's survivors in the early postwar period. The term is also particularly used to refer to a group of American expatriate writers living in Paris during the 1920s. Gertrude Stein is credited with coining the term, and it was subsequently popularized by Ernest Hemingway who used it in the epigraph for his 1926 novel The Sun Also Rises.由于英语中“Lost”一词也有“失去”的意思，因此在英国，“Lost Generation”原本被用于表示在战争中死亡（失去）的一代，并且经常暗指上流社会人士，认为他们原本更有可能成为社会的精英
- The Silent Generation is the demographic cohort following the Greatest Generation and preceding the baby boomers. The cohort is defined as individuals born between 1928 and 1945.The name was originally applied to people in the United States and Canada but has been applied to those in Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and South America as well. It includes most of those who fought during the Korean War. In the United States, the generation was comparatively small because the financial insecurity of the 1930s and the war in the early 1940s caused people to have fewer children. They are noted as forming the leadership of the civil rights movement as well as comprising the "silent majority".
- baby boomers 1946- 1964
- Generation X (commonly abbreviated to Gen X) is the demographic cohort following the baby boomers. There are no precise dates for when this cohort starts or ends; demographers and researchers typically use starting birth years ranging from the early to mid-1960s and ending birth years ranging from the late 1970s to early 1980s. The term "Generation X" has been used at various times throughout history to describe alienated youth. In the 1950s, Hungarian photographer Robert Capa used Generation X as the title for a photo-essay about young men and women growing up immediately following World War II. In 1976, English musician Billy Idol used the moniker as the name for a punk rock band. The term acquired its contemporary definition after the release of Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture, a 1991 novel written by Canadian author Douglas Coupland. Demographer Neil Howe noted the delay in naming this demographic cohort saying, "Over 30 years after their birthday, they didn't have a name. I think that's germane." Previously, the cohort had been referred to as Post-Boomers, Baby Busters, New Lost Generation, Latch-key kids, MTV Generation, and the 13th Generation (they were described as the 13th generation since American independence). Demographer William Strauss observed that Coupland applied the term to older members of the cohort born between 1961–1964, who were sometimes told by demographers that they were baby boomers, but who did not feel like boomers. Strauss also noted that around the time Coupland's 1991 novel was published the symbol "X" was prominent in popular culture, as the film Malcolm X was released in 1992, and that the name "Generation X" ended up sticking. The "X" refers to an unknown variable or to a desire not to be defined.
  • 新冠肺炎疫情下的嚴格出行限制，重創零售市道，全球家庭額外儲蓄卻迅速飆升至5.4萬億美元（約42.12萬億港元），疫苗接種進展推動下，後疫情時代的消費支出似蓄勢待發。1965至1980年間出生的「X世代」財富正不斷增加，反觀內地一線城市單身青年高達四成為「月光族」。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/finance/20210420/00202_019.html
- 「亨利族」（生於1981至2000年）是指高薪卻不富有的人，源自英語「High Earners, Not Rich Yet」的首字母縮寫「HENRY」，由美國一本雜誌所提出。「亨利族」大多是「80後」、「90後」的「Y世代」，目前年紀約21至41歲。這個族群成長於互聯網時代，消費觀念和生活方式均受全球化影響，他們有3大特徵，分別是，第一，收入高過平均，但卻是「月光族」即收入月月清﹔第二，高學歷故背負高昂學債及房租等巨大經濟壓力；第三，消費力強，追求個性的商品和服務，但並非奢侈品。「亨利族」受過良好高等教育，人工理應有一定水平，惟物價持續飆升，他們又要償還學債、持續進修兼應付生活開支，往往「賺埋唔夠畀使費」。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/content/%E7%94%A2%E7%B6%93/odn-20210909-0909_00269_061/%E5%85%A9%E4%BB%A3%E8%B2%A1%E5%8B%99%E6%8C%91%E6%88%B0-%E5%A6%82%E4%BD%95%E6%8B%86%E8%A7%A3%EF%BC%9F
- 顧問機構麥肯錫發表報告，指內地「Z世代」（其定義為1996至2010年出生的人）出生並成長在中國經濟「高歌猛進」時代，對於自己未來收入增長充滿信心，因此更易產生超過預算的衝動消費，近半受訪內地「Z世代」認同自己會率性購物，比率遠高於澳洲、日本和南韓的同齡人。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/finance/20210213/00202_016.html
- 2010年後出生的「Alpha世代」

eugenics
- The International Federation of Eugenic Organizations (IFEO) was an international organization of groups and individuals focused on eugenics. Founded in London in 1912, where it was originally titled the Permanent International Eugenics Committee, it was an outgrowth of the first International Eugenics Congress. In 1925, it was retitled. Factionalism within the organization led to its division in 1933, as splinter group the Latin International Federation of Eugenics Organizations was created to give a home to eugenicists who disliked the concepts of negative eugenics, in which unfit groups and individuals are discouraged of prevented from reproducing. As the views of the Nazi party in Germany caused increasing tension within the group and leadership activity declined, it dissolved in the latter half of the 1930s.
  • Three International Eugenics Congresses took place between 1912 and 1932 and were the global venue for scientists, politicians, and social leaders to plan and discuss the application of programs to improve human heredity in the early twentieth century.
- eugenicist laws were in force in all mainland nordic countries from mid 1930s to mid 1970s

dark age
- https://www.quora.com/How-far-would-civilization-have-progressed-today-if-there-had-not-been-the-Dark-Ages map with areas (significantly) affected by the Dark Ages marked in red.

1500
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Europe-dominate-the-world note the maps of different continents

1600-1699
- ******* https://www.quora.com/What-countries-were-the-world-empires-in-the-1600s
- 1666 - This is the first year to be designated as an Annus mirabilis, in John Dryden's 1667 poem so titled, celebrating England's failure to be beaten either by the Dutch or by fire. 

industrial revolution
- The First Phase of the Industrial Revolution, which for want of a better term we might call The Mechanical Revolution, lasting until about 1800 and characterized by the development and proliferation of machines of production. We might call The Second Phase of the Industrial Revolution The Transportation Revolution, lasting until about 1860. Mechanical developments continued during this period, but the most interesting changes were those that occurred as a result of the development of transportation technology. The Third Phase of the Industrial Revolution lasted perhaps into the 1970's, and might be called The Chemical Revolution. Mechanical and Transportation continued to develop, but the great advances of the period were made in the area of chemical engineering and consisted of the development of man-made substances that were superior to and cheaper than the natural substances they replaced. Steel industries, once the core of a national industry, began to decline, and new economic powers, lacking the natural resources to support an industrial economy of the traditional sort, began to arise. People have suggested various names for the stage of the Industrial Revolution into which you have been born: The Age of Ceramics, The Age of Plastics, The Atomic Age, The Age of Genetic Engineering, The Age of the Computer, The Information Age, The Jet Age, and even The Post-Industrial Age. People usually find it more difficult to think clearly about their own times than about the more remote past. http://vlib.iue.it/carrie/reference/worldhistory/sections/27indust.html
- note

  • in morocco, chicken used to be consumed by royals but with the industrial revolution in 1970s, supply of chicken increased and moroccans can also ate chicken
1812
- us britain war in n america

  • https://www.quora.com/Why-did-the-British-finally-lose-the-1812-war-against-the-United-States
  • https://www.quora.com/Why-was-there-continued-peace-between-Britain-and-the-United-States-after-the-war-of-1812-Were-there-no-border-conflicts-with-Canada-to-solve-or-was-the-US-just-becoming-to-powerful-for-Britain-to-deal-with


emancipation
- middle class
  • Der Historische Festzug von 1880 war ein Festzug aus Anlass der Vollendung des Kölner Domes. Er fand am 16. Oktober 1880, dem zweiten Tag des Dombaufestes, zu Ehren und in Anwesenheit Kaiser Wilhelms I. und zahlreicher weiterer Fürsten statt. Der Kölner Dom und seine Baugeschichte stellten für den Festzug den thematischen Rahmen, wobei die erste Bauphase nur knapp dargestellt wurde. Die Abfolge der Gruppen und Festwagen führte von der Zeit des Hochmittelalters mit der Grundsteinlegung des Doms im Jahr 1248 über verschiedene Stationen der Kölner Stadtgeschichte bis zur Domvollendung und zur deutschen Einheit. Der Festzug endete mit einer Darstellung der Germania als patriotischem Symbol und dem Vorbeimarsch militärischer Einheiten Preußens und anderer deutscher Staaten in ihren Paradeuniformen. Wie schon bei den Feiern zur Grundsteinlegung für den Weiterbau des Kölner Domes im Jahr 1842 wurde der Dom weniger als Kirchenbau denn als Denkmal der deutschen Einheit aufgefasst. Der Kulturkampf und die Flucht des Kölner Erzbischofs ins Ausland hatten zur Folge, dass die katholische Kirche bei den Feierlichkeiten zur Domvollendung weitgehend ausgeschlossen war. Für das Kölner Bürgertum bot der von ihm organisierte und finanzierte Festzug die Gelegenheit zur eindrucksvollen Darstellung seiner Bedeutung in Geschichte und Gegenwart.
1918
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-okay-to-say-in-1918-but-not-2018

famine
- Starving Time at Jamestown in the Colony of Virginia was a period of starvation during the winter of 1609–1610. There were about 500 Jamestown residents at the beginning of the winter. However, there were only 60 people still alive when the spring arrived. The colonists, the first group of whom had originally arrived at Jamestown on May 13, 1607, had never planned to grow all of their own food. Their plans depended upon trade with the local Powhatan to supply them with food between the arrivals of periodic supply ships from England. Lack of access to water and a relatively dry rain season crippled the agricultural production of the colonists. Also, the water that the colonists drank was brackish and potable for only half of the year. A fleet from England, damaged by a hurricane, arrived months behind schedule with new colonists, but without expected food supplies. On June 7, 1610, the survivors boarded ships, abandoned the colony site, and sailed towards the Chesapeake Bay, where another supply convoy with new supplies and headed by a newly appointed governor Francis West, intercepted them on the lower James River and returned them to Jamestown. Within a few years, the commercialization of tobacco by John Rolfesecured the settlement's long-term economic prosperity. There is scientific evidence that the settlers at Jamestown had turned to cannibalism during the starving time.
- The Great Famine (Irish: an Gorta Mór [anˠ ˈɡɔɾˠt̪ˠə ˈmˠoːɾˠ]), or the Great Hunger, was a period of mass starvation and disease in Ireland from 1845 to 1849. With the most severely affected areas in the west and south of Ireland, where the Irish language was dominant, the period was contemporaneously known in Irish as An Drochshaol, loosely translated as the "hard times" (or literally, "The Bad Life"). The worst year of the period was 1847, known as "Black '47". During the famine, about one million people died and a million more emigrated from Ireland, causing the island's population to fall by between 20% and 25%. The event is sometimes referred to as the Irish Potato Famine, mostly outside Ireland. The proximate cause of the famine was a natural event, a potato blight,which infected potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, also causing some 100,000 deaths outside Ireland; the food crisis influenced much of the unrest in the widespread European Revolutions of 1848. Longer-term causes included the system of absentee landlordism and single-crop dependence, and the impact of the blight was exacerbated by government laissez-faire capitalism economic policy, common in the developed world at that time though in the case of Ireland in the mid-19th century, this was tempered by some interventionist policies also. The famine was a watershed in the history of Ireland, which from 1801 to 1922 was ruled directly by Westminster as part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. On a scale comparable to the Napoleonic Wars, the Great Famine in Ireland was amongst the greatest losses of life in 19th-century Europe.[18][19] The famine and its effects permanently changed the island's demographic, political, and cultural landscape, producing an estimated two million refugees and spurring a century-long population decline. For both the native Irish and those in the resulting diaspora, the famine entered folk memory. The already strained relationsbetween many Irish and the British Crown soured further both during and after the famine, heightening ethnic and sectarian tensions, and boosting Irish nationalism and republicanism in Ireland and among Irish emigrants in the United States and elsewhere. The potato blight returned to Europe in 1879, but by that point the Land War, described as one of the largest agrarian movements to take place in 19th-century Europe, had begun in Ireland. The movement, organized by the Land League, continued the political campaign for the Three Fs, issued in 1850 by the Tenant Right Leagueand initially developed during the Great Famine. When the potato blight returned in the 1879 famine the League boycotted "notorious landlords" and its members physically blocked evictions of farmers; the consequent reduction in homelessness and house demolition resulted in a drastic reduction in the number of deaths.

  • https://www.quora.com/Would-you-consider-the-Irish-Potato-Famine-as-a-genocide-Why
- 鼠年素來不大太平。特別是庚子鼠年，遠的不說，近幾次如1840年鴉片戰爭，1900年八國聯軍入侵，1960年大饑荒http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/02/11/a24-0211.pdf

social experiment
- iodine in salt

  • a group of economists saw a natural experiment: comparing the intelligence of children born just before 1924—the year iodization began—and those born just after. James Freyer, David Weil and Dimitra Politi used military data from the early 1900s 1920s, when World War II drove millions of men and women to enlist. Recruits all took a standardized intelligence test as part of their enlistment. Researchers didn’t have access to the test scores themselves, but they had a clever substitute: smarter recruits were assigned to the Air Forces while the less bright ones went to the Ground Forces. This allowed the researchers to infer test scores depending on which branch a recruit was selected for. Intelligence data were paired with birthdate and hometown, since iodine levels in the soil and water vary significantly from place to place. To estimate which regions were naturally high-iodine and which were low, the researchers referred to nationwide statistics collected after World War I on the prevalence of goiter. In all, researchers had sufficient data on about 2 million male recruits born between 1921 and 1927.https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/how-adding-iodine-to-salt-boosted-americans-iq
  • The Chinese government had held a legal monopoly on salt production since 119 BCE and began iodizing salt in the 1960s, but market reforms in the 1980s led to widespread smuggling of non-iodized salt from private producers. In the inland province of Ningxia, only 20% of salt consumed was sold by the China National Salt Industry Corporation. The Chinese government responded by cracking down on smuggled salt, establishing a salt police with 25,000 officers to enforce the salt monopoly. Consumption of iodized salt reached 90% of the Chinese population by 2000.

human sacrifice
- *****https://www.quora.com/Why-did-ancient-civilizations-practice-human-sacrifices

https://www.quora.com/What-did-ancient-peoples-do-when-they-had-a-child-with-a-birth-defect

Kiv
- Joachimsthal is a small town in the district of Barnim, in Brandenburg, Germany. It is situated within the Schorfheide-Chorin Biosphere Reserve on the isthmus between the lakes Grimnitzsee in the north and Werbellinsee in the south, about 17 km (11 mi) northwest of the district's capitalEberswalde and 55 km (34 mi) northeast of the Berlin city centre. The municipality is the administrative seat of the Amt("municipal federation") Joachimsthal (Schorfheide).Joachimsthal was founded in 1601 by Elector Joachim III Frederick of Brandenburg at the foot of medieval Grimnitz Castle and received town privileges in 1604. The Elector had a glass foundry erected and in 1607 established a boarding school, the Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium, that was relocated to Berlin after its devastation in 1636 during the Thirty Years' War. After a blaze in 1814, the church and several houses were rebuilt according to plans by Karl Friedrich Schinkel. King Frederick William IV of Prussia had the Hubertusstock hunting lodge erected on the western shore of the Werbellinsee in 1849. In changing times, Hubertusstock served as a pleasure ground for men in power: The German Emperors from the House of Hohenzollernindulged in huntsmanship (Wilhelm II had his own train station built), as did the Presidents of the Weimar Republic, Friedrich Ebert and Paul von Hindenburg. In 1944 Adolf Hitler gave the lodge to Obergruppenführer Hans Lammers and in 1973 it was rebuilt as a vacation home for General Secretary Erich Honecker.

  • The german scientist involved in uranium project
  • According to OxfordWords, the Flemish or Low German word "joachimsthal" referred to Joachim's Valley, where silver was once mined. Coins minted from this mine became "joachimsthaler," which was later shortened to "thaler" and which eventually morphed into "dollar."
archaeology
- [a journey into hk's archeological past by regional council and cuhk] rose to importance as a subject of human science after ww2
- equipment

  • thermolumininescene - used for the dating of pottery and ceramics 
  • metallurgical microscope 
  • electronic scanning microscope
  • computer
  • data analysis
  • modeling
  • database 

  • surveying
  • 平板仪plane table
  • 经纬仪 theodolite
  • 水平仪
- methods

  • 探沟法
  • 探方法exploration squares
- new tech
  • 香港大學偕研究 夥伴研發自動無人機系統，能在夜 間利用激光，自動在戶外尋找化石 、礦物和生物，從而改善在荒山野 嶺大海撈針的傳統考古方式。 使用這個被稱為 「激光盜龍」 的系統時，只需在日間設定好飛行 路線，系統便會在晚間於惡劣地形 上空飛行，利用導航系統與地面保 持四米距離進行地毯式搜索。系統 配備激光誘導熒光技術，利用高強 度激光令附在骨頭之上、肉眼看不 到的軟組織 「在黑暗中發出熒光」 。完成搜索後，研究人員便會分析 掃描片段，找尋熒光點，從而找出 化石，甚至其他對熒光有反應的物 體，包括礦物、生物如蠍子、貝類 和藍綠菌，甚至古物古蹟地點，並 在較後時間於鎖定位置進行詳細搜 索。 計劃探索外星地貌 系統由港大地球科學系助理教 授（研究）文嘉棋博士（Dr Pittman ） 和 美 國 科 學 發 展 基 金 會 （ Foundation for Scientific Advancement ）的Thomas G Kaye共同研發。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200624/PDF/a6_screen.pdf
- artefacts treatment

  • cleaning - 去土 （乾擦/水洗/超音波), use of soft sponge and brush; use物理方法treat metal objects
  • labelling - tiny code numbers showing the site, date and location of an excavated object be affixed to; use natural markings on stone objects
  • conservation, restoration - broken artefacts such as pottery will be restored by using plaster of paris . 
  • 測量繪圖Special details and decoration on objects are often shown by full scale drawings. 
  •  拓本- 濕拓,乾拓 rubbing with or without water can reveal detailed patterns and decoration on an object's surface
  • photographing
  • x-ray or infrared photography will sometimes be need to show structural or decorative details which are invisible to the naked eye
- window/outlet of findings?
  • hk plays the role again
  • 全球首座水下古橋曝光。浙江省千島湖下的獅城，位列世界八大水下古城；獅城毗鄰，還有賀城。香港海下考古總會成員水底尋寶，近期潛入湖底40米探索賀城，確定水中有一條估計是唐朝興建、長約20米、刻了「萬榮橋」字樣的古橋，是考古界一大發現。此外，潛水隊還發現其他始於漢唐年間至清朝興建的村莊及房屋，半世紀前它們因當地建水利工程而被淹沒湖底，成為「沉睡的寶藏」。該會指出，萬榮橋相對完好無缺，極具考古價值。千年古城賀城與獅城，始建於漢唐年間，據說兩城還有不少清朝的建築物。http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20190620/PDF/a14_screen.pdf
-china
  • 根據官方去年資料顯示，獲得國家文物局頒發「考古領隊資格」的總人數，包含已退休的也不足2,000人。有網民調侃「比施工隊更忙的是考古隊」、「西安修地鐵是考古為主，修地鐵為輔」。上述學者指出，考古人員短缺是全國性問題，目前考古人員最多的是河南省，光是洛陽考古研究院已有180多名考古人員，惟陝西全省只有4個具資質的考古單位，分別是陜西省考古研究院、西安市考古研究院、咸陽市考古研究所和寶雞市考古研究所，其中陜西省考古研究院只有110多人。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/china_world/20210222/00178_025.html
- hk
  • 在香港要成為考古學家並不容易。難在「入場」機會及出路選擇都很少。中文大學人類學系裏有一個考古學副修課程，是香港第一個亦是唯一一個考古類課程。香港人要成為考古學家，則要到內地或歐美國家才可取得相關資格。現時全港具資格的商業考古學家亦只有十多人。http://www.takungpao.com.hk/news/232109/2020/1226/535499.html


https://www.quora.com/Considering-Rome-has-been-continuously-occupied-for-2-5-millennia-if-new-structures-have-been-built-on-top-of-old-structures-many-of-which-are-intact-how-did-the-old-structures-get-buried-in-the-first-place Before the industrial revolution, it was not so easy to remove the debris of old houses, so it was easier to build over. And it’s not even true that the old buildings were made of wood… Rome was a city built with stone, using wood only for upper levels of the buildings called insulae. Case of the Marcellus Theatre - There’s no need to remove the debris, the houses have been built just over the arches of the theatre!

underwater archaeology
- https://www.quora.com/Why-arent-underwater-pyramids-being-studied-Is-this-an-ancient-civilization-cover-up

archaeologists
- Heinrich Schliemann (German: [ˈʃliːman]; 6 January 1822 – 26 December 1890) was a German businessman and a pioneer in the field of archaeology. He was an advocate of the historicity of places mentioned in the works of Homer and an archaeological excavator of Hissarlik, now presumed to be the site of Troy, along with the Mycenaean sites Mycenae and Tiryns. His work lent weight to the idea that Homer's Iliad and Virgil's Aeneid reflect historical events. Schliemann's excavation of nine levels of archaeological remains with dynamite has been criticized as destructive of significant historical artifacts, including the level that is believed to be the historical Troy.Along with Arthur Evans, Schliemann was a pioneer in the study of Aegean civilization in the Bronze Age. The two men knew of each other, Evans having visited Schliemann's sites. Schliemann had planned to excavate at Knossos but died before fulfilling that dream. Evans bought the site and stepped in to take charge of the project, which was then still in its infancy.
- 澳洲珀斯一名 95歲老婦於 1960至 1970年代期間，乘丈夫以聯合國外交官出使中東地區的 機會，周遊埃及、敘利亞、黎巴嫩和約旦等地參與考古活動，並將大批墓葬文物帶回澳洲。老 婦多年來隻字不提這段往事，直至本月初她才「自豪地」向傳媒公開經歷和總值達100萬澳元(約 594.7萬港元)的文物，更被稱為「奪寶耆英」。不過報道旋即掀起爭議，不少民眾和考古學家批 評老婦此舉等同掠奪文物，埃及外交部為此向澳洲政府發出照會，後者決定調查事件。http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2017/11/26/a15-1126.pdf

mining
- https://www.quora.com/How-did-empires-like-Rome-mine-gold-silver-and-copper-in-such-large-quantities

Papyrology is the study of ancient literature, correspondence, legal archives, etc., as preserved in manuscripts written on papyrus, the most common form of writing material in the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Papyrology includes both the translation and interpretation of ancient documents in a variety of languages and the care and preservation of rare papyrus originals.Papyrology as a systematic discipline dates from the 1890s, when large caches of well-preserved papyri were discovered by archaeologists in several locations in Egypt, such as Arsinoe (Faiyum) and Oxyrhynchus. Leading centres of papyrology include Oxford University, Heidelberg University, Columbia University, the University of Michigan, Leiden University, the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, University of California, Berkeley and the Istituto Papirologico "G. Vitelli" connected to the University of Florence. Founders of papyrology were the Viennese orientalist Joseph von Karabacek [de] (Arabic papyrology),[1] Wilhelm Schubart (Greek papyrology),[2] the Austrian antiquarian Theodor Graf [de] who acquired more than 100,000 Greek, Arabic, Coptic and Persian papyri in Egypt, which were bought by the Austrian Archduke Rainer,[3] G. F. Tsereteli, who published papyri of Russian and Georgian collections,[4] Frederic George Kenyon,[5] Ulrich Wilcken, Bernard Pyne Grenfell, Arthur Surridge Hunt[6] and other distinguished scientists.

- note by me - kind of similar to "babylon"????


Dates
- B.C.E./C.E. (before common era/common era)
- Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of radiocarbon (14C), a radioactive isotope of carbon. The method was developed by Willard Libby in the late 1940s and soon became a standard tool for archaeologists. Libby received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work in 1960.
- Potassium–argon dating, abbreviated K–Ar dating, is a radiometric dating method used in geochronology and archaeology. It is based on measurement of the product of the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium (K) into argon (Ar). Potassium is a common element found in many materials, such as micas, clay minerals, tephra, and evaporites. In these materials, the decay product 40Ar is able to escape the liquid (molten) rock, but starts to accumulate when the rock solidifies (recrystallizes). The amount of Argon sublimation that occurs is a function of the purity of the sample, the composition of the mother material, and a number of other factors. These factors introduce error limits on the upper and lower bounds of dating, so that final determination of age is reliant on the environmental factors during formation, melting, and exposure to decreased pressure and/or open-air. Time since recrystallization is calculated by measuring the ratio of the amount of 40Ar accumulated to the amount of 40K remaining. The long half-life of 40K allows the method to be used to calculate the absolute age of samples older than a few thousand years.

calendar
- Hindu units of time are described in Hindu texts ranging from microseconds to trillions of years, including cycles of cosmic time that repeat general events in Hindu cosmology.[1][2] Time (kāla) is described as eternal.[3] Various fragments of time are described in the Vedas, Manusmriti, Bhagavata Purana, Vishnu Purana, Mahabharata, Surya Siddhanta etc.
  • Sidereal astrology maintains the alignment between signs and constellations via corrective systems of Hindu (Vedic)-origin known as ayanamsas (Sanskrit: 'ayana' "movement" + 'aṃśa' "component"), to allow for the observed precession of equinoxes, whereas tropical astrology ignores precession.[4][5] This has caused the two systems, which were aligned around 2,000 years ago, to drift apart over the centuries.Ayanamsa systems used in Hindu astrology (also known as Vedic astrology) include the Lahiriayanamsa and the Raman ayanamsa.[7] The Fagan-Bradley ayanamsa is an example of an ayanamsa system used in Western sidereal astrology. As of 2020, sun signs calculated using the Sri Yukteswar ayanamsa were around 23 degrees behind tropical sun signs. Per these calculations, persons born between March 12 - April 12, for instance, would have the sun sign of Pisces. By contrast, persons born between March 21 - April 19 would have the sun sign of Aries per tropical calculations.
  • Hindu texts define lifespans differently for humans, Pitris (forefathers), Devas (gods), Manus (progenitors of mankind), and Brahma (creator god).圆满时、三分时、二分时、争斗时 The division of a year for each is twelve 30-day months or 360 days, where a day is divided into a 12-hour day proper and 12-hour night.[17] A 30-day month amounts to four 7-day weeks with an extra 8th day every two weeks (48-week year). A traditional human year is measured by the sun's northern (uttarayana) and southern (dakshinayana) movements in the sky,[c] where the new year commences only when the sun returns to the same starting point and a pause on the commencement otherwise. Ebenezer Burgess postulates an intercalary month was inserted every five years to anciently maintain the correspondence of the 360-day years with the true solar years (~365.24-day years).[18] For these reason, a traditional 360-day year is equivalent to a modern ~365.24-day solar or tropical year.According to Puranic sources,[d] Krishna's departure marks the end of the human age of Dvapara-yuga and the start of Kali-yuga, which is dated to midnight on 17/18 February 3102 BCE of the proleptic Julian calendar. We are currently halfway through Brahma's life (maha-kalpa), whose lifespan is equal to the duration of the manifested material elements, from which Brahma manifests his universe in kalpa cycles.目前的争斗时始于公元前3102年2月17日至18日的夜半时分，这一天也是黑天逝世升天的日子。
  • The history of humanity is divided up into four yugas (a.k.a. dharmic ages or world ages)—Kṛta-yuga (pronounced Krita-yuga; a.k.a. Satya-yuga), Tretā-yuga, Dvāpara-yuga and Kali-yuga—each with a 25% decline in dharmic practices and length, giving proportions (caraṇas; pronounced charanas) of 4:3:2:1 (e.g. Satya: 100% start; Kali: 25% start, 0% end), indicating a de-evolution in spiritual consciousness and an evolution in material consciousness. Kali-yuga is followed by Satya-yuga of the next cycle, where a cycle is called a catur-yuga (pronounced chatur-yuga; a.k.a. mahā-yuga). Each yuga is divided into a main period (a.k.a. yuga proper) and two yuga-sandhis (a.k.a. yuga-sandhyās; connecting periods)⁠—yuga-sandhyā (dawn) and yuga-sandhyāṃśa (a.k.a. yuga-sandhyānśa; dusk)⁠—where each yuga-sandhi lasts for 10% of the main period. Lengths are given in divine years (a.k.a. celestial or Deva years), where a divine year lasts for 360 solar (human) years. A chatur-yuga lasts for 4.32 million solar (12,000 divine) years with 1,728,000 years of Krita-yuga, 1,296,000 years of Treta-yuga, 864,000 years of Dvapara-yuga, and 432,000 years of Kali-yuga.
  • 一天年合360天日，一天日即尘世一年。四个宇迦合为一个摩诃宇迦（大时，Mahayuga），总计432万年。据印度教描述，圆满时之时人人道德高尚、和睦融洽、生活幸福。此后罪恶开始不断出现，至争斗时之时人类已彻底堕落，法只余四分之一。从圆满时至争斗时，人类的寿命也从400岁趋渐减少为100岁。最终，争斗时泯灭后世界重生，新的圆满时出现，如此循环反复。
- Archaeologists believe they have discovered the world's oldest lunar "calendar" in an Aberdeenshire field. Excavations of a field at Crathes Castle found a series of 12 pits which appear to mimic the phases of the moon and track lunar months. A team led by the University of Birmingham suggests the ancient monument was created by hunter-gatherers about 10,000 years ago.The pit alignment, at Warren Field, was first excavated in 2004.
Dr Richard Bates, of the University of St Andrews, said the discovery provided "exciting new evidence" of the early Mesolithic Scotland.Crathes Castle and its estate is in the care of the National Trust for Scotland (NTS).From 2004 to 2006, trust staff and Murray Archaeological Services excavated the site.https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-north-east-orkney-shetland-23286928
- The Assyrian calendar (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic: ܣܘܼܪܓܵܕ݂ܵܐ ܐܵܬ݂ܘܼܪܵܝܵܐ‎ sūrgāḏā ʾĀṯūrāyā) is a solar calendar used by modern Assyrian people. The year begins with the first sight of Spring. 4750 BC was set as its first year in the 1950s, based on a series of articles published in the Assyrian nationalist magazine Gilgamesh; the first came in 1952 and written by Nimrod Simono and dealt with the Akitu festival, then an article by Jean Alkhas in 1955 (April, issue 34) fixed the year 4750 BC as the starting point. Alkhas referenced his information to a French archaeologist, whom he did not name, as stating that a cuneiform tablet dating to 4750 BC mentioned the year of the calming of the great flood and beginning of life.

  • the month of nisan (during which passover takes place, in assyrian and hebrew calendar) is of assyrian-babylonian origin

- Hindu calendar is a set of various lunisolar calendars that are traditionally used in the Indian subcontinent and South-east Asia with regional variations for social and Hindureligious purposes. They adopt a similar underlying concept for timekeeping with based on sidereal year for solar cycle and adjustment of lunar cycles in every three years, however also differ in their relative emphasis to moon cycle or the sun cycle and the names of months and when they consider the New Year to start. Of the various regional calendars, the most studied and known Hindu calendars are the Shalivahana Shaka found in South India, Vikram Samvat (Bikrami) found in North and Central regions of India, Tamil calendar used in Tamil Nadu, and the Bengali calendar used in the Bengal – all of which emphasize the lunar cycle. Their new year starts in spring. In contrast, in regions such as Kerala, the solar cycle is emphasized and this is called the Malayalam calendar, their new year starts in autumn, and these have origins in the second half of the 1st millennium CE. A Hindu calendar is sometimes referred to as Panchanga(पञ्चाङ्ग).The ancient Hindu calendar conceptual design is also found in the Jewish calendar, but different from the Gregorian calendar. Unlike Gregorian calendar which adds additional days to lunar month to adjust for the mismatch between twelve lunar cycles (354 lunar days) and nearly 365 solar days, the Hindu calendar maintains the integrity of the lunar month, but insert an extra full month by complex rules, every few years, to ensure that the festivals and crop-related rituals fall in the appropriate season.
- Malayalam Calendar or Kollam Era is a solar and sidereal Hindu calendarused in Kerala. The origin of the calendar has been dated as 825 CE.The Malayalam months follows the Sanskritic Sauramāsa (solar month) naming convention. Thus, Chingam is named after the corresponding Sanskrit solar month, the Simham, and so on. This is unlike the case in Tulu calendar which follow the names of lunar months. 
- The Buddhist calendar is a set of lunisolar calendars primarily used in mainland Southeast Asian countries of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand as well as in Sri Lanka and Chinese populations of Malaysia and Singapore for religious or official occasions. While the calendars share a common lineage, they also have minor but important variations such as intercalation schedules, month names and numbering, use of cycles, etc. In Thailand, the name Buddhist Era is a year numbering system shared by the traditional Thai lunisolar calendar and by the Thai solar calendar.The Southeast Asian lunisolar calendars are largely based on an older version of the Hindu calendar, which uses the sidereal year as the solar year. 
- Ab urbe condita (Latin: [ab ˈʊrbɛ ˈkɔndɪtaː] 'from the founding of the City'), or anno urbis conditae (Latin: [ˈan.no̯‿ʊrbɪs ˈkɔndɪtae̯]; 'in the year since the City's founding'),[note 1] abbreviated as AUC or AVC, express a date in years since 753 BC, the traditional founding of Rome. It is an expression used in antiquity and by classical historians to refer to a given year in Ancient Rome. In reference to the traditional year of the foundation of Rome, the year 1 BC would be written AUC 753, whereas 1 AD would be AUC 754. The foundation of the Roman Empire in 27 BC would be AUC 727. The common era year 2021 coincides with the AUC year 2774.Usage of the term was more common during the Renaissance, when editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the false impression that the convention was commonly used in antiquity. In reality, the dominant method of identifying years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year. In late antiquity, regnal years were also in use, as in Roman Egypt during the Diocletian era after AD 293, and in the Byzantine Empire from AD 537, following a decree by Justinian.The traditional date for the founding of Rome, 21 April 753 BC, is due to Marcus Terentius Varro (1st century BC). Varro may have used the consular list (with its mistakes) and called the year of the first consuls "ab Urbe condita 245," accepting the 244-year interval from Dionysius of Halicarnassus for the kings after the foundation of Rome. The correctness of this calculation has not been confirmed, but it is still used worldwide.From the time of Claudius (fl. AD 41 to AD 54) onward, this calculation superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honor of the anniversary of the city, in AD 48, the eight hundredth year from the founding of the city.[citation needed] Hadrian, in AD 121, and Antoninus Pius, in AD 147 and AD 148, held similar celebrations respectively.In AD 248, Philip the Arab celebrated Rome's first millennium, together with Ludi saeculares for Rome's alleged tenth saeculum. Coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, Pacatianus, explicitly states "[y]ear one thousand and first," which is an indication that the citizens of the empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a Sæculum Novum.The Anno Domini (AD) year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome in AD 525, as a result of his work on calculating the date of Easter. Dionysius did not use the AUC convention, but instead based his calculations on the Diocletian era. This convention had been in use since AD 293, the year of the tetrarchy, as it became impractical to use regnal years of the current emperor.[3] In his Easter table, the year AD 532 was equated with the 248th regnal year of Diocletian. The table counted the years starting from the presumed birth of Christ, rather than the accession of the emperor Diocletian on 20 November AD 284 or, as stated by Dionysius: "sed magis elegimus ab incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu Christi annorum tempora praenotare" ("but rather we choose to name the times of the years from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ").[4] Blackburn and Holford-Strevens review interpretations of Dionysius which place the Incarnation in 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1.The year AD 1 corresponds to AUC 754, based on the epoch of Varro
- The Julian calendar, proposed by Julius Caesar in 708 AUC (46 BC), was a reform of the Roman calendar. It took effect on 1 January 709 AUC (45 BC), by edict.[citation needed] It was designed with the aid of Greek mathematicians and Greek astronomers such as Sosigenes of Alexandria. The calendar was the predominant calendar in the Roman world, most of Europe, and in European settlements in the Americas and elsewhere, until it was gradually replaced by the Gregorian calendar, promulgated in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII. The Julian calendar is still used in parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church, in parts of Oriental Orthodoxy and Anabaptism, as well as by the Berbers. During the 20th and 21st centuries, a date according to the Julian calendar is 13 days earlier than (behind) its corresponding Gregorian date.
- The Gregorian calendar is the calendar used in most of the world. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582. The calendar spaces leap years to make the average year 365.2425 days long, approximating the 365.2422-day tropical year that is determined by the Earth's revolution around the Sun. The calendar was developed as a correction to the Julian calendar,[Note 1] shortening the average year by 0.0075 days to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes.The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe and their overseas possessions. Over the next three centuries, the Protestant and Eastern Orthodoxcountries also moved to what they called the Improved calendar, with Greece being the last European country to adopt the calendar in 1923. To unambiguously specify a date during the transition period, (or in history texts), dual dating is sometimes used to specify both Old Style and New Style dates (abbreviated as O.S and N.S. respectively). Due to globalization in the 20th century, the calendar has also been adopted by most non-Western countries for civil purposes. The calendar era carries the alternative secular name of "Common Era".
  • [jh williams] various nations adopted the new calendar in a piecemeal manner based on politics; england and her colonies did not adopt the change until 1752 and russia only accepted the changes in 1917.  The reason why the church was so concerned about the reform was the drift in the spring equinox.  In 46bce, caesar had set 25march as the date of equinox, and this date was no longer realistic after 16 centuries. This drift was a problem, because the central christian feast of easter is calculated each year in such a way that easter sunday is first sunday after the first full moon on, or after the spring equinox.   To remedy the distortion of solar calendar arising from the imprecision of julian calendar, an italian savant aloysius lilius (1510-76) devised a new calendar with new rules: everyyear that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by 100, but the centurial years that are exactly divisible by 400 are still leap years. there was a great deal of reluctance from the new protestant nations, resulting in different time zones and by the late 16thc, the solar calendar was out of step with nature by more than a week, and more than a week had to be deleted from the calendar to bring some kind of order to the slippage bw man-made calendars and the seasons. The scandinavians did not accept the gregorian calendar until early 1700s, the british and british colonies (including the american colonies) adopted the change in 1752 and the russians did not accept the new calendar until the revolution of 1917 (people in alaska (purchased by usa in 1867, they found themselves at the stroke of a pen propelled almost two weeks into the future).
  • The State moved to the new calendar on 1 March 1923 (new calendar), by royal decree. The two-calendar status of Greece lasted only a few days: the split meant that Greek National Day, March 25, would no longer be celebrated on the same day as the feast day of the Annunciation. And that was too embarrassing for the Church to contemplate: it would undermine the neat analogy the Church drew, between the glad tidings of the birth of Christ, and the glad tidings of Greek Independence.The lack of separation of Church and State in Greece meant that the Church had to give the OK to the King to switch calendars. The lack of separation of Church and State in Greece meant that the Church had to scramble to follow the King, a few days later.Serbia also defied the new, Gregorian order of things by celebrating Julian New Year’s Day in Belgrade from 1923. https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Greece-wait-until-1923-to-change-to-the-Gregorian-calendar
- The Holocene calendar, also known as the Holocene Era or Human Era (HE), is a year numbering system that adds exactly 10,000 years to the currently dominant Gregorian calendar (AD or CE) numbering scheme, placing its first year near the beginning of the Holocene geological epoch and the Neolithic Revolution, when humans transitioned from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to agriculture and fixed settlements. The current year in the Holocene calendar is 12,018 HE. The HE scheme was first proposed by scientist Cesare Emiliani in 1993.Cesare Emiliani's proposal for a calendar reform sought to solve a number of alleged problems with the current Anno Domini era, which number the years of the commonly accepted world calendar. These issues include:
  • The Anno Domini era is based on an erroneous estimation of the birth year of Jesus. The era places Jesus's birth year in AD 1, but modern scholars have determined that he was likely born in or before 4 BC. Emiliani argued that replacing it with the approximate beginning of the Holocene makes more sense.
  • The reported birth of Jesus is a less universally relevant epoch event than the approximate beginning of the Holocene.
  • The years BC are counted down when moving from past to future, making calculation of time spans difficult.
  • The Anno Domini era has no year zero, with 1 BC followed immediately by AD 1, complicating the calculation of timespans further.

- The French Republican calendar (French: calendrier républicain français), also commonly called the French Revolutionary calendar (calendrier révolutionnaire français), was a calendar created and implemented during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by the Paris Commune in 1871. The revolutionary system was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and was part of a larger attempt at decimalisation in France (which also included decimal time of day, decimalisation of currency, and metrication). It was used in government records in France and other areas under French rule, including Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Malta, and Italy.

holiday
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-Purim


timekeeping system
- [jh williams] pendulum is the world's first precision measuring device
- ******** https://www.quora.com/Which-civilization-determined-there-would-be-24-hours-in-a-day-What-was-the-reason-for-their-choice-of-24
The simple answer is that most of our artificial timekeeping conventions (that is, units of time not based directly on natural units like days or years) come to us from ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. In this particular case, early Egyptian sundials were marked with ten hours, with “dawn” and “twilight” hours added for a total of twelve. Given that the day was divided into twelve hours, the night was given the same number of divisions, for a total of 24. What’s a bit more puzzling about this is that the Egyptians weren’t the only one to come up with a 24 hour day. By the end of the Han dynasty, the Chinese invented a timekeeping system which divided the day into 12 shi, which you’ll see translated as “double hour,” but that’s not a literal translation. Later on, by the end of the Tang dynasty, the shi was divided into earlier and later hours. In short, the Chinese independently invented a 24-hour day by an entirely different methodology. So different parts of the world came to the same overall structure for time for completely different reasons. Could be entirely coincidental, but I’d be fascinated to know a deeper reason why.
- [jh williams]in 1670, gabriel mouton (1618-94), a french cleric and astronomer, promoted a system of measurement based upon the physical dimensions of the earth, rather than a measurement based on the length of a seconds' pendulum.  Mouton assumed that the earth was a perfect sphere, and so a section along a meridian would be a circle. Mouton proposed that this great circle should be divided into ever smaller angles and that these angles could be used to define a system of measurement - division should be decimal arithmetic ie divided by ten rather than the old babylonian sub-divisions of an angle based on arithmetic to the base 60. A minute of arc along the meridian be defined as a unit of distance called a milliare (subdivided into centuria, decuria, virga, virgula, decima, centesima, and millesima by successively dividing by factors of ten). Mouton's milliare is the definition of a modern nautical mile (ie one minute of arc of latitude along any meridian), which given the importance of maritime trade accounts for the longevity of this system of measurement.
- [jh williams]jacques cassini (1677-1756) was the founder of a dynasty of french astronomers - a portion of arc of the meridian from dunkerque (dunkirk) in france to barcelona in spain was surveyed, the line passes thru the paris observatory and is called the paris meridian, the first standard metre was yielded.

measurement
- 塔蘭同（拉丁語：talentum，古希臘語：τάλαντον，含義為「秤，天平」；和合本聖經譯為他連得，思高版聖經譯為塔冷通）是古代中東和希臘-羅馬世界使用的質量單位。The talent was a unit of weight that was introduced in Mesopotamia at the end of the 4th millennium BC, and was normalized at the end of the 3rd millennium during the Akkadian-Sumer phase.The Akkadian talent was called kakkaru in the Akkadian language, corresponding to Biblical Hebrew kikkar כִּכָּר (translated to Greek τάλαντον 'talanton' in the Septuagint,[4] English 'talent'), to Ugaritic kkr (𐎋𐎋𐎗), Phoenician kkr (𐤒𐤒𐤓), Syriac kakra (ܟܲܟܪܵܐ), and apparently to gaggaru in the Amarna Tablets. The name comes from the Semitic root KKR meaning 'to be circular',[9] referring to the round coins of weighted gold or silver. It was divided into 60 minas, each of which was subdivided into 60 shekels: the use of 60 illustrates the attachment of the early Mesopotamians to their useful sexagesimal arithmetic. These weights were used subsequently by the Babylonians, Sumerians, and Phoenicians, and later by the Hebrews. The Babylonian weights are approximately: shekel (8.4 g, 0.30 oz), mina (504 g, 1 lb 1.8 oz), and talent (30.2 kg, 66 lb 9 oz). The Phoenicians took their trade to the Greeks with their weight measures during the Archaic period, and the latter adopted these weights and their ratio of 60 minas to one talent; a Greek mina in Euboea around 800 BC was hence 504 g;[11] other minas in the Mediterranean basin, and even Greek minas in other parts of Greece, varied locally in some small measure from the Babylonian values, and from one to another. The Bible mentions the unit in various contexts, like Hiram king of Tyre sending 120 talents (Hebrew כִּכָּר kikkar) of gold to King Solomon as part of an alliance, or the building of the candelabrum necessitating a talent of pure gold.The weight talent (Latin: talentum, from Ancient Greek: τάλαντον, talanton "scale, balance, sum") was one of several ancient weight units for commercial transactions. 
  • Amphora Graeca : massa aquae quam continere poterat circiter talentum unum efficiebat. https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasciculus:Koan_amphora2.jpg



technological development
- that have an impact to change the world

  • https://www.quora.com/What-would-have-eventually-happened-to-British-and-French-colonies-if-both-World-Wars-did-not-occur According to George Orwell, the killer of Britain's colonial empire wasn't world war, but the telegraph.

- https://www.quora.com/Which-was-more-technologically-advanced-the-Roman-Empire-or-Han-China
- https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Europeans-become-such-a-powerful-group-of-people-compared-to-other-areas-of-human-civilisation
- chairs
  • https://www.quora.com/How-have-chairs-changed-over-time
hairstyle
- curly hair

  • https://www.quora.com/Why-do-the-people-represented-in-most-of-the-ancient-statues-from-the-classical-Roman-and-Greek-times-have-curly-hairs The reason why Athena does this is precisely the same reason why ancient Greek statues often depict men with curly hair; it is because the ancient Greeks considered curly hair beautiful.The same thing is mostly true for women; curly hair was considered beautiful. With women, however, there was also the additional wrinkle that women were expected to be modest and tame. For a woman to have her hair down was considered a sign of wildness and promiscuity. Thus, respectable women from the Archaic Period onwards usually wore their hair up. Even with their hair up, though, curls were still fashionable.The craze for curls in antiquity was at its height during the Flavian Period (lasted 69–96 AD) of Roman history. During this period, it was fashionable for upper-class Roman women to wear their hair in outlandish mountains of curls atop their heads. The Flavian women’s hairstyles look simply absurd to contemporary eyes. 

- short hair

  • https://www.quora.com/Which-fashion-item-was-born-from-a-dark-or-unappealing-history The modern men’s cut and the even women’s hair is born from the French Revolution.
masks
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200327/PDF/a22_screen.pdf大約在公元前六世紀，人類出現了「類口罩」。古代波斯人的拜火教認為，所有俗人的氣息是不潔的。為此，他們在舉行宗教儀式時，要用布包住臉。從波斯教古墓門上的浮雕可以看到，祭司就戴着口罩，由此拉開了神與世俗的距離。公元1275年，意大利旅行家馬可波羅對中國人戴口罩也有明確記載。他在《東方見聞錄》中寫道：「在元朝宮殿裏，獻食的人皆用絹布蒙口鼻，俾其氣息，不觸飲食。」可見，皇帝的僕人需要這種物件防止對其食物造成污染。口罩拉開了皇帝與臣民間的距離，戴口罩者的地位一目了然。在歐洲，口罩的歷史要晚於面具。當黑死病橫行歐洲之時，醫生們為了防止感染，會穿着用醋泡過的亞麻和帆布衫，戴着黑帽及狀如鳥嘴的面具，眼睛用透明的玻璃罩上，手持木棍，戴着白手套，挑開患者的被單和衣物。不過，面具起源之說也是見仁見智。還有一種說法認為，面具是醫生為防止巫師報復而發明的。當年歐洲的醫療行當被巫師把持。在瘟疫盛行時巫師是指望不上的。巫師們覺得醫生搶了自己的飯碗，不斷地對他們進行人身傷害，醫生們只好用紗布遮住面孔，面具成了最好的護身符。19世紀後半葉，歐洲生物化學技術突飛猛進。1861年巴斯德發現空氣中存在着許多種細菌，並能引起有機物的發酵，1886年創造了巴氏消毒法。英國化學家廷德爾建立廷式滅菌法，創立了無菌外科，用石碳酸給手術器械消毒，外科醫生必須穿防護服、戴手術帽和橡膠手套，但並沒有使用口罩。醫生在做手術時常常把口鼻腔中的細菌傳染給患者，從而引起傷口感染。1895年，德國病理學家萊德奇建議，醫生和護士在手術時戴上一種用紗布製作的面罩，以降低病人傷口的感染率，這項建議被世界各國廣泛接納。為了增加戴口罩的舒適度，1897年，英國的一位外科醫生在紗布內裝了一個細鐵絲作支架，使紗布和口鼻間留有間隙，從而克服了呼吸不暢容易被唾液浸濕的缺點。1899年，法國醫生保羅．伯蒂做了一種六層紗布的口罩，縫在手術衣的衣領上，需要時只要將衣領翻上即可，後來演變成可自由繫結、用一個環形帶子掛在耳朵之上的現代口罩。現代工藝將口罩細分成很多種類，小小口罩，其背後是環環相扣的生產鏈和完整的工業體系。口罩的內外層是無紡布，中間層是熔噴布，俗稱口罩的心臟。1個普通外科口罩只有一層熔噴布，而N95口罩則需要三層。而口罩機也是關鍵的一環。看似一個普通的構件，卻涉及化工、紡織、機械、冶金、電子等門類，其大規模生產的技術含量更是非同小可。如果說東亞國家在抗疫上半場取得領先的話，其中口罩發揮的作用功不可沒。日本人多花粉過敏，春天戴口罩習以為常，中韓等東亞國家或地區對戴口罩並不排斥。世衛組織3月26日也修改指引，稱新冠病毒被證實通過氣溶膠傳播，在空氣中存活達8個小時，強烈建議人們出行戴口罩。　不知從何時始，西方國家對戴口罩有着本能的厭惡感。
- 面紗並不是先知穆罕默德創造的一樣新東西。面紗作為服飾已有四千多年的歷史。西亞北非婦女的蒙面習俗早在伊斯蘭時期之前，其源起有很多解釋，例如波斯的拜火教認為口鼻是保存『火種』的地方；阿拉伯地區的風沙烈日，需要特殊的防護措施等。拜火教和波斯的上層婦女就在公共場所用佩戴面紗、蒙面甚至蒙住全身來象徵高高在上的社會地位，而下層的婦女因為勞作的需要，服裝限制反倒很少。這都跟象徵社會地位不無關係。西方只有壞人才戴面具，英雄都只戴眼罩的，所以西方人寧死也不戴口罩。但中國自古就有蒙面大盜的說法，但也沒有耽誤中國人用口罩蒙面啊！東西文化的差異是有更深遠的根源的。猶太人有中東人的蒙面習俗，而聖經上就鼓勵信徒要除下面紗『帕子』才能像鏡子一樣反映出上帝的榮耀，更要進一步的揭開蓋在心上的帕子。所以在西方的文化裏，遮蓋着面部，無論戴的是口罩還是面紗、面具或帕子，在基督教的教義上有抱着自己的成見不放，對神明虛偽不坦誠，不真正相信神的寓意。https://orientaldaily.on.cc/cnt/news/20201027/00176_066.html
- 中國光彩事業基金 會於香港文化中心舉辦 「史前面具文化展覽 」，蕭聖 寬從自己所收藏的眾多件面具 中，挑選出50餘件，把這些神秘 的面具展示於公眾眼前。據蕭聖 寬介紹，本次展出的是 5000 至 7000年前的隕石和瑪瑙面具http://pdf.wenweipo.com/2020/11/03/a15-1103.pdf



Histomap
- http://www.slate.com/content/dam/slate/blogs/the_vault/2013/8/12/HistomapFinal.jpg.CROP.article920-large.jpg
- The Hereford Mappa Mundi is a mappa mundi, of a form deriving from the T and O pattern, dating from c. 1300. It is currently on display at Hereford Cathedral in Hereford, England.[1] It is the largest medieval map known still to exist.Jerusalem is drawn at the centre of the circle, east is on top, showing the Garden of Eden in a circle at the edge of the world (1). Great Britain is drawn at the northwestern border (bottom left, 22 & 23). Curiously, the labels for Africa and Europe are reversed, with Europe scribed in red and gold as 'Africa', and vice versa. The map is based on traditional accounts and earlier maps such as the one of the Beatus of Liébana codex, and is very similar to the Ebstorf map, the Psalter world map, and the Sawley (erroneously for considerable time called "Henry of Mainz") map; it does not correspond to the geographical knowledge of the 14th century. Note, for example, that the Caspian Sea (5) connects to the encircling ocean (upper left). This is in spite of William of Rubruk's having reported it to be landlocked in 1255, i.e. several decades before the map's creation; see also Portolan chart. The "T and O" shape does not imply that its creators believed in a flat Earth. The spherical shape of the Earth was already known to the ancient Greeks and Romans and the idea was never entirely forgotten even in the Middle Ages, and thus the circular representation may well be considered a conventional attempt at a projection: in spite of the acceptance of a spherical Earth, only the known parts of the Northern Hemisphere were believed to be inhabitable by human beings (see antipodes), so that the circular representation remained adequate. The long river on the far right is the River Nile, too (12), and the T shape is established by the Mediterranean Sea (19-21-25) and the rivers Don (13) and Nile (16). It is the first map to mention the Faroe Islands.
- maybe of interest

  • https://mapsontheweb.zoom-maps.com
- https://www.quora.com/What-was-the-worlds-largest-country-in-1000AD
- maps of various great empires https://www.quora.com/What-is-common-to-the-decline-of-all-great-powers-and-empires


oral history
- http://dohistory.org/on_your_own/toolkit/oralHistory.html 
- http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/oral/what.html


Literature
- Herodotus (/hɪˈrɒdətəs/; Ancient Greek: Ἡρόδοτος, Hêródotos, Attic Greek pronunciation: [hɛː.ró.do.tos]) was a Greek historian who was born in Halicarnassus in the Persian Empire (modern-day Bodrum, Turkey) and lived in the fifth century BC (c. 484–c. 425 BC), a contemporary of Thucydides, Socrates, and Euripides. He is often referred to as "The Father of History", a title first conferred by Cicero; he was the first historian known to have broken from Homeric tradition to treat historical subjects as a method of investigation—specifically, by collecting his materials systematically and critically, and then arranging them into a historiographic narrative.The Histories is the only work which he is known to have produced, a record of his "inquiry" (ἱστορία historía) on the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars; it primarily deals with the lives of Croesus, Cyrus, Cambyses, Smerdis, Darius, and Xerxes and the battles of Marathon, Thermopylae, Artemisium, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale; however, its many cultural, ethnographical, geographical, historiographical, and other digressions form a defining and essential part of the Histories and contain a wealth of information. Some of his stories are fanciful and others inaccurate; yet he states that he is reporting only what he was told; a sizable portion of the information he provided was later confirmed by historians and archaeologists.

  • The Histories (Greek: Ἱστορίαι ; Ancient Greek: [historíai̯]; also known as The History) of Herodotus is considered the founding work of history in Western literature. Written in 430 bc in the Ionic dialect of classical Greek, The Histories serves as a record of the ancient traditions, politics, geography, and clashes of various cultures that were known in Greece, Western Asia and Northern Africa at that time.[citation needed] Although not a fully impartial record, it remains one of the West's most important sources regarding these affairs. Moreover, it established the genre and study of history in the Western world (despite the existence of historical records and chronicles beforehand).The Histories also stands as one of the earliest accounts of the rise of the Persian Empire, as well as the events and causes of the Greco-Persian Wars between the Persian Empire and the Greek city-states in the 5th century BC. Herodotus portrays the conflict as one between the forces of slavery (the Persians) on the one hand, and freedom (the Athenians and the confederacy of Greek city-states which united against the invaders) on the other. The Histories was at some point divided into the nine books that appear in modern editions, conventionally named after the nine Muses.


archivists
- https://www.gla.ac.uk/schools/humanities/staff/iananderson/

private archive / collection
- 澄定堂為一美籍華人家族的藏書齋堂號。澄定堂藏有38種15世紀中後期西方印刷術初興時的搖籃本；16世紀啟蒙時期800多種古籍，共3400餘冊，以及各類手稿與抄本1200多種。自2018年起，澄定堂第四代Jason Dou開始將藏書寄存與捐贈予兩岸的圖書館。澄定堂藏書第一代為從事中國瓷器貿易的徽商。19世紀中葉，移居到當時的華沙大公國。為了提升中國人在西方社會的地位，同時也因與顧維鈞、胡適及洪鈞等人來往，進而有了瞭解及收藏西方學術歷史文獻的念頭。書齋堂號由時任大清出使德國欽差大臣洪鈞所取名。典故出自王充《論衡》自紀篇「其文盛，其辯爭，浮華虛偽之語，莫不『澄定』」又雙關引自佛典《楞嚴經》「澄淨無穢，定心自得」。及至第二代時，遇上歐陸兩次大戰，皇室、貴族及機構拋棄收藏，使得這一代的藏書更是廣博，第二代著力於科學書籍，蒐羅了啟蒙時代及前後時期的相關著作。澄定堂家族一直有著將藏書遷至亞洲的想法，卻受制於戰爭影響及保存、修復技術的不足，而無法落實。藏書在一戰後從波蘭轉移維也納，歐陸二戰爆發前經倫敦轉移紐約，直到第四代的Jason Dou在中華民國國家圖書館寄存了43種、49冊多是首版印刷的善本，才得以實現家族長久以來的心願。
  • 華人藏書家族「澄定堂」去年和台灣國家圖書館簽寄存協議，已陸續寄存43種、49冊珍貴西洋古籍，包括1802年法國政府頒給拿破崙的終身執政證書正本。國圖說，因年代久遠，無法保證古籍真偽，邀專家一起研究。台師大東亞系教授潘鳳娟分享她的兩點觀察，說明此執政證書可能為真。潘鳳娟因投入相關研究，曾和澄定堂家族成員接觸。她說，她嘗試在法國國家檔案館查詢相關檔案紀錄，沒有查到這份文獻。但也可能是在檔案館存檔前就已外流，還須詳細考究。另外，文件中有內政部長Jean-Antoine Chaptal簽名，與他在其他內政部文件的簽名筆跡基本符合。潘鳳娟說，這份終生執政的文件有三頁，第一頁是共和國執政會議記錄的摘錄，頁底有內政部長簽名。第二到三頁是內政部宣布拿破崙為終生執政的官方文件，有內政部長和秘書長Charles-Auguste de Coulomb和簽名。紙張裝禎前有兩次對折痕跡，紙張中心有當時的內政部鋼印。國家圖書館館長曾淑賢說，她透過自己的同學、台大圖資系教師藍文欽引介，才認識這個波蘭華沙的藏書家族。國圖西洋古籍僅4000到5000冊，而藏書家願意將收藏寄存圖書館，主要是文件珍貴、他人無法買下，放在家又不易保存。寄存不等於贈予，未來可取回。https://www.upmedia.mg/news_info.php?SerialNo=78279

different interpretations/govt propaganda
- https://www.quora.com/Was-there-any-part-in-the-history-courses-in-school-that-you-knew-they-were-lying-about
- 深圳歷史上出現4次大規模偷渡 - 大逃港 vs 秘密赴港就業
- https://www.quora.com/Is-it-still-true-that-Mesopotamia-is-often-still-dubbed-the-cradle-of-civilization-meaning-the-site-where-human-civilization-first-emerged-and-developed
- https://www.quora.com/Is-there-any-effort-in-academia-to-move-from-the-term-Byzantine-Empire-to-Eastern-Roman-or-just-the-Roman-Empire

alternative views, angle
- https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/08/13/vj-day-the-dangerous-illusion-of-japans-unconditional-surrender/

"stories" to eplain hisotrical change
- The Rape of the Sabine Women (Latin: Sabīnae raptae Classical Latin: [saˈbiː.nae̯ ˈrap.t̪ae̯]), also known as the Abduction of the Sabine Women or the Kidnapping of the Sabine Women, was an incident in Roman mythology in which the men of Rome committed a mass abduction of young women from the other cities in the region. It has been a frequent subject of artists and sculptors, particularly during the Renaissance and post-Renaissance eras.The word "rape" (cognate with "rapto" in Portuguese and other Romance languages, meaning "kidnap") is the conventional translation of the Latin word raptio used in the ancient accounts of the incident. Modern scholars tend to interpret the word as "abduction" or "kidnapping" as opposed to a sexual assault. 
- According to Roman tradition, Lucretia (/luːˈkriːʃə/ loo-KREE-shə, Classical Latin: [lʊˈkreːtɪ.a]; died c.  510 BC), anglicized as Lucrece, was a noblewoman in ancient Rome, whose rape by Sextus Tarquinius (Tarquin) and subsequent suicide precipitated a rebellion that overthrew the Roman monarchy and led to the transition of Roman government from a kingdom to a republic. The incident kindled the flames of dissatisfaction over the tyrannical methods of Tarquin's father, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, the last king of Rome. As a result, the prominent families instituted a republic, drove the extensive royal family of Tarquin from Rome, and successfully defended the republic against attempted Etruscan and Latin intervention.

Historical negationism, also called denialism, is an distortion of the historical record. It is often imprecisely or intentionally incorrectly referred to as historical revisionism, but that term also denotes a legitimate academic pursuit of re-interpretation of the historical record and questioning the accepted views. In attempting to revise the past, illegitimate historical revisionism may use techniques inadmissible in proper historical discourse, such as presenting known forged documents as genuine, inventing ingenious but implausible reasons for distrusting genuine documents, attributing conclusions to books and sources that report the opposite, manipulating statistical series to support the given point of view, and deliberately mis-translating texts (in languages other than the revisionist's). Some countries, such as Germany, have criminalised the negationist revision of certain historical events, while others take a more cautious position for various reasons, such as protection of free speech; still others mandate negationist views. Notable examples of negationism include Holocaust denial, Armenian Genocide denial, the Lost Cause of the Confederacy, Japanese war crime denial and the denial of Soviet crimes. In literature, the consequences of historical negationism have been imaginatively depicted in some works of fiction, such as Nineteen Eighty-Four, by George Orwell. In modern times, negationism may spread via new media, such as the Internet.The term "negationism" (négationnisme) was first coined by the French historian Henry Rousso in his 1987 book The Vichy Syndrome which looked at the French popular memory of Vichy France and the French Resistance. Rousso argued that it was necessary to distinguish between legitimate historical revisionism in Holocaust studies and politically-motivated denial of the Holocaust, which he termed negationism.
- Historical negationism applies the techniques of research, quotation, and presentation for deception of the reader and denial of the historical record. In support of the "revised history" perspective, the negationist historian uses false documents as genuine sources, presents specious reasons to distrust genuine documents, exploits published opinions, by quoting out of historical context, manipulates statistics, and mistranslates texts in other languages. The revision techniques of historical negationism operate in the intellectual space of public debate for the advancement of a given interpretation of history and the cultural-perspective of the "revised history". As a document, the revised history is used to negate the validity of the factual, documentary record, and so reframe explanations and perceptions of the discussed historical event, in order to deceive the reader, the listener, and the viewer; therefore, historical negationism functions as a technique of propaganda.
- Twisting what the ancient Greek writers wrote is a full time obsession for the Skopje (and ocassionaly Tirana) propagandists. The bigger the lie, the easier people will believe it, said uncle Joe Goebbels and the Tito school of History falsification is hard at work to prove that the Macedonians of Philip, Alexander and Aristotle were not Greek but Bulgarian speaking Slavo”macedonians”.https://www.quora.com/Why-did-Arrian-many-other-Ancient-Greek-historians-like-Diodorus-Siculus-Polybius-Demosthenes-Plutarch-even-Herodotus-clearly-distinguish-between-Macedonia-and-the-Greek-states-between-the-people-culture-and-their

manipulating numbers, figures
- http://paper.takungpao.com/resfile/PDF/20200722/PDF/b4_screen.pdf

education
- Historical reenactment (or re-enactment) is an educational or entertainment activity in which mainly amateur hobbyists and history enthusiasts put on uniforms and follow a plan to recreate aspects of a historical event or period. This may be as narrow as a specific moment from a battle, such as the reenactment of Pickett's Charge presented during the Great Reunion of 1913, or as broad as an entire period, such as Regency reenactment.While historical reenactors are generally amateurs, some participants are members of armed forces or historians. The participants, called reenactors, often do research on the equipment, uniform, and other gear they will carry or use. Reenactors buy the apparel or items they need from specialty stores or make items themselves. Historical reenactments cover a wide span of history, from the Roman empire to the major world wars and the Korean War of the 20th century.
- https://www.quora.com/What-is-it-about-evolution-that-some-creationists-cant-seem-to-grasp Cosmopolitan Americans have no idea what is/is not taught in rural/exurban Red State schools. A poll of high school biology teachers a few years ago conducted by the NCSE (National Council on Science Education) found that nearly 3/4 of American schools don’t teach evolution in biology classes or gloss over it (not to mention how 13% of high school bio teachers are creationists themselves). So most creationists have no idea how evolution works because they’ve never been taught anything about evolution. Apparently they think “biology” means learning the names of different plants and animals.
- usa history
  • economist 10jul2021 "the history wars" the fight over critical race theory in schools is part of a century-long battle over whose version of america is taught, ft 10jul2021 "america's history wars"


monuments
- robert lee case
  • As two legal challenges seek to block the removal of the Robert E. Lee statue on Richmond's Monument Avenue, Gov. Ralph Northam said Tuesday that the "divisive" symbol has to go. The suits challenge Northam's plans to take down the most well-known Confederate symbol in the former capital of the Confederacy. One suit, which hinges on language in the deed signed in 1890 giving Virginia control of the statue, led a Richmond judge Monday night to pause the state's removal plans.Davis cited removal requirements from the National Register of Historic Places, which the Lee statue is on, that he says the state hasn't met.Julie Langan, director and state historic preservation officer of the Virginia Department of Historic Resources, said last week that the statue's listing on national and state historic registers does not have bearing on its potential removal.https://www.richmond.com/news/virginia/watch-now-lawsuit-deed-prevents-lee-statues-removal-northam-says-divisive-monument-needs-to-come/article_ab073021-aea5-55f0-96e4-c8ccc47cd361.html

Web resources
- http://legacy.fordham.edu/Halsall/index.asp
- https://www.y-history.net/

Magazines
- http://www.lhistoire.fr

World war I material
-http://www.illustratedfirstworldwar.com/item/leaders-of-the-advance-guard-of-the-great-war-iln0-1914-0815-0006-001/

important years/events
- one of the question of tests attempted by sun yat sen when he was a student - 1100, 1172, 1215, 1327, 1483, 1492, 1587, 1600
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